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INTRODUCTION
Since the first powered flight, propellers have been used to convert aircraft engine power into thrust. Although
many modern transport category aircraft are powered by turbojet or turbofan engines, most of the aircraft in use
today are propelled by one or more propellers that are driven by either a turbine or reciprocating engine.
Regardless of the engine type, the primary purpose of a propeller is to convert engine power to thrust. Therefore,
as an aircraft maintenance technician, you must have a thorough understanding of the basic principles, mainte-
nance, and repair of propeller systems.
PROPELLER PRINCIPLES
With few exceptions, nearly all early aircraft All modern propellers consist of at least two blades
designs used propellers to create thrust. During the that are connected to a central hub. The portion of a
latter part of the 19th century, many unusual and propeller blade that is nearest the hub is referred to
innovative propeller designs were tried on early fly- as the blade shank whereas the portion furthest
ing machines. These early propeller designs ranged from the hub is called the blade tip. The propeller
from simple fabric covered wooden paddles to elab- hub, or hub assembly, is bored out to create a hub
orate multi-bladed wire-braced designs. As the sci- bore which permits a propeller to be mounted on
ence of aeronautics progressed, propeller designs the engine crankshaft or to a reduction gear assem-
evolved from flat boards which merely pushed air bly. [Figure 12-1]
backward, to airfoils that produce lift to pull an air-
craft forward. At the time the Wright brothers began Each blade on a propeller acts as a rotating wing to
their first powered flights, propeller design had produce lift and pull an aircraft through the air.
evolved into the standard two-bladed style. Therefore, in addition to the basic nomenclature
just discussed, propeller blades share much of the
Development of propeller design with new materi- same nomenclature as aircraft wings. For example,
als has produced thinner airfoil sections and greater all propeller blades have a leading edge, a trailing
strength. Because of their structural strength, alu- edge, and a chord line. If you recall from your study
minum alloys are predominantly used as the struc- of airfoils, a chord line is an imaginary line drawn
tural material in modern aircraft propellers. through an airfoil from the leading edge to the trail-
However, you can still find several propellers that ing edge. The curved, or cambered side of a pro-
are constructed of wood. peller blade is called the blade back and the flat
side is called the blade face. A propeller's blade
Today, propeller designs continue to be improved angle is the acute angle formed by a propeller's
through the use of new airfoil shapes, composite plane of rotation and the blade's chord line. A pro-
materials, and multi-blade configurations. Recent peller's plane of rotation is always perpendicular to
improvements include the use of composite materi- the engine crankshaft. [Figure 12-2]
als to produce laminar flow symmetrical airfoils
and gull wing propeller designs. Propellers which allow changes in blade angle have
removable blades that are secured to a hub assembly
by a set of clamping rings. Each blade root has a
NOMENCLATURE flanged butt, or shoulder, which mates with grooves
Before you can fully understand the principles of in the hub assembly. The blade shank on this type
how a propeller produces thrust, you must be famil- of blade is typically round and extends out to at
iar with some basic terms and component names. least the end of the hub assembly; however, in some
Figure 12-1. The blades of a single-piece propeller extend from the hub assembly. Blades have a shank and a tip, while the hub
assembly has a hub bore and bolt holes that facilitate propeller mounting.
Propeller 12-3
s
increase the flow of cooling air to the engine
nacelle. Mechanical clamping devices and bonding
agents such as a rubber-base adhesive or epoxy
adhesive are utilized to attach the cuffs to the
blades. [Figure 12-3]
PROPELLER THEORY
Figure 12-2. All propeller blades have a leading edge, a When the propeller rotates through the air, a low
trailing edge, and a chord line. In addition, all propeller pressure area is created in front of the blade, much
blades are set at a specific angle that is defined by the
acute angle formed by the propeller's plane of rotation and
like the wing's curvature creates a low pressure area
the chord line. above the wing. This low pressure area, combined
with the constant, or high pressure area behind the
blade allow a propeller to produce thrust. The
cases, the shank may extend beyond the hub assem- amount of thrust produced depends on several fac-
bly and into the airstream. When this is the case, tors including, the angle of attack of the propeller
blade cuffs may be installed to improve air flow blades, the speed the blades move through the air,
around the blade shank. A blade cuff is an airfoil- and the shape of the airfoil. The angle of attack of a
shaped attachment made of thin sheets of metal, propeller blade is the angle formed by the chord line
plastic, or composite material. Blade cuffs mount of the blade and the relative wind. The direction of
on the blade shanks and are primarily used to the relative wind is determined by the speed an air-
craft moves through the air and the rotational
motion of the propeller. For example, when a pro-
peller rotates on a stationary aircraft, the direction
of the relative wind is exactly opposite to the rota-
tional movement of the propeller. Therefore, the
propeller blade's angle of attack is the same as the
propeller blade angle. [Figure 12-4]
which tries to pull the blades out of the hub. The Torque bending forces occur as air resistance
amount of stress created by centrifugal force can be opposes the rotational motion of the propeller
greater than 7,500 times the weight of the propeller blades. This force tends to bend the blades opposite
blade, [Figure 12-9] the direction of rotation. [Figure 12-11]
Thrust bending force, on the other hand, attempts to Aerodynamic twisting force results from the fact
bend the propeller blades forward at the tips. This that, when a propeller blade produces thrust, the
occurs because propeller blades are typically thin- majority of the thrust produced is exerted ahead of
ner near the tip and this allows the thrust produced the blade's axis of rotation. Therefore, aerodynamic
at the tip to flex the blade forward. Thrust bending twisting force tends to increase a propeller's blade
force opposes centrifugal force to some degree. angle. In some cases, aerodynamic twisting force is
[Figure 12-10] used to help change the blade angle on a propeller.
[Figure 12-12]
Figure 12-13. Centrifugal twisting force attempts to Propeller design typically allows for some degree of
decrease blade angle by aligning a propeller's center of vibrational stress. However, in situations where a
mass with its center of rotation. propeller has been improperly altered, vibration
may cause excessive flexing and work hardening of
the metal to the extent that sections of the propeller
blade could break off in flight.
Centrifugal twisting force opposes aerodynamic
twisting force in that it attempts to decrease a pro-
peller's blade angle. When a propeller rotates, cen-
PROPELLER PITCH
trifugal force tries to align the propeller's center of
mass with its center of rotation. A propeller's center In the strictest sense, propeller pitch is the theoret-
of mass is typically ahead of its center of rotation; ical distance a propeller advances longitudinally in
therefore, when a propeller rotates, centrifugal force one revolution. Pitch and blade angle describe two
tries to decrease its blade angle. At operational different concepts, however, they are closely
speeds, centrifugal twisting force is greater than related and the two terms are often used inter-
aerodynamic twisting force and is used in some changeably. For example, when a propeller is said
propeller designs to decrease the blade angle. to have a fixed pitch, what is actually meant is that
[Figure 12-13] the blades on the propeller are set at a fixed blade
angle.
The final force that is exerted on a spinning pro-
peller is blade vibration. When a propeller pro- A propeller's geometric pitch is defined as the dis-
duces thrust, blade vibration occurs due to the aero- tance, in inches, that a propeller will move forward
dynamic and mechanical forces that are present. For in one revolution if it were moving through a solid
example, aerodynamic forces tend to bend the pro- medium and did not encounter any loss of effi-
peller blades forward at the tips producing buffeting ciency. Measurement of geometric pitch is based on
and vibration. On the other hand, mechanical vibra- the propeller blade angle at a point out from the pro-
tions are caused by the power pulses in a piston peller hub that is equal to 75 percent of the blade
engine. Of the two, mechanical vibrations are con- length.
sidered to be more destructive than aerodynamic
vibrations. The reason for this is that engine power
When traveling through air, inefficiencies prevent a
pulses tend to create standing wave patterns in a
propeller blade that can lead to metal fatigue and propeller from moving forward at a rate equal to its
geometric pitch. Therefore, effective pitch is the
structural failure.
actual amount a propeller moves forward in one
revolution. Effective pitch varies from zero when
The location and number of stress points in a blade the aircraft is stationary on the ground, to about 90
depend on the characteristics of the individual pro- percent of the geometric pitch during the most effi-
peller/engine combination. While concentrations of cient flight conditions. The difference between geo-
vibrational stress are detrimental at any point on a metric pitch and effective pitch is called slip.
12-8 Propeller
s
Figure 12-14. Geometric pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller would move forward if it were 100% efficient. Effective pitch,
on the other hand, is the actual distance a propeller moves forward in one revolution. Slip is the difference between geometric
and effective pitch.
Propeller slip lower stresses are than tractor-type airspeed reduces the
represents the total induced in the propellers. The efficiency of the
losses caused by propeller as it reason for this is that propeller.
inefficiencies. rotates in relatively rocks, gravel, and
[Figure 12-14] undisturbed air. small objects that Ground-adjustable
are dislodged by propellers are similar
If a propeller has a Both tractor- and wheels are to fixed-pitch
geometric pitch of pusher-type frequently thrown or propellers in that
50 inches, in theory propellers effectively drawn into a pusher- their blade angles
it should move propel an aircraft type propeller. On cannot be changed
forward 50 inches in through the air. the other hand, it in flight. However,
one revolution. However, in some ■would be very the propeller is con-
However, if the instances one type of difficult to install a structed in a way
aircraft actually propeller may be tractor-type pro- that allows the blade
moves forward only better suited for a peller on some angle to be changed
35 inches in one given airplane. For amphibious aircraft. on the ground. This
revolution, the example, on land type of propeller is
effective pitch is 35 planes that have Propellers also are found mostly on
inches and the little propeller-to- classified by the aircraft built
propeller is 70 ground clearance, method used to between the 1920s
percent efficient. In pusher-type establish pitch. and 1940s.
this case, slip propellers are Typical
represents 15 inches subject to more classifications that
or a 30 percent loss damage are used here
of efficiency. In include fixed pitch,
practice, most pro- ground adjustable,
pellers are 75 to 85 controllable pitch,
percent efficient. constant speed,
reversible, and
feathering.
PROPELLER
CLASSIFICATI The simplest type of
ONS propeller is a fixed-
pitch propeller.
