10/24/2013

EOR Processes – Miscible Gas

Injection Charles A. (Chuck) Kossack

Miscible CO2 and/or H-C Solvent Injection:

Lecture
 Chuck Kossack, Ph.D.
 Schlumberger / SIS Training and Development

 Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

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Charles A. (Chuck) Kossack Charles A. (Chuck) Kossack

Education Professor Norwegian Institute of Technology (now NTNU)

– University of Michigan - BS Chemical Engineering, BS – 4+ Years
Math – Compositional Simulation
– Stanford University - MS, Ph.D. Chemical Engineering – Dynamic Scale-up Process
Research Engineer at ARCO - 12 Years – Simulation of Horizontal Wells
– Developed reservoir simulators
– Applied simulators

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Charles A. (Chuck) Kossack Charles A. (Chuck) Kossack

Independent Consultant – 5+ Years

– Norsk Hydro - Oslo, Norway
– AGIP - Milan, Italy
– BEB - Hanover, Germany
Schlumberger - 17+ Years
– GeoQuest: ECLIPSE Support
– Consulting with GeoQuest Reservoir Technologies-
Holditch-Reservoir Technologies - Now SIS Training and
Development, Houston (live in Las Vegas)

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Charles A. (Chuck) Kossack Charles A. (Chuck) Kossack

 Courses Taught
 Courses Taught
Thermal Reservoir Simulation Using ECLIPSE
Applied Reservoir Simulation
Simulation of In-situ Combustion and Chemical Reactions
Equation Of State and PVT Analysis
Using ECLIPSE
Compositional Simulation, Theory and Applications
Simulation of Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes
Simulation of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs
Computer Aided History Matching Using MEPO

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Agenda

Overview of EOR Processes

Overview of Miscible/Immiscible Gas Injection
Nitrogen / Flue Gas Injection Overview of EOR Processes
Understand Vaporizing and Condensing Drive
Mechanisms
Understand Vaporizing/Condensing Mechanism
CO2 Properties
CO2 Injection into Oil Fields

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Where Miscible Gas Injection Fits In

EOR Processes

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Cost of EOR Fluids US EOR Projects

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US EOR Production (STB)

Total

Overview of Miscible/Immiscible Gas Injection

Thermal

Gas

CO2 Miscible

Chemical

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Choices of Injection Gas CO2 EOR: Where?

Latest CO2 Capture and EOR Projects
Project Name Start Date Location

 CO2 (most of this lecture will concentrate on CO2 ) Brindisi 

Husnes 
2010
2011
Italy
Norway

 N2 Plant Barry 
Port Arthur 
2011
2012
USA
USA

 Methane – dry separator gas WA Parish 

TCEP
2013
2014
USA
USA

 Methane + intermediate MW components (C2, C3, C4…) Trailblazer

Kemper County 
2014
2014
USA
USA

 Flue gas – N2 + CO2 + CO

HECA 2014 USA
Bow City  2014 Canada

 H2S
Longannet  2014 UK
Leucadia  2014 USA
Williston  2014 USA
Maasvlkte  2015 Netherlands
Boundary Dam 2015 Canada
NZEC  2015 China
Swan Hills 2015 Canada
Magnum 2015 Netherlands
Masdar CCS Project  Delayed UAE
http://sequestration.mit.edu/tools/projects/index.html

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CO2 EOR: How many projects? From: “CO2-EOR Mobility and Conformance Control: 40 Years of
Research and Pilot Tests” Dennis Denney, JPT January 2013

 USA CO2 projects – 110 fields – 60% in Permian Basin in

West Texas.
 Injecting 3.1 Bscf/day of CO2 into sandstone and carbonate
formations.
 Recovers 280,000 bbl of oil per day.
 Approximately 74.4% of EOR CO2 comes from gas-treatment
and –processing facilities from production of CO2 rich natural
gas.

