LOADINGTESTSON CLAY"

by
ALLAN BERGFELT

SYNOPSIS
As an introduction to this Paper, a short
comparison is made of different common theories
for calculating failure load for loaded plates on clay.
The properties are given for the clay at the actual
spot where the test loadings described in the Paper
were performed.
The test loadings were made with plates of
different shape and size. The connexion between
the shape of the plates and the failure load is
illustrated, and a comparison made with earlier
theoretical calculations and with results from
different areas.
One of the main reasons for the investigations
has been to try to get a picture of the movements
which actually occur at failure in the clay under a
loaded plate. This has been attained by taking up
undisturbed clay cubes with about 35cm-edge
length, whereupon a large number of lead-shots
have been brought into the interior of the clay
through a few holes only. (The clay ought to have
remained practically undisturbed during this
operation.) Afterwards a plate on the clay surface
was loaded and the movements of the lead-shots
in the clay were observed by a series of X-ray
pictures taken successively during the loading, thus
showing the increasing deformations.
Comme introduction a cette etude, il est fait une
breve comparaison des differentes theories usuelles
servant a calculer la charge de rupture de plaque de
chargement sur argile. Les qualites sont don&es
pour l’argile a l’endroit m&me oh les essais de
charge d&its dans cette etude furent executes.
Les chargements d’essai furent faits avec des
plaques de formes et de dimensions differentes. La
relation entre la forme des plaques et la charge de
rupture est exposee, et une comparaison est faite
avec des calculs theoriques anterieurs et des resultats
obtenus de regions differentes.
Une des raisons principales de ces enqu&tes a
CtC d’obtenir une representation des mouvements
qui se produisent veritablement a la rupture de
l’argile sous l’action d’une plaque chargee. Ce
resultat a 6th obtenu en prelevant des cubes d’argile
intacte d’environ 35 cm d’arete dans lesquels on a
introduit un grand nombre de grains de plomb par
un petit nombre de trous seulement. (L’argile
devrait &tre rest&e pratiquement intacte pendant
cette operation.) Ensuite on chargea une plaque
reposant a la surface de l’argile et on observa les
mouvements des grains de plomb dans l’argile
grace a une serie de radio-photographies prises
successivement pendant le chargement done mon-
trant les deformations croissantes.

INTRODUCTION
Theories for failure load under plates on clay
For estimating the ultimate bearing capacity of soil which is loaded on a limited area,
several theories have been presented. In spite of rather different starting-points most of
them give results in good agreement with each other and those results also correspond to
values obtained by test loadings or failures in actual constructions.
One of the starting-points for calculations of that kind has been the presumption of soil
failure along a slip circle, which was proposed by Hultin (1916) and Petterson (1916)
in connexion with a quay failure in the Port of Gothenburg. Here it was originally cal-
culated with only friction in the slip circle (even for clay), but soon others, amongst them
W. Fellenius (1918), pointed out the suitability of calculating with cohesion and also worked
out theories for combined cohesion and friction in accordance with Coulomb’s equation :
s =c +o.tan+
Fellenius (1927, 1929) gave the failure load for a strip load, and his value was :
q = 5.59 . c
for 4 = 0, and for a slip surface, Fig. 1 (a) and (b).
Fig. 1 (b) assumes that the loaded area does not consist of a stiff plate. Other authors
who have used the method for loaded areas in the shape of a square or rather short rectangle
have given, at least in the beginning, very much higher values for those shapes. They
calculated with circular slip-cylinders ended with gables and the shear in those gables was
* Tests with plates of different shape, and determination of the movements in the interior of the clay
by X-ray photographs.
15
 16 .4. BERGFELT