Propellers are Fixed-pitch
typically classified propellers are
according to their designed for a par-
position on the ticular aircraft to
aircraft. For produce optimum
example, tractor efficiency at a
propellers are specific rotational
mounted on the and forward speed. A
front of an engine fixed-pitch propeller
and pull an aircraft with a low blade
through the air. On angle, often called a
the other hand, climb propeller,
pusher-type provides the best
propellers are performance for
mounted on the aft takeoff and climb.
end of an aircraft On the other hand, a
and push an airplane fixed-pitch propeller
through the air. Most with a high blade
aircraft are equipped angle, often called a
with tractor-type cruise propeller, is
propellers; more adapted to
however, there are high speed cruise
several seaplanes and high altitude
and amphibious flight. It is
aircraft that are important to note
equipped with that with this type
pusher propellers. A of propeller, any
major advantage of change from the
the tractor-type optimum rpm or
propeller is that
Propeller 12-9
s
Controllable-pitch propellers have an advantage rial used in the construction of both fixed- and
over ground adjustable propellers in that the blade adjustable-pitch propellers. In addition, some com-
angle may be changed while the propeller is rotat- posite materials are now being utilized because of
ing. This allows the propeller to assume a blade their light weight and flexibility.
angle that provides the best performance for a par-
ticular flight condition. The number of pitch posi-
tions may be limited, as with a two-position con- WOOD
trollable propeller; or the pitch may be adjusted to Wood was the most reliable material for fabrication
any angle between a minimum and maximum of propellers for many years. Hardwoods such as
pitch setting. birch, maple, and several others possess the flexi-
bility and strength required for a propeller used on
Constant-speed propellers, sometimes referred to as low horsepower engines of small aircraft. The mol-
automatic propellers, are unique in that once a pilot ecular structure of wood allows it to absorb engine
selects an operating rpm, the propeller blades auto- vibration to a large degree and does not support res-
matically adjust to maintain the selected rpm. With onant vibrations. However, unless wood materials
this type of propeller, pitch control is provided by a are coated with a tough protective layer of resin or
controlling device known as a governor. A typical other material, they are susceptible to damage from
governor utilizes oil pressure to control blade pitch. gravel and debris during ground operations.
Constant speed propeller systems provide maxi-
mum efficiency by allowing the pilot to control the
propeller blade angle for most conditions encoun- ALUMINUM ALLOY
tered in flight. Today, the vast majority of propellers used are con-
structed of an aluminum alloy. Aluminum is more
Reversible-pitch propellers are a refinement of the desirable than wood because it allows thinner, more
constant-speed propeller. On aircraft equipped with efficient airfoils to be constructed without sacrific-
a reversible propeller, the propeller blades can be ing structural strength. In addition, the airfoil sec-
rotated to a negative angle to produce reverse thrust. tions on an aluminum propeller typically extend
This forces air forward instead of backward and per- close to the hub providing better airflow for engine
mits a shorter landing roll and improved ground cooling. Furthermore, aluminum propellers require
maneuvering. much less maintenance than wood propellers,
thereby reducing the operating cost.
Most multi-engine aircraft are equipped with a
featherable propeller. A feathering propeller is a
type of constant-speed propeller that has the ability STEEL
to rotate the propeller blades so that the leading Steel propellers and blades are found primarily on
edge of each blade is pointed straight forward into antique and older generation transport aircraft.
the wind. The only time a pilot selects the feather Because steel is a heavy metal, steel blades are nor-
position is if an engine fails. Placing the blades in mally hollow consisting of steel sheets attached to a
the feather position eliminates a great deal of the rib structure. The hollow area is then filled wida a
drag associated with a windmilling propeller. foam material to help absorb vibration and maintain
a rigid structure.
PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION
Almost all propellers produced are made of wood, COMPOSITE
steel, aluminum, or some type of composite mater- Composite propeller blades are slowly gaining in
ial. In the early years of aircraft development all popularity. Some advantages of composite pro-
propellers were made of wood. However, since pellers include the fact that they are lightweight and
wood is fairly susceptible to damage, steel pro- extremely durable. In addition, composites absorb
pellers quickly found their way into aviation. vibration and are resilient, making them resistant to
Today, aluminum alloys are the predominant mate- damage and corrosion.
FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS
The simplest type of propeller with a quently operates A wooden propeller
propeller is a fixed- slightly higher blade from short runways, is constructed of a
pitch propeller. As angle is called a or high field minimum of five
its name implies, the cruise propeller. A elevations generally layers of wood that
blade angle on a cruise propeller is perform better with are kiln-dried and
fixed-pitch propeller designed to be a climb propeller. laminated together
is fixed and cannot efficient at cruising On the other hand, with a waterproof
easily be changed. speed and high aircraft which are resin glue. Each
Because of this, altitude flight. normally operated at layer is normally the
fixed-pitch However, because sea level from same thickness and
propellers achieve of the higher pitch, airports with long type of wood;
their optimum cruise propellers are runways may be however, alternate
efficiency at a very inefficient equipped with a layers of different
specific rotational during takeoff and cruise propeller. wood types may be
and forward speed. climbout. used. The reason
laminated wood is
A standard PROPELLER used instead of a
FIXED-PITCH propeller is often CONSTRUCTI solid block of wood
CLASSIFICATI referred to as a com- ON is that a laminated
ONS promise between a structure is less
climb propeller and Almost all fixed- likely to warp. Once
A typical fixed-pitch cruise propeller. pitch propellers the layers of wood
propeller installed Each aircraft produced are made are laminated
on a light aircraft manufacturer of either wood or together, they form
has a diameter usually designates a aluminum. Of the what is called a
between 67 and 76 standard propeller two, aluminum is the propeller blank.
inches and a pitch which is designed to most common,
between 53 and 68 provide the best all- especially on During fabrication,
inches. The exact around performance production aircraft. the blank is rough-
diameter and pitch under normal However, there are cut to shape and then
required for a circumstances. still several classic allowed to season for
specific airplane is and experimental a period of time. The
specified by the When an aircraft- aircraft that utilize waiting period
aircraft engine combination wood propellers. allows the moisture
manufacturer. In is type certificated in the wood to
some cases, a with a specified disperse equally
manufacturer may WOODEN
standard, climb, and through all of the
authorize multiple PROPELLERS layers. The rough-
cruise propeller, the
propellers, each with aircraft operator may A majority of fixed- shaped blank,
a different pitch. In choose the type of pitch propellers were referred to as a
this case, a propeller fixed-pitch propeller made from wood white, is then
with the lower blade which provides the until World War II finished to the exact
angle provides the best performance for and wooden airfoil and pitch
best performance for the flight operations propellers are still in dimensions required.
takeoff and climb most often limited use on In addition, the
and, therefore, is conducted. For small utility center bore and bolt
often called a climb example, an aircraft. Hardwoods holes
propeller. The low aircraft which fre- such as ash and
blade angle allows birch are typically
the engine to used to build a
develop its wooden propeller.
maximum rpm at However, other
the slower hardwoods that
airspeeds have been used
associated with include mahogany,
climbout. However, maple, cherry, oak,
once the aircraft and black walnut.
reaches its cruising Whatever type of
altitude and begins wood is used, it must
to accelerate, the low be free of grain
blade angle becomes irregularities, knots,
inefficient. pitch pockets, and
insect damage.
A fixed-pitch
Propeller 12-11
s
Figure 12-15. (A) 30 The first step in the manufacture of a wood propeller is to laminate planks together to form a propeller
blank. (B) he propeller blank is shaped and its hub is drilled to produce a "white." (C) 30 Once sanded smooth, a fabric
sheathing and varnish coating are applied for reinforcement and protection.
are drilled and a the screws and rivets holes are then
metal hub assembly are secured with drilled 3/16 inch
is inserted through solder. Using a deep into the tip of
the hub bore to number 60 drill, each blade. These
accommodate the three small holes allow
mounting bolts and moisture to drain
face plate. from behind the
metal tipping and
Once a propeller allow the wood to
white is finished breathe. [Figure 12-
and sanded smooth, 16]
a cotton fabric is
sometimes glued to
the last 12 to 15
inches of the
propeller blade. The
fabric acts to
reinforce the thin
tip sections. Once
applied, the fabric is
doped to prevent
deterioration caused
by weather and the
sun's rays. The
entire propeller is
then finished with
clear varnish to pro-
tect the wood
surface. In some
cases, wood pro-
pellers may be
finished with a black Figure 12-16. Metal
or gray plastic tipping is applied to
propeller blade tips
coating that provides and leading edges to
additional protection help prevent erosion
against chipping. In damage. Three small
this case, the holes drilled in the tip
propeller is said to of each blade release
moisture and allow the
be armor coated. wood to breathe.
[Figure 12-15]
Monel, brass, or
stainless steel tipping
is applied to the
leading edge and tip
of most wooden
propellers to prevent
damage from small
stones. In order to
permit the metal
edging to conform to
the contour of the
leading edge, the
metal must be
notched. To attach
the edging to the
blade, countersunk
screws are used in
the thick blade
sections while
copper rivets are
used in the thin
sections near the
tip. Once in place,
72-72 Propeller
s
ALUMINUM ALLOY PROPELLERS
Wood has given way to aluminum as the most
often used material for fixed-pitch propeller
fabrication. As mentioned earlier, propeller
blades can be made thinner and more efficient
without sacrificing structural strength when
using aluminum instead of wood. In addition,
aluminum has the strength and flexibility to
accommodate the high horsepower engines
available in today's small aircraft.
TWO-POSITION PROPELLERS
One of the first controllable-pitch propellers that
became popular was the Hamilton-Standard coun-
terweight propeller. This propeller was developed
in the 1930's and permitted the pilot to select one of
two positions; low pitch or high pitch. The low
pitch setting was used during takeoff and climb so
the engine would turn at its maximum rpm and
develop its full rated horsepower. On the other Figure 12-21. When low pitch is selected, engine oil pres-
sure forces the cylinder forward. This motion moves the
hand, the high pitch setting was used during the counterweights and blades to the low pitch position.
cruise phase of flight to permit more efficient high-
speed flight while increasing fuel economy.
weights in and decreases the blade angle. Once the
The primary components of a two-position pro- blades reach their low pitch stop in the counter-
peller include the propeller hub, propeller blades, weight assembly, oil pressure holds the blades in
and a piston assembly. At the center of the this position. [Figure 12-21]
Hamilton-Standard two-position propeller hub is
the spider. A typical spider consists of two or three To move the blades to a high pitch position, the pro-
arms on which the blades are attached. The blades peller control lever is moved aft, rotating the selec-
are made from an aluminum alloy and have hollow tor valve to release oil pressure in the propeller hub.
ends which fit over the arms of the spider. Once the With the oil pressure removed, the centrifugal force
blades are inserted on the hub, counterweight acting on the counterweights causes them to move
brackets are attached to the base of each blade. outward, rotating the blades to their high pitch posi-
tion. As the blades rotate, oil is forced out of the
Like the ground-adjustable propeller, the Hamilton- propeller cylinder and returned to the engine sump.