Source: EOR Survey, OGJ, Apr 19, 2010

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From: “CO2-EOR Mobility and Conformance Control: 40 Years of CO2 EOR: Why NOT do it?
Research and Pilot Tests” Dennis Denney, JPT January 2013
Chemical Corrosion in Tubing
 Approximately 19.4% of EOR CO2 comes from natural gas
plants. 
 Approximately 4.8% of EOR CO2 comes from coal-synfuel
plants.
 Miscible-CO2 floods typically recovers 10-20% of the OOIP
(after primary and water flooding).
 Typical CO2 injection volumes are 80% of the hydrocarbon
pore volume (HCPV).
Read this paper or SPE
154122 for a good over view
of CO2 flooding

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Miscible Gas Flooding Limitations Miscible Gas Flooding Challenges

 Minimum depth is set by the pressure needed to  Viscous fingering results in poor vertical and horizontal
maintain the generated miscibility. sweep efficiency.
 The required pressure ranges from about 1,200 psi for  Large quantities of expensive products are required.
the LPG process to 3,000-5,000 psi for the High  Solvent may be trapped and not recovered.
Pressure Gas Drive, depending on the oil.
 A steeply dipping formation is very desirable -permits
gravity stabilization of the displacement that normally
has an unfavorable mobility ratio.

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Nitrogen / Flue Gas Flooding Limitations

 Miscibility can only be achieved with light oils at high

pressures; therefore, deep reservoirs are needed.
Nitrogen / Flue Gas Injection
 A steeply dipping reservoir is desired to permit gravity
stabilization of the displacement, which has a very
unfavorable mobility ratio.

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Nitrogen / Flue Gas Flooding Challenges

 Viscous fingering results in poor vertical and horizontal

sweep efficiency. Understand Vaporizing and Condensing Drive
 Flue gas injection can cause corrosion. Mechanisms
 Non hydrocarbon gases must be separated from
saleable gas

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Compositional Processes Compositional Processes

Example Oil: C1 - 31% Injection gas: C1

First Contact Miscible
nC4 - 55%
C10 - 14%
Pressure/Composition Diagram
 LPG slugs - designed to achieve first - contact miscibility 4000 for Mixtures of C1 with C1/nC4/C10 Oil.
with oil at leading edge of slug and with driving gas at Pressure Plait point Cricondenbar (3250 psig)
Psia
trailing edge
Bubble Pts
Dew pts

0
0 100
50
Volume % Methane

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Compositional Processes Condensing - Gas Drive Process

Injection gas is enriched with intermediate

Rule: For 1st Contact Miscible - Pressure of components such as:
C2, C3, C4 etc
Displacement must be above Cricondenbar

Mechanism:
Phase transfer of intermediate MW hydrocarbons from
the injected gas into the oil. Some of the gas
“condenses” into the oil.
The reservoir oil becomes so enriched with these
materials that miscibility results between the injection
gas and the enriched oil.
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Condensing Gas Drive Miscibility Condensing Gas Drive Miscibility

Mixing 1: Injection gas with Reservoir Oil

Mixture M1 splits into L1 and V1 Miscibility developed at the gas compositions with NO
(liquid and Vapor) trailing edge of the injection multiple contact miscibility
Mixing 2: Injection gas with Liquid L1
Mixture M2 splits into L2 and V2
V1 gas
Mixing 3: Injection gas with Liquid L2 V2
V3
Mixture M3 splits into L3 and V3 injection gas gas compositions with
Mixing 4: Injection gas with Liquid L3
G multiple contact miscibility
Mixture M4 splits into L4 and V4
V4
The enriched Liquid Li position moves toward line from reservoir oil tangent
M M4
the Plait Point until a line connecting the M2 3 to 2 phase envelope
M1 Plait Point
injection gas and the enriched liquid lies
only in the single phase region.
O
L4
gas compositions with
L1 L2 L3 first contact miscibility
reservoir oil reservoir oil
o

extension of critical tie line extension of critical tie line

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Slim Tube Apparatus Condensing - Gas Drive Process

As P increases the two phase region

becomes smaller. At some point gas A is to
the right of the limiting tie line and MCM
develops.
95-98% miscible
X X X X X
X
X
Oil Recovery X
% X
X Minimum Miscibility Pressure
(MMP)

Results from slim tube displacements at various pressures

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Slim Tube Recovery of a North Sea Oil at 100o C Vaporizing Gas Drive Process

Injection Gas - Lean Gas, C1, CO2, N2

For vaporizing gas drive - multiple contact miscibility

Mechanism: Intermediate hydrocarbon components in
the oil vaporize to enrich the gas.
As the leading edge of the gas slug becomes sufficiently
enriched, it becomes miscible with the reservoir oil.

