Earthwork

Earthworks are monuments of various shapes and sizes made simply by piling up earth, starting in the Stone
Age.

Earthwork is the process that involves excavation, transportation, spreading treatment, moisture
conditioning, and compaction that are strongly based on heavy mechanical equipment and repetitive
process. It begins with the soil investigation even before preparing the plan of a building, that means it is
the most important work in construction projects.

Earthwork : Uses

1. Creation of engineering works from soil such as dams, railroads, highways, canals, channels, and
trenches
2. Laying of foundations for buildings and structures which are erected from other materials
3. Leveling of areas under development for building.
4. To reconfigure the topography of a site and to achieve the design levels.
5. In earthwork surveying, surveyor uses field notes and established grade to plot the cross
section. Cross sections and the measured distances along the centerline to compute earthwork
volumes.
6. In cases of excavated material, surveyor must record excavation , loose-rock excavation, and
solid rock excavation data separately. It must be done so that the excavation records will match
the construction work.

Preliminary Site Evaluation

A geotechnical engineer, prior to any detailed planning or design, shall undertake a preliminary
evaluation of the general nature and characteristics of the site.

(a) Drainage

It is important to know if there is any natural drainage paths in the site. If it may be interfered with
or altered by earthworks, appropriate measure should be taken to ensure the sufficient that
adequate alternative drainage facilities are provided.

(b) Slope Stability

Some natural slopes exist because of relatively minor works namely, trenching, excavation for
streets or building platforms , removal of vegetation , or construction of a new building , that can
lead to failure. Signs of instability are observed in order for the earthwork to be successful.

(c) Foundation Stability

A study of the general topography may indicate areas which have previously been built up as a
result of natural ground movement.

Preparation for Earthworks

Before any earthworks, areas of cut and fill should be clearly defined. Sufficient fencing or barriers
should be provided around trees or other features which are to be retained or protected. All site
activities including clearing, storage , cutting and filling must be kept away from the root zone of trees.
Adequate provision shall also be made for erosion control , surface water run-off and siltation. All
stripped materials shall be deposited in temporary stockpiles or permanent dumps, where there is no
possibility of the material being unintentionally covered by. Subsoil drains shall be discharged via flexible
jointed pipes. The stripped ground surface shall be prepared and then inspected by the Soil Engineers
before the fill placement.

Cutting and Filling including Hauling

Cutting is the process of excavating earth material from a work location or borrow pits to achieved the
desired topography.

Filling is the process of moving the excavated material or additional earth material to a work location to
achieve the desired topography.

Hauling is the process of transporting the earth material.

Earthwork equipments

1. Breaker Machine
 Used to drill or break the hard soil
 Combination of hydraulic system and can reduce pollution
2. Excavator
 To excavate and load most types of soil
3. Backhoe
 Use to make clearance and removal of the pieces of rock
4. Dumper truck
 Horizontal transportation of material and waste on and off construction site
5. Roller Compactor
 For compacting soils
6. Bulldozers
 Used to loosen hard soils and shift dirt, and can work tough on terrain.
 For creating pilot roads, as it can clear land from trees and stumps.
7. Shovels
 Can be electric powered or hydraulic powered.
 Used for digging and loading rocks and soil for mineral extraction.

Soil properties , testing and classification

Type A means cohesive soils with an unconfined compressive strength of equal to or greater than 1.5
tons per square (tsf). Cemented soils such as caliche and hardpan are type A. However, soil is not type A
if it is fissured, subject to vibration from heavy traffic , or similar effects and previously disturbed.

Type B means cohesive soil with an unconfined compressive strength greater than 0.5 tsf but less than
1.5 tsf. A dry rock that is not stable and soil that meets type A but is subject to vibration are type B soil.

Type C has compressive strength of less than or equal to 0.5 tsf. Granular soils including gravel and sand,
submerged soil from which water is freely seeping are type C soil.
Cohesive soil – clay, or soil with high clay content, which has cohesive strength. This kind of soil does not
crumble and is plastic when moist.

Granular soil – gravel , sand, or silt with little or no clay content. No cohessive strength. Cannot be
molded when moist and crumbles easily when dry.

Granular cohessionless soil – soil that contains less than 85% sand and gravel but does not contain
enough clay to be molded.

Cemented soil – particles are held together by a chemical agent.

Soil Analysis

 Photograph the sample

 Test for unconfined compressive strength
 Natural plasticity
 Note the physical characteristics
 Plant matter
 Rock fragments
 Hydrocarbon odors
 Sewage odors
 Aquatic matter
 Damp or wet
 Freely seeping water
 Angular gravel
 Cemented
 Test for fissuring
 Dry and sterilize
 Gradation

Type Determination

Type A: all cemented soils

Type B : all granular cohesionless soils

Type C : all granular soils

Excavation is designed for shaping the project, including cut sections.