Standard propeller consists of a two piece hub that The blades stop rotating when they contact their
encloses the spider and holds the propeller blades in high pitch stops located in the counterweight
place. To allow the propeller blades to rotate between assembly. [Figure 12-22]
the low and high pitch stops, each blade rides on a set
of roller bearings. In addition, a counterweight In most cases, the pitch stops on a two-position pro-
bracket is installed at the base of each propeller blade. peller can be adjusted. To do this, a pitch stop
adjusting nut is rotated until the desired blade angle
The blade angle on the Hamilton-Standard pro- is obtained.
peller is changed by using a combination of
hydraulic and centrifugal forces. Hydraulic force is
used to decrease blade angle while centrifugal force
acting on a set of counterweights is used to increase
blade angle. The hydraulic force used to decrease
blade angle is derived from engine oil that flows out
of the crankshaft and acts on a piston assembly that
is mounted on the front of the propeller hub. The
flow of engine oil into the piston assembly is con-
trolled by a three-way selector valve that is mounted
in the engine and controlled from the cockpit. When
this valve is moved forward to decrease propeller
blade angle, engine oil is routed into the piston
assembly to force the piston outward. The piston Figure 12-22. When high pitch is selected, engine oil pres-
assembly is linked to each counterweight bracket so sure is removed from the piston assembly allowing cen-
trifugal force to move the counterweights outward. This
that, as the piston moves out, it pulls the counter- rotates the blades to the high pitch position.
72-76 Propeller
s
Although the operation of a two-position propeller either pitch stop, a constant engine rpm will be
is fairly straight forward, there are some operational maintained. However, once the propeller blades
things you need to know. For example, prior to contact a pitch stop, the engine rpm will increase or
engine shutdown, the propeller should be placed in decrease as appropriate with changes in airspeed
the high pitch position. If you recall, this retracts and propeller load. For example, once a specific
the piston assembly, which, in turn, helps protect it rpm has been selected, and if aircraft speed
from corrosion and accumulations of dirt. decreases enough to rotate the propeller blades until
Furthermore, most of the oil is forced from the pis- they contact the low pitch stop, any further decrease
ton where it could congeal in cold weather. in airspeed will cause engine rpm to decrease the
same way as if a fixed pitch propeller were
installed. The same holds true when an aircraft
MULTIPLE-POSITION PROPELLERS equipped with a constant-speed propeller acceler-
As technology advanced, the two-position pro- ates to a faster airspeed. As the aircraft accelerates,
peller was improved to allow the operator to select the propeller blade angle increases to maintain the
any blade angle between the high and low pitch selected rpm until the high pitch stop is reached.
stops. This way, optimum engine/propeller effi- Once this occurs, the blade angle cannot increase
ciency can be maintained over a wider range of any further and engine rpm to increases.
power settings and airspeeds. For example, during
takeoff, the propeller blade angle is set at its lowest On aircraft that are equipped with a constant-speed
blade angle so the engine can generate its maxi- propeller, engine power output is controlled by the
mum power output. Then, once the aircraft is estab- throttle and indicated by a manifold pressure gauge.
lished in a climb, the blade angle can be increased The propeller blade angle, on the other hand, is con-
slightly to provide the best climb performance. In trolled by a propeller control lever and the resulting
cruise flight, the blade angle is further increased to change in engine rpm caused by a change in blade
obtain the best cruise performance. angle is indicated on the tachometer. By providing
the operator a means of controlling both engine
power output and propeller angle, the most efficient
CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS combination of blade angle and engine power output
can be maintained for a variety of flight conditions.
A constant-speed propeller, often called a variable- For example, during takeoff you want the engine to
pitch or controllable-pitch propeller, is the most develop its maximum power; therefore, the throttle
common type of adjustable-pitch propeller used on and the propeller control are advanced full forward
aircraft today. The main advantage of a constant- so the engine can turn at its maximum rpm on take-
speed propeller is that it converts a high percentage off. On the other hand, after the aircraft is estab-
of the engine's power into thrust over a wide range lished in cruise flight, the throttle can be retarded so
of rpm and airspeed combinations. The primary the engine runs at a more economical speed and the
reason why a constant-speed propeller is more effi- propeller blade angle can be increased to increase
cient than other propellers is because it allows the propeller efficiency for higher speed flight.
operator to select the most efficient engine rpm for
the given conditions. Once a specific rpm is
One thing you must keep in mind when operating a
selected, a device called a governor automatically
constant-speed propeller is that, for a given rpm set-
adjusts the propeller blade angle as necessary to
ting, there is a maximum allowable manifold pres-
maintain the selected rpm. For example, after
sure. Operating above this level may cause internal
selecting a desired rpm during cruising flight, an
engine stress. Therefore, as a general rule, you should
increase in airspeed or decrease in propeller load
avoid high manifold pressures with low rpm settings.
will cause the propeller blade angle to increase as
necessary to maintain the selected rpm. On the
other hand, a reduction in airspeed or increase in OPERATING PRINCIPLES
propeller load will cause the propeller blade angle
to decrease. -. i Most constant-speed, non-feathering propellers rely
on a combination of hydraulic and centrifugal
The range of possible blade angles for a constant- forces to change the propeller blade angle. They use
speed propeller is called the propeller's constant- high-pressure oil to increase the propeller blade
speed range and is defined by the high and low angle and the centrifugal twisting force inherent in
pitch stops. As long as the propeller blade angle is all spinning propellers is utilized to decrease the
within the constant-speed range and not against blade angle. On the other hand, most feathering pro-
Propeller 12-17
s
pellers utilize counterweights and centrifugal force most boost pumps are constant displacement pumps,
to pull the blades to high pitch and oil pressure to excessive oil pressure is produced at high engine
force the blades to low pitch. To help prevent con- speeds; therefore, a spring-loaded relief valve is pro-
fusion between the operation of feathering and non- vided to prevent damage to seals and other compo-
feathering propellers, the following discussion will nents. This way, when the oil pressure increases
focus on a typical non-feathering, non-counter- enough to overcome the spring pressure acting on the
weighted propeller assembly. relief valve, the valve opens and routes the excess oil
back to the inlet side of the boost pump.
The device that is responsible for regulating the flow
of high-pressure oil to the propeller is called the gov- The valve that is responsible for routing oil into and
ernor. A typical governor does three things; it boosts out of the propeller hub is called a pilot valve.
the engine oil pressure before it enters the propeller Although the design of a pilot valve varies between
hub, it controls the amount of oil that flows to the pro- manufacturers, they all perform the same basic
peller, and it senses the rotational speed of the engine. function; they direct oil into and out of the propeller
hub. A typical pilot valve is a shuttle-type valve that
A propeller governor is typically mounted either on alternately covers and uncovers oil passages allow-
the front of an engine near the propeller shaft or on ing oil to flow into or out of the propeller hub.
the engine accessory case. In addition, all governors
consist of three basic components; a gear-type boost In order for a governor to adjust the propeller blade angle
pump, a pilot valve, and a speed sensitive flyweight to maintain a constant rpm, it must be able to sense
assembly. [Figure 12-23] engine speed. The portion of a governor that senses
engine speed is referred to as the flyweight assembly. A
A typical governor boost pump is installed in the base typical flyweight assembly consists of a set of flyweights
of a governor and boosts the oil pressure to between mounted on a flyweight head that is driven by the same
180 and 300 psi depending on the system require- drive shaft that drives the boost pump. The pilot valve is
ments. The force needed to drive the boost pump is located inside the drive shaft and extends into the fly-
provided by a drive shaft that extends into the engine weight assembly where it rests on the toe of each fly-
where it mates with an engine drive gear. In some weight. This way, as the flyweights tilt in and out, the
cases, the drive shaft may be hollow to provide a pas- pilot valve is moved up or down. To allow the operator
sage for return oil to flow back to the engine. Since to select, or set, a desired blade angle, a speeder spring is
provided to adjust the amount of pressure acting on the
flyweights and pilot valve. [Figure 12-24]
Most manufacturers of constant-speed propellers Another model of Hartzell compact propeller uses
also build feathering propellers. However, to help a combination of air pressure and centrifugal force
simplify this discussion only the Hartzell com- acting on counterweights to feather and increase
pact feathering propeller and the Hamilton- the angle of the propeller blades. With this type of
Standard hydromatic propeller will be discussed propeller, the high-pressure nitrogen charge is
in detail. again stored in the propeller hub while a counter-
12-26 Propeller
s
Figure 12-39. The Hartzell compact feathering propeller depicted above relies on governor oil pressure to decrease blade angle and a
combination of blade mounted counterweights and compressed nitrogen in the propeller cylinder to increase blade angle.
weight is mounted increasing. the hub so the propeller system
to the base of each nitrogen charge and may incorporate an
propeller blade. To feather a Hartzell either spring accumulator in the
[Figure 12-39] compact feathering pressure or governor to speed up
propeller, the centrifugal force can the unfeathering
A safety feature propeller control is rotate the blades to process. The
inherent to both of placed in the feather the feather position. accumulator stores a
these designs is that, position. This The speed at which quantity of oil under
if governor oil action dumps all the blades rotate to pressure until it is
pressure drops to the oil pressure the feather position needed to unfeather
zero for any reason, from depends on how fast the
the propeller the oil drains from
automatically begins the propeller hub
to move to the and the amount of
feathered position. force exerted by the
This feature helps nitrogen charge and
prevent further either spring
damage to the engine pressure or
from a windmilling centrifugal force.
propeller and lowers Based on this, a
aerodynamic drag on typical Hartzell
the aircraft. propeller takes
between 3 and 10
To prevent the seconds to feather.
propeller from
feathering when the Unfeathering is
engine is shut down accomplished by
on the ground, most repositioning the
Hartzell compact propeller control to
propellers utilize a the normal flight
latch stop called an range and restarting
automatic high the engine. As soon
pitch stop. The latch as the engine begins
mechanism is to turn over, the
comprised of spring- governor starts to
loaded latches unfeather the
fastened to the blades. Once
stationary hub which partially
engage high-pitch unfeathered, the
stop-plates bolted to propeller will start
the movable blade windmilling and
clamps. As long as accelerate the
the propeller rotates unfeathering
faster than 800 rpm, process. In order to
centrifugal force facilitate engine
allows the pins to cranking with the
overcome spring blades feathered,
pressure and the feathering blade
disengage the latches angle is set at 80 to
from the high-pitch 85 degrees at the 3/4
stop-plates so that point on the blade.
the propeller pitch This allows the
may be increased to oncoming air to
the feathering assist the engine
position. However, starter. In general,
when the propeller is restarting and
rotating below 800 unfeathering can be
rpm, the latch accomplished within
springs engage the a few seconds.
latches with the
high-pitch stops and On aircraft where
prevent the propeller engine starting may
blade angle from be difficult, the
Propeller 72-27
s
oil side of the accumulator is open to the flow of
pressurized oil and, therefore, the chamber fills
with pressurized oil. When the propeller control is
moved to the feather position, an accumulator valve
closes and traps oil in the accumulator. This way,
when the propeller control is moved out of the
feather position, the accumulator valve is opened so
the pressurized oil within the accumulator can flow
to the propeller hub. Once the oil reaches the hub,
it pushes on the piston enough to begin moving the
propeller blades out of the feathered position.