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Vaporizing Gas Drive Miscibility Vaporizing Gas Drive Miscibility

Mixing 1: Injection gas with Reservoir Oil injection gas injection gas
Mixture M1 splits into L1 and V1
G G
V1
Miscibility developed at the
(liquid and Vapor)
Mixing 2: Gas Mix V1 with reservoir oil leading edge of the injection
Mixture M2 splits into L2 and V2 M1 o
V2 gas
Mixing 3: Gas Mix V2 with reservoir oil o V3
M2
Mixture M3 splits into L3 and V3
Mixing 4: Gas Mix V3 with reservoir oil M3
o V4
Mixture M4 splits into L4 and V4 V5
Mixing 5: Gas Mix V4 with reservoir oil M4 o
o
Mixture M5 splits into L5 and V5
M5

The enriched Gas Vi position

moves toward the Plait Point L3 L4
L1 L2 For MCM in a Vaporizing Gas Drive
until a line connecting the L5
enriched gas and the The Reservoir Oil composition MUST
reservoir oil lies lie to the right of the limiting tie line
only in the single
phase region.

o reservoir oil

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ECLIPSE Compositional Simulation of

Condensing/Vaporizing Gas Drive
 From Aaron Zick’s and Fred Stalkup’s SPE Papers
Understand Vaporizing/Condensing Drive – SPE15493
Mechanism – SPE16715
– SPE18060

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Reservoir Fluid A Condensing/Vaporizing Gas Drive

12 component characterization:
component mole fraction  Vaporizing gas drive not strictly valid for real reservoir
CO2 0.0699 fluids
C1 0.4146
C2 0.054
 Injection gas does not generally contain middle heavy
C3 0.036 fractions which are present in the oil
C4 0.0245  More realistic process is called Condensing/Vaporizing
C5 0.0173 Gas Drive since contains some of both processes
C6+ 0.0411
C7+ 0.0781
C11+ 0.0716
C15+ 0.0635
C20+ 0.0586
C30+ 0.0708
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Condensing/Vaporizing Gas Drive Condensing/Vaporizing Gas Drive

 Injection gas enriches the oil in the light intermediate  This heavier oil becomes LESS miscible with the
range injection gas
 Also, it strips the heavier intermediate fractions  The bubble point and the dew point curves on the
pseudo ternary diagram initially converge and then
 Thus, reservoir in contact with fresh gas initially
diverge
becomes lighter, but as it contacts more fresh gas it
continues to lose the middle intermediates, it tends to
get heavier

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Condensing/Vaporizing Gas Drive Figure from Aaron Zick’s Paper

injection gas
G

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Condensing/Vaporizing Gas Drive Condensing/Vaporizing Gas Drive

 Fresh gas that moves through will be rich in light
intermediates (oil already saturated with these) and
intermediate heavies – so richer than original gas
 When this gas contacts fresh oil original the acquired
heavier intermediates will condense
 In Real situation miscibility (or near miscibility) achieved
within a transition zone
 Front of transition zone = Condensing Gas Drive (CGD)
 Tail of transition zone = Vaporizing Gas Drive (VGD)

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Condensing/Vaporizing Gas Drive

Transition Zone

CO2 Properties
Injection Gas
VGD CGD
Reservoir Oil

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CO2 Pure CO2 Phase Behavior

 Stable non toxic compound

 Found in gaseous state at standard conditions
 For petroleum applications
– A gas or liquid like supercritical fluid

Tc = 31°C (88 F)
Pc = 75 bar (1085 psi)
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Pure CO2 Phase Behavior Pure CO2 Density

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Pure CO2 Viscosity Viscosity Reduction by CO2

120 °F

Whitson et. al.