1. All topsoil shall be stripped from proposed cut, fill and pavement areas.
2. Final cut slopes shall not be steeper than a slope of 3.0 horizontal and 1.0 vertical unless
otherwise designed by a Geotechnical Engineer, but in no case shall be steeper than 2.0
horizontal to 1.0 vertical.
3. Remove spongy or unstable materials, organic matter , or other unsuitable materials that are
exposed and shall be replaced with approved and compacted materials.
4. Can be backfilled with same soils that were removed , provided they meet the requirements.
Excavation Procedure

1. Centerline drawing or gridline drawing. Gridline drawings represents the grids marked in
numbers and alphabets whose measurement are shown for site marking out reference. These
grid lines are so aligned that the line falls on the excavation and footing.
2. Excavation drawings. It represents the length , width and depth of the excavation. Excavation
line is marked in dotted line.
3. The first and primary step involved in the excavation is to find out the extent of soil and clearing
of construction site from unwanted bushes , weeds, and plants.
4. Setting out or ground tracing is the process of laying down the excavation lines and center lines
on the ground before the excavation started.
5. Maximum of 4 and minimum of 2 benchmarks are marked in the corner for the measurement of
level. These benchmarks are marked on permanent structures like plinth, road, or tree.
6. The tracing is marked by lime powder.
7. With the reference of drawing and benchmarks the depth of the excavation is fixed.
8. Excavation is done by manual or machine means depending on the availability.
9. The excavated soil is to either removed out of the site or stocked around the excavation pit.
Minimum of 1m distance must be maintained between the stocking of excess soil and pit, so
that due to rain or other forces the soil should not sweep into the pits.
10. Dressing of excavated pits is to be done as specified in the drawings.
11. If the site is located in loose soil area, proper shoring must be done to hold the loose soil.
12. Construction of dewatering wells and interconnecting trenches are to be provided if necessary.
13. All the sides of the building must be sealed for safety purpose.

Embankment includes all work associated with the building of embankments for roadways, structures,
or other similar department project.

Earthwork Calculations

There are 4 different volume calculation methods that are in practice for earthwork calculation.

1. Cross Section Method

2. Average Method
3. Division of Square method
4. Contour method

Earthworks Design

Cut Slope Design Options

1. Balanced cut and fill

2. Full bench cut
3. Through cut

Fill Slope Design

1. Typical fill
 2. Benched slope fill with layer placement
3. Reinforced fill
4. Through fill

Earthwork Stability

In order for the earthwork to be stable , stabilization measure must be made and this depend on the ff.

 Size of the slide

 Soil type
 Road use
 Alignment constraints
 Cause of failure
1. Simply remove the slide material.
2. Ramp over or align the road around the slide
3. Revegetate the slope and add spot stabilization.
4. Flatten or reconstruct the slope.
5. Raise/lower the road level to buttress the cut/remove the weight from the slide.
6. Relocate the road to a new stable location .
7. Install slope drainage such as deep cut off trenches.
8. Design buttressed , retaining structures or rock anchors.

Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are structures which support and retain earth in order to prevent failure of sediments
in the places where stability of slope cannot be assured by ground condition itself or by other slope
protection works.

Types of Retaining Walls

1. Stone/block masonry retaining wall

2. Gravity type retaining wall
3. Supported/leaning retaining wall
4. Cantilever beam retaining wall
5. Counterfort retaining wall
6. Buttress retaining wall
7. Gabion retaining wall

Application of Retaining Walls

1. Maintain stability of the foot part of a slope after being distressed.

2. Prevent small-scale shallow collapse and toe collapse of large-scale failures.
3. Support slope fattening and berm fills.
4. Function as a foundation for other slope protection works.
5. Catch rock fall matter.
6. Provide road space especially where right of way is limited.
Compaction Theory

Compaction of soil is measured in terms of the dry density achieved. Dry density is the weight of soil
solid per unit of total volume of the soil mass. Compaction depends upon moisture content, type of soil,
and compaction effort.

Compaction is the process by which soil particles are packed more closely together by dynamic loading
such as rolling, tamping , or vibration.

What does compaction do?

1. Increased shear strength

Means that larger loads can be applied to compacted soil since they are typically stronger.
2. Reduced permeability
Inhibit soil’s ability to absorb water , reduces the tendency to expand/shrink and potentially
liquefy.
3. Reduced compressibility
Means that larger load can be applied to compacted soils since they will produce smaller
settlements.