HAMILTON-STANDARD HYDROMATIC
PROPELLER
Figure 12-40. Some Hartzell and McCauley propellers use a
The second type of feathering propeller that will be
hydraulic accumulator to unfeather the propeller in flight. discussed in detail is the Hamilton-Standard hydro-
The accumulator enables the governor to provide pressur- matic propeller. This type of propeller is commonly
ized oil for unfeathering the propeller blades enough so the found on medium and large radial engine transport
propeller can windmill. aircraft built during the WWII era and, although
propeller. In some cases, an accumulator allows the they are not used much today, you should be famil-
operator to unfeather the propeller prior to pro- iar with its operating principles.
peller rotation. [Figure 12-40] A typical non-reversing, full-feathering, Hamilton-
A typical accumulator consists of a spherical con- Standard Hydromatic propeller is made up of three
tainer that is separated into two chambers by a major assemblies, the hub, or barrel, assembly; the
diaphragm. One side of the accumulator is charged dome assembly; and the distributor valve. All three of
with nitrogen while the other is filled with oil. these assemblies work as a single unit to permit con-
During normal engine and propeller operation, the stant-speed operation of the propeller. [Figure 12-41]
Figure 12-41. A Hamilton Standard Hydromatic propeller is made up of three major assemblies; the hub assembly, the dome
assembly, and the distributor valve.
12-28 Propeller
s
The hub assembly consists of two halves that house inboard or outboard side of the piston. For the
a spider and the propeller blades. The propeller purposes of this discussion, assume that governor
blades used with a hydromatic propeller differ from oil pressure is applied to the inboard side of the
those used in other constant-speed propellers in piston while engine oil pressure is applied to the
that the butt of each blade consists of a sector gear outboard side. In this configuration, governor oil
that meshes with pitch changing gear in the dome pressure is used to increase propeller blade angle
assembly. Each blade slips onto an arm on the spi- while engine oil pressure in combination with
der and then the spider/blade assembly is placed centrifugal twisting force decrease blade angle. A
between the two hub halves. To allow each blade to typical engine oil pressure is between 60 and 90
rotate freely within the hub, as well as hold the psi while governor boosted oil pressure ranges
blades in place, a combination of bearings and spac- from 200 to 300 psi.
ers are installed between the blade butt and the hub.
During constant-speed operations, the routing of
The dome assembly houses the primary compo- governor oil pressure is controlled by the pilot
nents of the pitch-change mechanism including a valve in the governor. For example, if the load on
piston, a rotating cam, and a fixed cam. When the the propeller or aircraft speed increases, the pro-
dome assembly is threaded into the propeller hub, peller will begin to rotate faster creating an over-
oil pressure acts on the piston to move it fore and aft speed condition. When this occurs, centrifugal
within the dome. As the piston moves, a set of cam force tilts the flyweights outward, raising the pilot
rollers mounted to the piston engage the rotating valve. With the pilot valve raised, governor
cam causing it to turn within the fixed cam. boosted oil pressure is routed to the backside of the
Attached to the rear of the rotating cam is a beveled piston. At the same time, the oil in front of the pis-
gear that engages each of the propeller blades so ton is routed through the distributor valve and
that, as the cam rotates, the blade angle of each pro- back to the inlet side of the governor. The differ-
peller blade also changes. ence in oil pressure between the front and back
sides of the piston cause the piston to move for-
The distributor valve acts as an extension to the ward. As the piston moves, it causes the cam
engine's crankshaft and is installed in the center of rollers to move forward. Since the cam rollers
the dome assembly. The purpose of the distributor engage a set of slots in the rotating cam, movement
valve is to direct both governor oil and engine oil of the cam rollers causes the rotating cam to turn.
into and out of the dome assembly. As the rotating cam turns, the beveled gear on the
back of the cam engage the gears affixed to the
blades and rotate the blades to a higher pitch.
GOVERNORS [Figure 12-42]
A Hydromatic governor includes all of the basic
governor components of the Hamilton-Standard As the blade angle increases, system rpm decreases
constant-speed governor previously described. and the flyweights begin to tilt back inward to lower
However, Hydromatic governors also contain a high the pilot valve. As this happens, the piston stops mov-
pressure transfer valve that disables the governor ing and the system returns to an on-speed condition.
constant-speed functions when the propeller is
feathered or unfeathered. In addition, an electric When an underspeed condition exists, the amount
pressure cutout switch is located on the side of the of centrifugal force acting on the flyweights
governor. The cutout switch automatically stops oil decreases and allows the flyweights to tilt inward.
pressure delivery once the blades have reached When this occurs, the pilot valve lowers and gover-
their full-feathered position. nor oil pressure from the back side of the piston is
■~vi-. ■ .' ■ K , ■."- ■■
ported back to the governor were it is then routed
OPERATING PRINCIPLES back to the engine. At the same time, engine oil
pressure continues to be exerted on the front side of
The hydromatic propeller differs from other con- the piston. Once the oil pressure on the back side of
stant-speed propellers in that no springs or coun- the piston decreases below that of the engine oil
terweights are used to change blade angle. pressure and the centrifugal twisting force acting on
Instead, engine oil pressure acts on one side of the the blades, the piston and cam rollers move aft. As
piston while governor oil pressure acts on the the cam rollers move aft, the rotating cam is turned
opposite side. Depending on the propeller model, the opposite direction causing the propeller blade
governor oil pressure can be directed to either the angle to decrease. [Figure 12-43]
Propeller 12-29
s
Figure 12-42. In an overspeed condition, governor oil pressure forces the piston in the dome assembly forward. When this hap -
pens, the cam rollers also move forward causing the rotating cam to turn. As the rotating cam turns, the beveled gear attached
to the back of the cam engages the sector gears on the propeller blades and rotates the blades to a higher angle.
Figure 12-43. In an underspeed condition, governor oil pressure is ported back to the engine through the governor. Once the pres -
sure behind the piston decreases below the engine oil pressure, the piston moves aft. As the piston moves aft, the rotating cam
turns and drives the propeller blades to a lower blade angle.
72-30 Propeller
s
As the blade angle decreases, system rpm increases piston starts to build rapidly. The increasing pres-
and the flyweights begin to tilt back outward to sure is sensed by the oil pressure cutout switch on
raise the pilot valve. As this happens, the piston the governor and, when the pressure builds to
stops moving and the system returns to an on-speed approximately 650 psi, the circuit to the feather but-
condition. ton holding coil is opened. This de-energizes the
feather relay and shuts off the electric oil pump.
FEATHERING With the engine stopped and the propeller feath-
ered, the oil pressure drops to zero.
Unlike most other feathering propellers that rely on
counterweights, springs, and/or compressed nitro-
To unfeather the propeller, the feather button is
gen, the hydromatic propeller requires high pres-
pressed and manually held in to prevent it from
sure oil to feather the blades. Therefore, in order to
popping back out when the pressure cutout switch
help ensure there is a supply of oil and a means of
opens. With the feather button depressed, the elec-
pressurizing it, a reserve of oil is maintained in the
tric oil pump starts pumping more oil to the inboard
oil reservoir and a separate electric oil pump is
side of the piston causing the pressure to increase.
installed in the propeller system.
Once the pressure becomes greater than the com-
bined spring pressure and oil pressure holding the
To begin the feathering sequence, a feathering but-
distributor valve in place, the distributor valve will
ton is depressed in the cockpit. When this is done,
shift and allow high pressure oil to flow to the out-
a holding coil holds the button in until the feather-
board side of the piston. At the same time, a passage
ing sequence is complete. At the same time, a sole-
is provided for oil to drain from the inboard side of
noid relay is energized to complete the circuit from
the piston to the governor inlet and back to the
the aircraft battery to the feathering motor. The
engine. The pressure differential between the front
feathering pump draws the reserve oil from the oil
and back side of the piston moves the piston and
reservoir and boosts its pressure to approximately
cam rollers inboard causing the blades to rotate to a
600 psi. From the pump, the oil is routed to the gov-
lower blade angle. [Figure 12-44]
ernor where it shifts a high-pressure transfer valve.
Once the valve shifts, the governor is effectively dis-
connected from the system and auxiliary oil passes Once the blade angle is decreased, the propeller
through the governor and governor oil passage to starts to windmill, allowing the engine to be
the inboard side of the piston. As the pressure restarted. At this point, the feather button is
builds behind the piston, the piston and cam rings released and the system returns to constant-speed
move outward causing the rotating cam to turn until operation. If the feather button is not released,
the propeller blades reach the feathered position. excess oil pressure actuates a dome relief valve in
the distributor valve. The relief valve off-seats and
When the rotating cam contacts the high pitch stop, releases oil pressure over 750 psi from the outboard
the blades are fully feathered and the piston stops side of the piston when the rotating cam contacts
moving. At this point, the oil pressure behind the the low blade angle stop.
Propeller 72-31
s
Figure 12-44. To unfeather a Hydromatic propeller, high pressure oil bypasses the governor and forces the distributor valve over so
the oil is directed to the outboard side of the piston. At the same time, a passage is provided for oil to drain from the inboard side
of the piston.