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Comments on Contaminated CO2

 Pure CO2 often not available

 Contamination with CH4 increases miscibility pressure CO2 Injection into Oil Fields
 Contamination with H2S lowers miscibility pressure,
but…
– Many problems due to corrosion and health hazards

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Brief History of CO2 EOR Miscible CO2 Flooding - Limitations

 Very low viscosity of CO2 results in poor mobility

control.
 Availability of CO2 –Source?
 Surface Facilities

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Miscible CO2 Flooding - Challenges Sources

 Early breakthrough of CO2 causes problems.  Availability for long period of time
 Corrosion in producing wells.  Must be relatively pure
 The necessity of separating CO2 from saleable  Must be continuous supply
hydrocarbons.  Natural source best!
 Repressuring of CO2 for recycling.  Stack gas from power plants
 A large requirement of CO2 per incremental barrel – Not pure, O2, N2, water
produced  Ammonia Manufacture
– Relatively pure 98%

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Conditions for CO2 Flooding Screening Reservoirs for CO2 Miscible EOR
Oil Properties
– API Gravity: > 25, Ideal 36
 Stock tank oil gravity: 15º to 45º API
– Viscosity : < 10 cp, Ideal < 1.5 cp
 Reservoir temperature: 80 – 300 ºF – Composition: High percentage of C5 and C12
 Reservoir Pressure: 1,000 - > 4,000 psia Reservoir Properties
– Depth: >2500 ft
– Pressure: > 1500 psi (Pres>MMP ; Pinj < Pfrac)
 Sandstone & Carbonate reservoirs – Temperature: Low enough for miscibility
– Gas Cap: Small to none.
 Thickness <10’ to 100s’ – Heterogeneity: Low
– Oil Saturation: >20%, Ideal >55%
– Permeability: > 1 mD
– Formation Type: Carbonate or sandstone
Site
– Large volumes of CO2 are available

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CO2 Field Projects – Miscible and Immiscible Oil Recovery by CO2 Flooding as a Function of
Reservoir Heterogeneity

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Recovery Mechanisms for CO2 Flooding Mechanisms for CO2

 Swelling of crude oil

 Reduction of crude oil viscosity
 Vaporization of intermediate and heavy hydrocarbons
(C5 – C30)
 Multi-contact miscibility
 Interfacial tension lowering (miscibility)
 Internal solution gas drive.
Flow Direction

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Problems with Gas Injection into Oil Reservoirs Reduced Sweep Due to Density and Viscosity
Contrast
 Density differences
 Viscosity differences Ideal Case

Density Contrast

Viscosity Contrast

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Displacement Mechanisms
Reduced Sweep due to Viscosity Contrast
5-Spot Areal Sweep
The Mobility Ratio
Mobility of Displacing Fluid
1. Continuous injection of CO2
M
Mobility of Displaced Fluid
2. Injection of slug of CO2 followed by water
Relative Permeabilty
Mobility 
Viscosity
3. Injection of alternate slugs of CO2
4. Simultaneous injection of CO2 and water

From Lake, Enhanced Oil Recovery

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Comments on Displacement Mechanisms Water Alternation Gas (CO2 )

 Limited field experience to demonstrate the best

method…
 Simulation results of oil recovery by CO2 flooding of oil
left behind after water flooding (sandstone)
– Simultaneous CO2 Water - proved best
– Tapered WAG - second best
– Straight CO2 and slug followed by water - Good
– Simple WAG - OK

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Core Flooding Using CO2 and Methane: Recovery

Injection CO2

Injection Methane

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Steeply Dipping Reservoirs Possible Difficulties

 Asphaltene deposition
 Continuous CO2 will be a gravity stable process
 CO2 solubility in water
 Expanding gas cap pushes oil down
 3-phase behavior at low temperatures
 Gravity stabilizes displacement
– Vapor-Liquid-Liquid
 Increased sweep of CO2
 Good even without miscibility

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Immiscible CO2 Displacement

 Low pressure reservoirs

 Reservoirs with oil less than 30 API EOR Processes – Miscible Gas Injection
 Gravity stable displacement
End of Lecture
 Viscosity reduction of dead stock tank oils
 CO2 solubility in crude increases with decreasing
temperature

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