TURBOPROP PROPELLERS
OPERATING share many POWER because, unlike a
similarities, there reciprocating engine,
PRINCIPLES SECTIONS a turboprop engine
are distinct
Since the advent of differences between The combination of takes more time to
the turboprop, the two. Most of a turboprop engine's react to fuel flow and
propeller and engine these differences reduction gear power changes.
manufacturer's have are the result of assembly and With this delayed
worked together to the operational propeller is often reaction time,
create new designs differences between referred to as the turboprop aircraft
and manufacturing reciprocating and power section. cannot use varying
techniques to turboprop engines. Currently, there are engine rpm to
improve the For example, since two methods used to effectively control
reliability and turboprop engines drive a turboprop's the aircraft on the
efficiency in which operate at high power section. In ground. Therefore, to
propellers operate rotational speeds, one design, the facilitate ground
with turbine all turboprop power section is handling characteris-
engines. Today, this designs must driven directly by an tics, the gas
effort has led to the incorporate a reduc- integral turbine generator speed is
creation of a wide tion gear assembly through a fixed held relatively con-
assortment of that can convert the shaft. In the other stant while propeller
turboprop propeller application, the pitch is varied as
engine's high
designs that are used power section is necessary to produce
on many aircraft speed, low torque
rotational speed to driven by a separate the desired amount
ranging from free, or power of thrust.
relatively small, a more usable low
speed and high turbine that is not
single-engine utility
torque. Although mechanically
airplanes, to large REVERSIBLE-
multi-engine there are reduction connected to the gas
transport category gear assemblies generator portion of PITCH
airplanes. In this used on some the engine. In this PROPELLERS
section, basic design reciprocating case, the term power
and operational engines, a section generally In addition to
characteristics that turboprop reduction refers to the power providing constant-
are common to all gear system must turbine, reduction speed and feathering
turboprop engines perform under more gearbox, and the operations, most
will be discussed. extreme operational propeller. [Figure 12- turboprop propellers
Furthermore, a conditions. For 45] are reversible. A
detailed description example, it is not reversing propeller is
of a common uncommon for a essentially a variable
turboprop propeller turboprop to operate PROPELLER pitch, constant-speed
system as it is used at rotational speeds GOVERNING propeller that is
on two different in excess of 40,000 capable of operating
turboprop engines All turboprop with the propeller
rpm. These speeds engines utilize
will be looked at in are far in excess of blades rotated
detail. By realizing constant-speed, beyond the normal
the 2,200 rpm that feathering propellers.
the methods in most turboprop low pitch limits. By
which this propeller In addition, the allowing the
propellers operate propellers used are
system operates, you propeller blades to
will be able to and, therefore, all all controlled by one
turboprop engines rotate to a negative
understand the basic or more governors. blade angle, the
operating principles must incorporate a As a general rule,
reduction gear propeller's thrust is
of most types of turboprop engines directed forward
turboprop propeller assembly. use the same instead of
systems. governing principles
to control propeller
pitch and maintain a
constant rpm.
PROPELLER However, propeller
SPEED pitch changes are
REDUCTION used more
extensively with
Although turboprop engines to
reciprocating and produce changes in
turboprop engine thrust. One reason
propeller systems this is necessary is
Propeller 12-33
s
Figure 12-45. One of the most popular turboprop engines in use today is a free turbine design that houses the reduction gear
assembly in the front section of the engine.
aft. This greatly excessive wear to the the amount of fuel rapidly when the
reduces an aircraft's braking system. On that flows to the brakes are applied, it
landing distance by most engines with a engine. In other is possible for the
producing reverse Beta for taxi range, words, the farther aircraft's nose to rise
thrust similar to that the power lever must back you move the off the ground,
of a thrust reverser be moved back past power lever, the causing the tail to
installed on a a detent below the greater the engine strike the ground.
turbojet or turbofan flight idle position. power output and
engine. As an added the more reverse From a mechanical
benefit, a reversing The Beta plus power thrust produced. On standpoint, a
propeller also allows range represents the most aircraft, the reversible propeller
the aircraft operator range of blade Beta plus power is very similar to a
to better control taxi angles that produce range is obtained by typical constant-
speeds and back the negative thrust. pulling the power speed propeller. For
aircraft up. These This range is lever back beyond example, depending
benefits ultimately primarily used when the Beta for taxi on the make and
improve an aircraft's an aircraft must be range until the model of propeller,
landing performance landed in a short reversing range is oil pressure may be
as well as its distance. When in reached. To help you used to either
maneuverability on the Beta plus power identify the reversing increase or decrease
the ground. range, power lever range, the power blade angle.
movement also lever quadrant is Opposing the oil
When a reversible controls generally either pressure can be a
propeller is operated striped or a placard combination of
in the standard, is provided. spring pressure,
constant-speed centrifugal force
mode, it is said to be When operating an acting on
operated in its Alpha aircraft with counterweights,
range. On the other reversible pro-
hand, when the pellers, some
blades are rotated so cautions must be
they produce zero or observed. For exam-
negative thrust, the ple, since a
propeller is being reversible propeller
operated in its Beta tends to stir up
range. On some debris in front of the
aircraft, the Beta aircraft, it is possible
range may be for rocks or other
divided into two foreign objects to be
ranges: a Beta for ingested into the
taxi range and a engine or damage the
Beta plus power propeller blades.
range. The Beta for Therefore, as a gen-
taxi range includes eral rule, propeller
the blade angles that reversing should only
fall between the bot- be accomplished on
tom of the Alpha smooth, clean
range to a blade surfaces. In fact,
angle that produces some aircraft
zero thrust. This manufacturers may
range of blade angles limit propeller
is used primarily for reversing to a
taxiing and allows minimum forward
the gas generator to speed. Another
operate at a high rpm thing you should be
while limiting the aware of is that
amount of thrust when reverse thrust
being produced by is used to back an
the propellers. This aircraft up, it is
allows the aircraft difficult to see
operator to better what's behind the
control the aircraft's aircraft. In addition,
speed on the ground if an aircraft is
without causing moving backward
72-34 Propeller
s
and/or compressed nitrogen. About the only differ- the Mitsubishi MU-2, the Fairchild Merlin, and the
ence between a reversing and non-reversing pro- Aero Commander 690 aircraft. The TPE-331 is a
peller is the absence of permanently fixed low pitch fixed shaft turbine that, depending on the model,
stops. The reason there are no low pitch stops is produces between 665 and 1,100 shaft horsepower
because the blades of a reversible propeller must be when the gas generator is operating at approxi-
able to rotate through the low pitch limits to pro- mately 41,700 rpm. The TPE-331 is sometimes
duce reverse thrust. Based on this, the appropriate referred to as a constant-speed engine. This means
blade angle must be maintained by creating a that the engine operates at or near 100 percent rpm
hydraulic lock with the propeller governor that can throughout its operational cycle.
be changed as necessary. In other words, once a
desired blade angle is achieved, the amount of oil REDUCTION GEARING
pressure within the hub balances the sum of the The TPE-331 engine's propeller reduction gearing is
other forces acting on the propeller blades. housed on the front of the engine with a fixed shaft
Therefore, if the quantity of oil in the hub is not coupled directly to the gas generator's third stage
changed, or locked, at this point, the propeller blade turbine. The reduction gearing produces a propeller
angle will remain set. shaft rotational speed of approximately 2,200 rpm
As a backup to the primary pitch lock mechanism, which equates to a reduction ratio of about 14:1. To
some reversible propellers incorporate a secondary provide a degree of flexibility, the reduction gearing
method of locking the blade pitch. This way, if the can be situated either above or below the engine's
primary pitch lock should fail, the secondary pitch centerline to accommodate various airframe manu-
lock will prevent the blades from rotating to facturer's requirements. [Figure 12-46]
reverse pitch.
To prevent the propeller from driving the turbine
and compressor sections of a fixed shaft turbine
TURBOPROP FUEL CONTROL engine, the reduction gear portion of the engine
In most cases, the fuel control on a turboprop engine incorporates a negative-torque-sense (NTS) system
works in conjunction with the propeller governor to that automatically increases propeller pitch when
control the propeller blade angle. For example, at negative torque exists. This condition can occur
speeds above flight idle, both the fuel flow and pro- when the engine's power is rapidly decelerated and
peller blade angle are controlled by the power lever the propeller's pitch configuration causes the prop to
position according to a predetermined schedule. This windmill due to slipstreaming. In this situation, the
way, as more fuel is metered into the engine, the blade NTS changes the propeller's pitch enough to prevent
angle is automatically increased to maintain the most the propeller from driving the engine. Another ben-
optimum efficiency. On the other hand, at speeds efit of the NTS is that, if the engine fails, the NTS
below flight idle, propeller blade angle is controlled will sense that loss of engine torque and automati-
almost exclusively by the power lever. The reason for cally rotate the blades to their high-pitch position.
this is that, when a turboprop engine is running below Some engines may incorporate a separate thrust sen-
flight idle speed, governor control over propeller blade sitive signal (TSS) that automatically feathers the
angle is incapable of handling the engine efficiently. propeller in the event of an engine failure.
rise and allow the oil pressure in the propeller hub To unfeather the propeller, the engine must first be
to return to the engine. With no oil pressure in the started. Once the engine starts and the propeller is
propeller hub, spring tension and centrifugal force rotating, the propeller control lever is moved out of
acting on the counterweights attached to the base of the feather position so pressurized oil can rotate the
each blade can rotate the propeller blades to the blades out of the feathered position to the selected
feather position. blade angle or governor rpm setting.
AUXILIARY PROPELLER SYSTEMS
Several auxiliary systems are installed in aircraft The synchronizer master unit incorporates a master
to improve propeller performance and enhance motor which mechanically drives four contactor
the aircraft's all-weather capabilities. For exam- units that are electrically connected to an alternator.
ple, some aircraft incorporate an auxiliary system The alternator is a small three-phase, alternating
that is designed to reduce propeller noise and current generator driven by an accessory drive of
vibration. Other auxiliary systems may be utilized the engine. Therefore, the frequency of the voltage
to remove ice from propeller blades, thereby produced by the generator is directly proportional
improving performance during flight in freezing to the speed of the engine. When the system is acti-
precipitation. vated, the desired engine rpm is selected by manu-
ally adjusting the rpm control lever until the master
tachometer on the instrument panel indicates the
desired rpm. Once set, any difference in rpm
SYNCHRONIZATION SYSTEMS between an engine and the master motor will cause
the corresponding contactor unit to operate the
Anytime multiple engines and propellers are pitch-change mechanism of the propeller until the
installed on an aircraft, the potential for excessive engine speeds match.
vibration and noise exists. A contributing factor to
this problem is dissimilar rpm settings between the
propellers. Based on this, one way to reduce the
amount of noise and vibration produced is to match, ONE ENGINE MASTER CONTROL SYSTEM
or synchronize, the rpm settings on the engines.
Today, many twin engine aircraft are equipped with
Currently, there are several synchronization systems
a more modern propeller synchronizer system.
used on multi-engine aircraft including the master
These newer synchronizer systems typically con-
motor synchronization system, the one engine mas-
sist of a control box that includes a comparative cir-
ter control system, and the synchrophasing system.
cuit, a special master governor on the left engine, a
Synchronizing systems control engine rpm and
slave governor on the right engine, and an activator
reduce vibration by setting all propellers at exactly
in the right engine nacelle. Both governors incorpo-
the same rpm. Such a system can be used for all
rate a frequency generator that produces a fre-
flight operations except takeoff and landing.
quency proportional to the engine's rotational
speed. [Figure 12-59]
MASTER MOTOR SYNCHRONIZATION With this type of system, the frequency generators
built into the propeller governors generate a signal
An early type of synchronization system used on that is sent to the control box. A comparison circuit
WWII four-engine aircraft consisted of a synchro- in the control box compares the rpm signal from the
nizer master unit, four alternators, a master tachome- slave engine to the rpm signal from the master
ter, a tachometer generator and contactor unit for engine. If a difference in engine speed exists, the
each engine, an rpm master control lever, switches, control box sends a correcting signal to the actuator
and wiring. When activated, these components auto- to adjust the slave governor until the engine speeds
matically control the speed of each engine and syn- match. In most installations, the comparator circuit
chronize all engines at a selected rpm. has a limited range of operation. Therefore, the
12-48 Propeller
s
Figure 12-59. The basic units of a light twin propeller synchronization system are a control box, master governor, slave governor,
and actuator.
phasing control unit
slave engine must be determines the
within approximately relative position of
100 rpm of the master
engine for
synchronization to
occur. [Figure 12-60]
SYNCHROPHASIN
G
Synchrophasing
systems are a
refinement of pro-
peller
synchronization
systems in that
they allow a pilot to
control the angular
difference in the
plane of rotation
between the
propeller blades.
This angular
difference is known
as the phase angle
Figure 12-60. This view and can be adjusted
of a propeller by the pilot to
synchronizer system achieve minimum
shows the location of noise and vibration
the various levels. [Figure 12-61]
components when
installed in a light twin-
engine aircraft.
A typical
synchrophasing
system equips each
engine with a
magnetic pickup
device known as a
pulse generator. The
pulse generator on
each engine is keyed
to the same blade of
its respective
propeller for
comparison
purposes. As the
designated blade of
each propeller
passes the pulse
generator, an
electrical signal is
sent to the phasing
control unit. For
example, consider a
twin engine aircraft
with pulse
generators keyed to
blade number one.
Based on the
electrical pulses
from each pulse
generator, the
Propeller 12-49
s
Figure 12-61. Synchrophasing allows a pilot to adjust the phase angle between the propellers for minimum noise and vibration levels.
each propeller's formations can distort
number one blade. a propeller blade's
A propeller manual airfoil shape causing
phase control in the a loss in propeller
cockpit allows the efficiency and thrust.
pilot to manually Furthermore, ice
select the phase usually forms
angle which unevenly on a
produces the propeller blade and
minimum vibration produces propeller
and noise. The unbalance and
pulses from each destructive vibration.
engine are then
compared and, if a
difference exists, Currently, aircraft
the phasing control propellers may use
unit electrically either an anti-icing or
a de-icing system. Figure 12-62. The
drives the slave synchrophasing control
governor to The difference panel is mounted in
establish the between the two is the cockpit so cockpit
selected phase that an anti-icing crew members can
system prevents the adjust propeller blade
angle between phase angles in flight.
propellers. [Figure
12-62]
formation of ice
PROP whereas a de-icing
ELLER system removes ice
ICE after it has
accumulated.
CONT
ROL
SYST FLUID ANTI-
EMS ICING
As aircraft use A typical fluid anti-
became more vital in icing system
the movement of consists of a control
cargo and unit, a tank that
passengers, the holds a quantity of
necessity to fly in anti-icing fluid, a
nearly all weather pump to deliver the
conditions became fluid to the
more important. propeller, and
However, before nozzles. The control
flight in bad weather unit contains a
could be considered rheostat which is
safe, auxiliary adjusted to control
systems had to be the pump output.
devised that could Fluid is pumped
either prevent or from the tank to a
remove ice stationary nozzle
formations from an
aircraft. Like the
aircraft structure,
propellers are
susceptible to ice
buildups and must
be equipped with a
system to remove ice
accumulations. If
allowed to
accumulate, ice
72-50 Propeller
s
Figure 12-63. A typical propeller anti-icing system consists of a fluid tank, a rheostat control, a slinger ring for each propeller, and a
fluid pump.
installed just behind its availability and cost. Some other system power to the
the propeller on the low anti-icing fluids are propeller hub
engine nose case. made from
As fluid passes phosphate
through the nozzle, compounds and are
it enters a circular comparable to iso-
U-shaped channel propyl alcohol in
called a slinger ring. anti-icing
A typical slinger ring performance. Anti-
is designed with a icing fluids made
delivery tube for from phosphate
each propeller blade compounds also
and is mounted on have the advantage
the rear of the of reduced
propeller assembly. flammability,
Once the fluid is in however, they are
the slinger ring, comparatively
centrifugal force expensive.
sends the anti-icing
fluid out through the
ELECTRIC DE-ICE
delivery tubes to
each blade shank. A typical propeller
[Figure 12-63] de-icing system is
electrically operated.
An electrical
In order to disperse
propeller de-icing
the fluid to areas
system consists of a
which are more
power source, power
prone to ice
relay, resistance
buildups, feed shoes
heating elements,
are typically
system controls, and
installed on the
a timer or cycling
leading edge of each
unit. The resistance
propeller blade. Each
heating elements may
feed shoe consists of
be mounted either
a narrow strip of
internally or
rubber that extends
externally on each
from the blade shank
propeller blade.
out to a blade station
Externally mounted
that is approximately
heating elements are
75 percent of the
known as de-icing
propeller radius.
boots and are
Feed shoes are
attached to each
molded with several
blade with an
parallel open
approved bonding
channels that allow
agent. System con-
centrifugal force to
trols include an
direct fluid from the
on/off switch,
blade shank toward
loadmeter, and pro-
the blade tip. As
tective devices such
anti-icing fluid flows
as current limiters or
along the channels,
circuit breakers. The
the relative wind also
loadmeter is an
carries the fluid
ammeter which per-
laterally from the
mits monitoring of
channels over the
individual circuit
leading edge of each
currents and visual
blade.
verification of proper
timer operation.
The most commonly
used anti-icing fluid A typical electric
is iso-propyl propeller de-ice
alcohol because of system supplies
aircraft electrical
Propeller 12-51
s
Figure 12-64. Aircraft electrical power is used to operate this propeller de-icing system. When the timer closes the relay,
electrical current flows to the carbon brushes which, in turn, pass the current to the rotating slip rings on the propeller hub.
Flexible connectors carry the current from the slip rings to each heating element.
through a set of dangerous build-up
brush blocks and of ice on blade
slip rings. The areas which have no
brush blocks are de-icing protection.
mounted on the
engine case just hi addition to
behind the preventing runback,
propeller while the heating intervals are
slip rings are also carefully
mounted on the back controlled to avoid
of the propeller hub excessive propeller
assembly. Flexible vibrations. Ice
connectors on the accumulations must
propeller hub be removed from
transfer power from propeller blades
the slip rings to each evenly and in a
heating element. balanced fashion
[Figure 12-64] from opposite blades
to prevent excessive
Electrical de-icing vibration. This is
systems are usually accomplished
designed for through the use of
intermittent timing circuits that
application of power cycle power in a
to the heating ele- predetermined
ments for removal of sequence to the blade
small ice heating elements.
accumulations. De- Cycling timers
icing effectiveness energize the heating
diminishes if ice elements for periods
accumulations are of 15 to 30 seconds
allowed to become with a complete
excessive. cycle time of two
Furthermore, proper minutes.
control of heating
intervals is critical in The de-icing boots
the prevention of may be checked for
runback. Runback proper warming
refers to a condition sequences during
where melted ice pre-flight inspections
reforms behind a by turning the
blade's leading edge. system on and
Heat should be feeling the boots.
applied just long However, exercise
enough to melt the caution and limit
ice face in contact ground testing to
with the blade. If the prevent element
applied heat is more overheating. Electric
than that required to propeller de-icing
loosen the ice, but systems are designed
insufficient to for use when the pro-
evaporate all the pellers are rotating,
resulting water, and for short periods
water can run back of time during
over the unheated ground runup.
blade surface and
freeze again.
Runback may result
in a
PROPELLER INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE,
AND INSTALLATION
As an aviation safetying. When considered to be a install, adjust, and
maintenance equipped with anti- major repair. Major perform a 100-hour
technician, you will icing devices, those repairs to alu inspection of a
be required to devices must be minum propellers propeller and its
inspect and perform inspected for include shortening related components.
routine maintenance improper operations or straighten Furthermore, an
on various types of and obvious defects. ing of blades and aviation
propellers. Also, you are repairs to deep maintenance
Therefore, in required to inspect dents, cuts, scars, technician holding
addition to being propeller control and nicks. an Inspection
familiar with mechanisms for r Authorization may
propeller mainte- improper operation, perform an annual
nance procedures, insecure mounting, Other major repairs inspection on a
you must have a and restricted travel. listed in Appendix A propeller. However,
basic knowledge of of Part 43 include that person may not
maintenance Appendix A of FAR the repair or approve for return to
regulations that 43 lists propeller replacement of service major repairs
relate to propellers. major alterations and internal blade and alterations to
It is important to repairs which must elements such as propellers or their
note that as a be performed by the internal de-icer related parts and
certified mechanic manufacturer or a heating elements. appliances. Only an
with a powerplant certified repair Also listed are appropriately rated
rating, you are station. Propeller controllable pitch facility, such as a
authorized to per- major alterations propeller overhauls propeller repair
form only minor include changes in and repair of station or the pro-
repairs and minor blade design, hub propeller governors. peller manufacturer,
alternations to design, and governor Given the number of may return a
propellers. or control design. items that are propeller or
Also included are considered to be accessory to service
installations of a either major repairs after a major repair
MAINTENANC propeller governors, or alterations to or alteration.
E feathering systems, propellers, it may be
REGULATION de-icing systems, difficult to
and parts not
INSPECTION
differentiate whether
S approved for the a specific repair or AND
FAR Part 43, propeller. On the alteration is minor or MAINTENANC
Maintenance, other hand, propeller major. Therefore, if E
Preventative major repairs include you are in doubt
Maintenance, items such as about the status of a Specific inspection
Rebuilding, and retipping, contemplated items and minor
Alteration, defines replacement of alteration or repair, maintenance tasks
the different classes fabric covering, and you should contact for which you are
of maintenance for inlay work on wood your local Flight responsible depend
propeller systems. propellers. Also Standards Office of on the type of
Appendix D lists the included in fixed- the FAA. propeller and its
minimum require- pitch wood propeller accessories. The
ments for 100-hour major repairs are following discussion
and annual replacement of outer AUTHORI provides generic
inspections of pro- laminations and ZED information on
pellers and their repair of elongated MAINTEN typical inspection
controls. For bolt holes in the hub. ANCE and maintenance
example, as a mini- Any repairs to, or procedures.
straightening of, PERSONN However, the
mum during an
annual or 100-hour steel propeller EL information
inspection, propeller blades is considered Although you are provided here is
assemblies must be to be a major repair. restricted from only general in
checked for cracks, In addition, repairs performing major
nicks, and oil to, or machining of, propeller alterations
leakage. In addition, steel hubs is or repairs, you are
bolts must be responsible for
inspected for proper minor repairs and
torque and alterations. In
appropriate addition, you may
Propeller 12-53
s
nature and, therefore, you should always consult
the appropriate aircraft or propeller maintenance
manuals and service bulletins for specific instruc-
tions and service limits.
WOOD PROPELLERS
A fixed-pitch wood propeller is simple in concept
and operation; however, the fine details of its con-
struction require close visual inspection. For exam-
ple, both annual and 100-hour inspections require
you to check for cracks, nicks, and properly torqued
or safetied bolts. While required visual inspections
Figure 12-65. The metal tipping on a wood propeller should
are mostly conducted with the propeller mounted be inspected for cracks in the leading edge and in the sol-
on the engine, there may be occasions when der covering the retaining screws. If a crack is found, a close
removal is necessary. For example, if excessive inspection should be made of the entire area near the crack.
vibration exists, you may have to remove the pro-
peller to check for elongated mounting bolt holes or
proper balance.
should be given to the metal sleeve and shank area.
To facilitate an inspection, a propeller should be The presence of cracks in these areas may indicate
cleaned. Wood propellers may be cleaned with broken or loose lag screws.
warm water and a mild soap, using brushes or a
cloth. If the aircraft operates near salt water, the pro-
peller should be flushed with fresh water often. If a REPAIRS
visual inspection after cleaning reveals defects Typically, small cracks parallel to the grain or small
which must be further examined or repaired, pro- cuts on a wood propeller may be repaired by work-
peller removal may be necessary. Removal of a wood ing resin glue into the crack. Once the glue is dry,
propeller is usually a simple matter of removing a the area is sanded with fine sandpaper and refin-
spinner, safety devices such as cotter pins or wire, ished with an approved varnish or other coating.
and the mounting bolts. In all instances, follow the Repairable tip fabric defects include cracks, bub-
recommended removal procedures outlined in the bles, paint chipping, and wrinkles that appear when
maintenance instructions for the aircraft and engine. the tip is twisted or flexed. If the tip fabric has sur-
face defects of 3/4 inch or less, and a breakdown in
Common defects found in wood propellers include the wood structure is not suspected, the defect may
separation of the laminations and dents or bruises be filled with several coats of lacquer. Once the lac-
on the surface. Other possible damage includes quer has dried, the defect should blend in with the
cracks or scars across the blade back or face, broken fabric surface. Defects larger than 3/4 inch should
sections, warping, and worn or oversize center bore be referred to a repair station.
and bolt holes. If a dent, bruise, or scar is found on
a blade surface, inspect the damage with a magnify- Typically, separated laminations are repairable
ing glass while flexing the blade to help expose any when they occur in the outside lamination.
cracks. However, the repair must be done by a certified pro-
peller repair station or the manufacturer. Additional
When inspecting metal tipping, look for looseness repairs that can be made by a propeller repair station
or slipping, loose screws or rivets, and cracks in the and a propeller manufacturer include large cracks
solder joints. If a crack is found in a solder joint near that require an inlay and restoration of elongated
the blade tip, it may be an indication of wood dete- bolt holes with metal inserts. In addition, broken
rioration. Therefore, the area near the crack should sections may be repairable, depending on the loca-
be inspected closely while flexing the blade tip. If tion and severity of the break. However, the deter-
no defects are found, the joint may be resoldered; mination of repairability and actual repairs must be
however, the blade tip should be inspected at closer done by a repair station or the manufacturer.
intervals for a recurrence of cracking. [Figure 12-65]
When repair work is done to a wooden propeller
When inspecting the wooden blades installed on a blade, a protective coating must be reapplied to the
ground-adjustable propeller, special attention wood. However, restoration of the protective coating
72-54 Propeller
s
could change the propeller blade's balance. Therefore, Removal procedures for a fixed-pitch aluminum
the propeller's balance must be checked after the blade propeller are the same as for a fixed-pitch wood pro-
has been reflnished. If an out-of-balance condition peller. However, the aluminum propeller may be
exists, it may be necessary to apply more protective heavier than a comparable sized wood propeller. If
coating on one blade than the other to achieve final so, obtain help when necessary to support the pro-
balancing. More information on propeller balancing peller during removal and prevent damage to the
procedures is provided later in this section. propeller or personal injury.
As with all propellers, there are some defects that Prior to an inspection, an aluminum propeller
cannot be repaired. For wooden propellers these should be cleaned with a solution of mild soap and
include: water using a soft brush or cloth to remove all dirt
and grease. Acid or caustic cleaning materials
1. crack or deep cut across the grain should never be used on aluminum propellers
2. A split blade because their use could lead to corrosion.
1. Separated laminations, except for the outside Furthermore, avoid the use of power buffers, steel
laminations of a fixed-pitch propeller wool, steel brushes, or any other abrasive that may
3. Empty screw or rivet holes scratch or mar the blades. If a propeller has been
4. Any appreciable warp subjected to salt water, it should be flushed with
5. An appreciable portion of wood missing fresh water until all traces of salt have been
2. An oversized crankshaft bore in a fixed-pitch removed. This should be accomplished as soon as
propeller possible after exposure to salt spray.
3. Cracks between the crankshaft bore hole and
bolt holes Once clean, aluminum blades are inspected for pit-
6. Cracked internal laminations ting, nicks, dents, cracks, and corrosion. Areas that
10. Oversize or excessively elongated bolt holes are especially susceptible to damage include the
leading edges and the blade face. To aid in the
STORAGE inspection process, you should inspect the entire
When a wood propeller is stored, it should be propeller with a four-power magnifying glass. In
placed in a horizontal position to keep the moisture addition, if a crack is suspected, a dye penetrant
evenly distributed throughout the wood. In addi- inspection should be performed. In many cases, a
tion, the storage area should be cool, dark, dry, and dye penetrant inspection will show whether visible
well ventilated. Do not wrap the propeller in any lines and other marks are actually cracks or only
material that seals it from the surrounding airflow. scratches, saving the time and expense of unneces-
The reason for this is an airtight wrapping around sary repairs.
wood propellers promotes wood decay. Inspect the hub boss for damage and corrosion
inside the center bore and on the surfaces which
ALUMINUM PROPELLERS mount on the crankshaft. Also, inspect the bolt
The properties of aluminum alloys make aluminum holes for cracks, excessive wear, and proper dimen-
propellers durable and relatively inexpensive to sions. Light corrosion can be cleaned from the hub
maintain. However, some types of damage can be boss with sandpaper. The affected area may then be
severe enough to cause blade failure. Therefore, alu- painted or treated to help prevent further corrosion.
minum propellers must be carefully inspected at Propellers with damage, dimensional wear, or
regular intervals. In addition, if any damage is dis- heavy corrosion in the boss area should be referred
covered that jeopardizes the integrity of a propeller, to a repair station for appropriate repairs.
it must be repaired before further flight.
REPAIRS
BLADE INSPECTION When an inspection reveals surface damage such as
A requirement for both annual and 100-hour inspec- nicks, scratches, or gouges on an aluminum alloy
tions includes checking for cracks, nicks, and prop- propeller blade, repairs should be made as soon as
erly torqued or safetied bolts. As with a wood pro- possible. By making prompt repairs, you help elim-
peller, most inspections of a fixed-pitch aluminum inate stress concentration points which, in turn,
propeller are conducted without removal. However, helps to prevent cracks and fatigue failure. Defects
if operational problems such as vibrations occur, it on a bladeis leading and trailing edges may be
may be necessary to remove the propeller for a dressed out by using a combination of round and
detailed inspection of the hub area. half round files. When a repair is complete, it
Propeller 12-55
s
should blend in smoothly with the edge and should
not leave any sharp edges or angles. In all cases, the
repair of surface defects on aluminum propeller
blades must be made parallel to the length of the
blade. In addition, the approximate maximum
allowable size of a typical repair on a propeller edge
is 1/8 inch deep by no more than 1 1/2 inches in
length. [Figure 12-66]
A two-bladed propeller that is properly balanced When a propeller assembly exhibits a definite ten-
will have no tendency to rotate in any of the test dency to rotate, certain corrections to remove the
positions. If the propeller balances perfectly in all imbalance are allowed. The addition of permanent
described positions, it should also balance perfectly fixed weights is permitted at acceptable locations
in all intermediate positions. When necessary, when the total weight of the propeller assembly is
check for balance in intermediate positions to verify under allowable limits. Likewise, the removal of
the check in the originally described positions. weight is permitted from acceptable locations when
the total weight of the propeller assembly is equal to
Static balancing of a three-bladed propeller requires the allowable limit.
placing the propeller in three basic test positions.
First, rotate the propeller until blade number one is The location for removal or addition of weight on a
pointing downward. Similarly, place blade number propeller is determined by the propeller manufac-
Figure 12-73. A three-bladed propeller is properly balanced when each blade can be placed in the six o'clock position with no tendency
to rotate.
12-60 Propeller
s
turer. The method and point of application of bal- Modern methods of checking dynamic balance
ance corrections must be in accordance with the require the propeller, spinner, and related equip-
manufacturer's instructions. Typically, vertical ment to be installed on the aircraft. With the engine
imbalance is corrected by adding a metal weight on running, electronic equipment senses and pinpoints
the light side of the hub 90 degrees from the pro- the location of an imbalance. In addition, the test
peller's horizontal centerline. On a wooden pro- equipment typically determines the amount of
peller, horizontal imbalance is corrected by adding weight required to correct the condition.
or removing solder at the propeller blade tips.
Horizontal balance correction on an aluminum pro-
peller often involves the removal of small amounts CHECKING BLADE ANGLE
of metal by filing.
At times, you may be required to check the blade
angle at a specific blade station. To do this, a uni-
DYNAMIC BALANCE versal propeller protractor is typically used.
[Figure 12-74]
A propeller exhibits dynamic balance when the cen-
ters of gravity of similar propeller elements, such as
the propeller blades, rotate in the same plane of The frame of a typical protractor is made of alu-
rotation. A dynamic imbalance resulting from minum alloy with three square sides at 90 degree
improper mass distribution is usually negligible if angles. A bubble spirit level mounted on one cor-
the blades on a propeller track within limits. One ner of the front of the frame swings out to indicate
reason for this is that the length of the propeller when the protractor is level. A movable ring is
assembly along the engine crankshaft is very short located inside the frame and is used to set the
compared to its diameter. Another reason is the fact zero reference angle for blade angle measure-
that the blades track the same plane perpendicular ments. The ring is engraved with vernier index
to the axis of the crankshaft. marks, which allow readings as small as one tenth
Figure 12-74. A universal propeller protractor such as this one is used to check propeller blade angle.
Propeller 12-61
s
of a degree. A center disk is engraved with a
degree scale from zero to 180 degrees, both posi-
tive and negative. In addition, the center disk
contains a spirit level to indicate when the center
disk is level.
GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLER
To adjust the propeller blade angle on a ground-
adjustable propeller, you must first determine the
reference blade station that must be used. This
information is typically contained in the propeller
or aircraft maintenance manual. Once the reference
station is known, check the specifications for the
blade angle range approved for the aircraft. A typi-
cal range for a ground-adjustable propeller is from 7 Figure 12-78. A propeller blade paddle makes the task of
to 15 degrees. changing blade angles much easier.
Propeller 12-63
s
nuts on an index pin located under each counter- replaced. With everything secured, the blades
weight cap. To gain access to the index pin, remove should be moved through their full range of travel.
the clevis pin which safeties the counterweight cap Once this is done, position the blades in their high
and remove the cap. Pull the index pin out of its blade angle and measure the blade angle at the spec-
recess in the counterweight or push it out from ified reference station. A common reference station
behind the counterweight bracket with a small for a counterweighted propeller is the 42-inch sta-
tool. [Figure 12-79] tion. Next, move the blades to their low blade angle
stop and check these angles. Make small adjust-
Alongside the recess which holds the index pin is a ments to the stop nut positions as necessary to bring
scale calibrated with half degree marks and a the angles within acceptable limits.
numerical scale from zero to ten. This scale is used
to adjust and set the stop nuts on the index pin.
HARTZELL CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS
The propeller blade index number, also known as
the base setting, should be stamped in a lead plug Hartzell steel hub propellers can be adjusted for the
located near the index pin recess. This number indi- desired low blade angle by loosening the hub
cates the maximum blade angle for which the pro- clamps and rotating the blades. However, you
peller was adjusted during its last overhaul. The should realize that, anytime the low blade angle is
maximum blade angle is typically 25 degrees and is changed, the high blade angle will also change. The
used to calculate where the stop nuts on the index reason for this is because the piston within the pro-
pin should be positioned. For example, if the blade peller hub can only travel a fixed amount. Once the
index is 25 degrees and the aircraft specifications desired blade angle is obtained, the clamps are
specify a low blade angle of 17 and a high angle of retorqued and safetied.
22 degrees, the stop nut positions are determined by
subtracting the appropriate blade angle from the The low pitch setting on a Hartzell compact pro-
blade index. Therefore, to set the 17 degree low peller is adjusted with the adjusting screw on the
blade angle, the stop nut is positioned on the index hub cylinder. To make a blade adjustment, begin by
pin so that the edge toward the center of the pin will loosening the jam nut on the adjusting screw and
align with the 8 degree (25 -17 = 8) mark on the rotating the screw clockwise to increase the low
scale. On the other hand, to set the 22 degree high blade angle, or counterclockwise to decrease the
blade angle, the stop nut is positioned to line up its angle. When the desired angle is set, retighten the
edge with the 3 degree (25 -22 = 3) mark. jam nut. When changing the blade angles, always
refer to the aircraft specifications and the propeller
Once the stop nuts are set, the index pins are manufacturer's manual for instructions about spe-
installed in the counterweights and the caps are cific propeller models. [Figure 12-80]
Figure 12-79. The propeller blade angle of a counterweight
propeller is adjusted by positioning the stop nuts located
Figure 12-80. The low pitch setting for Hartzell compact
on the index pins inside each of the counterweights.
propellers is adjusted with the adjusting screw on the hub
cylinder.
12-64 Propeller
s
BLADE TRACKING
Propeller blade tracking is a procedure which
allows you to check the track of each propeller
blade tip as it travels through its arc of rotation. In
other words, by checking the tracking of a pro-
peller, you compare the positions of the propeller
blade tips relative to each other. This procedure is
normally accomplished when troubleshooting a
vibration problem or as a final check after balanc-
ing and reinstallating a propeller. Metal propellers
up to six feet in diameter on light aircraft must
track within 1/16 inch of each other. On the other
hand, the track of a wood propeller should not be
out more than 1/8 inch.
PROPELLER INSTALLATION
The method used to attach a propeller to an engine
crankshaft varies with the design of the crankshaft.
Currently, there are three types of crankshafts used
on aircraft engines, the flanged crankshaft, the
tapered crankshaft, and the splined crankshaft. The
general installation procedures for all three types
are discussed in the following paragraphs. For spe-
cific instructions, you should refer to the aircraft
and engine maintenance manuals.
FLANGED SHAFT
Flanged propeller shafts are used on most horizon- Figure 12-82. (A) 163 On a flanged crankshaft with dowel
tally opposed reciprocating engines and some tur- pin holes, the propeller is mounted to the crankshaft
boprop engines. The front of the crankshaft is using bolts and nuts. The dowel pin holes are often
formed into a flange four to eight inches across, per- arranged so the propeller can mount in only one
position. (B) 163 Most installations utilize threaded inserts
pendicular to the crankshaft centerline. Mounting which are pressed into the crankshaft to eliminate the use
of nuts.
72-66 Propeller
s
Figure 12-83. When installing a propeller on a four-cylinder opposed engine, one of the blades should come to rest at the ten
o'clock position to help reduce vibration and facilitate hand propping.
Figure 12-84. When installing a propeller on a flanged crankshaft, it is important to follow the propeller manufacturer's
recommended sequence to avoid inducing stress in the propeller hub.
bolts should be in good condition and inspected for mounting the propeller, a front bulkhead is placed
cracks with either a dye penetrant or magnetic par- on the front of the hub boss before the bolts are
ticle inspection process. Washers and nuts should inserted. After the bolts are tightened and safetied,
also be inspected, and new fiber lock nuts used if the spinner is installed with machine screws. The
they are required in the installation. machine screws are inserted through the spinner
into nut plates on the bulkheads. If the spinner is
Most flanges that use dowel pins allow the propeller indexed, line up the index marks during installation
to mount on the shaft in only one position. If there is to avoid vibration. [Figure 12-86]
no dowel, install the propeller in the position speci-
fied by the aircraft or engine maintenance manual.
This is important because propeller position is critical CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS
for maximum engine life in some installations. If no Some Hartzell steel hub propellers and all Hartzell
position is specified on a four cylinder horizontally compact propellers are designed to mount on
opposed engine, the propeller should be installed flanged crankshafts. However, before you mount a
with the blades at the 10 o'clock and 4 o'clock posi- constant-speed propeller on the crankshaft, you
tions when the engine is stopped. This reduces vibra- should lubricate the O-ring in the rear of the hub
tion in many instances and puts the propeller in the with a light coat of engine oil. Once this is done,
best position for hand propping. [Figure 12-83] you can carefully mount the propeller on the flange.
When doing this, pay particular attention to the O-
After attaching the bolts, washers, and nuts, tighten ring to keep it from being damaged.
all of the bolts finger-tight. Then, use an approved
torque wrench to tighten the bolts to a specified
value in the recommended sequence. A typical
torque value is 35 foot-pounds or higher for metal
propellers and approximately 25 foot-pounds for
wood propellers. In addition, a typical tightening
sequence requires you to torque the bolts in a cross-
ing pattern. [Figure 12-84]
If no dye is transferred from the rear cone during the Figure 12-95. Front cone bottoming occurs when the apex
of the front cone bottoms on the crankshaft splines. This
transfer check, a condition known as rear cone bot- prevents a good seat between the front cone and propeller
toming may exist. This occurs when the apex, or hub. As a result, the propeller hub is loose, lacking a tight
point, of the rear cone contacts the land on the rear fit to the crankshaft.
Propeller 12-71
s
mount the propeller on the shaft. As you recall, the
position of the propeller on the hub in relation to
the master spline is predetermined. Some installa-
tions require a certain blade to align with the mas-
ter spline while other installations require the
blades be perpendicular to the master spline posi-
tion. Therefore, be sure to consult the engine main-
tenance manual for the requirements of a particular
installation.
Figure 12-97. If the tapered shaft propeller
PROPELLER propeller installation installation, a clevis pin
uses castellated nuts is installed through the
SAFETYING with drilled bolts, safety safety holes in the
Once a propeller is the nuts with cotter retaining nut and
pins. crankshaft. The clevis
properly torqued, it pin must be installed
must be safetied. with its flanged head
There is no one toward the center of the
correct way to safety crankshaft.
a propeller bolts, the nuts are
installation because safetied to the bolts
of the many with cotter pins.
different types of [Figure 12-97]
installations. For
this reason, the The retaining nuts
discussion of for tapered and
safetying methods is splined shaft
limited to the types installations are
more commonly safetied in the same
used. way. In addition, a
clevis pin is
A flanged shaft Figure 12-96. On
installed through the
installation has the propellers secured to a safety holes in the
largest variety of flanged hub with bolts, retaining nut and
safety methods pairs of bolt heads are crankshaft. The
safety wired together to clevis pin must be
because of its many keep the bolts from
variations. If the loosening.
positioned with the
flange has threaded head toward the
inserts installed, the center of the
propeller is held on crankshaft. This
by bolts screwed allows centrifugal
into the inserts. In force to hold the
this case, the bolt clevis pin tightly in
heads are drilled and the hole against its
safetied with 0.041 flanged head. [Figure
inch stainless steel 12-98]
safety wire, using
standard safety wire
procedures. [Figure
12-96]
If threaded inserts
are not pressed into
the flange, bolts and
nuts are used to
hold the propeller
in place. Some
installations use fiber
lock nuts which
require no
safetying, but the
nuts should be
replaced each time
the propeller is
removed. For
installations using
castellated nuts
and drilled