Fig. 1. Sliding surfaces under distributed load. Top: The

Petterson-Hultin circular sliding cylinder applied to
surface load by W. Fellenius, (a) one-sided, and (6)
symmetrical slips. Bottom: Spherical slip surface by
Bjurstriim, (c) theoretical, and (d) applied to a square
surface load

overestimated. In an article by Bjurstriim (1944) it was shown, however, that for a

spherical slip surface (according to Fig. 1 (c)) the value of the failure load was :
q = 6.40 . c
for 4 = 0. The result was only 15% higher for this shape of load area than for the strip
load. It is true that the calculation is proposed for local slips in a road bank or for a short
straight part between, for instance, transverse banks, but it may of course be used (Fig. 1 (d))
in order to estimate the possible load on a square plate. It can be seen that most of the
load area lies within the loading areas of the spherical slip surfaces, and this gives rise to the
assumption that the load of the square also ought not to be much more than 15% higher
than for the strip load.
Another starting-point was the theory presented by Prandtl (1920). He proceeded from
the Hertz theory about surface contact and used Mohr’s stress circle and Airy’s stress
functions. The solution is shown in Fig, 2, and the assumed mechanism of failure is that the
footing pushes in front of itself a wedge of clay which, in its turn, pushes the adjacent
material sideways and upwards.
Using Prandtl’s results, Rankine’s theories and H. Reissner’s (1924) solution for the
influence of overburden pressure Terzaghi (1943) has given the expression for the failure load
where consideration is taken also of the weight of the soil and where the different influences
are separated in the following form. This separation involves some approximation, but that
ought to be rather unimportant :

q=c.Nc+p,(Nq-l) +y+ -N,+P

Here 9, indicates effective and 9 total overburden pressure at foundation level, where
the difference is that for@,, the submerged density below water is used. y is the density of the
soil beneath the foundation, submerged if below water ; B is the breadth of the foundation,
and NC, Np, and NY are factors depending on 4 of the soil and on the ratio of length L to
breadth l? of the foundation, and according to later theories also on the ratio of depth D to
breadth B.
 LOADING TESTS ON CLAY 17
Terzaghi particularly emphasizes the influence of friction and adhesion between the
bottom of the foundation and the soil beneath. Later examinations have shown that, for
example for 4 = 0, the load is independent of the shear at the bottom for strip loads whilst it
has a certain influence for more concentrated footings, and for a circle with rough base can
increase the bearing capacity up to 10%.
Meyerhof (1951) has developed Prandtl’s solution to include the case of footings at
considerable depth. Here the slip surfaces no longer rise up to ground level but curve back
on to the sides of the foundation. He has calculated the different N values for various

Fig. 2. Sliding surfaces and plastic

zones under a loaded surface
according to Prandtl. Hatched
part, elastic. Remainder plastic,
with stress trajectories drawn to
the left and streamlines for the
plastic deformations to the right

depths and shape of the loaded areas. The valuesN, have afterwards been somewhat corrected
by Lundgren and Mortensen (1953). It should be observed that the N values vary a
little with the shape of the shaft of the foundation and increase if it is not absolutely smooth
or its surface is rough. If its area is less than the footing slab the values ought to be smaller.
On shafts with a rough surface the additional bearing due to the shear stresses on the surface
of the shaft must be added.
It will be observed that in Rankine’s as well as in Prandtl’s solution the slip surface is
composed of straight lines and logarithmic spirals. When 4 = 0 the spirals pass into circles.
In analogy with the computation, which assumes that the whole slip surface has the shape of a
circular cylinder, it has been presumed that the whole slip surface is a cylinder in the shape
of a logarithmic spiral without connecting straight planes. This presumption gives about
the same values as that of a circle.
Other starting-points have been tried, for example by G. Wilson, who for a plate of
considerable depth tried to find the foundation pressure necessary to bring about the merging
of the two plastic zones originating from the edges of the footing.
Another is that which has been extended by R. E. Gibson to include clay after having
been originally proposed for metals by Bishop, Hill, and Mott. Here it is assumed that the
penetration of the footing is equivalent to expanding a spherical hole in the clay with the
same diameter as the footing.
As has been mentioned, the different solutions, not one of which can of course be regarded
as exact, give rather similar results and they correspond also to observed values. Skempton
(1951) has made a combination of this for clay with + = 0, where Np = 1 and N, = 0 in
which case the general form is simplified to :
q=c.Nc+$

The result can be summed up as NC rectang,e= 52 1 for a surface load, in the

shape of a rectangle B x L. The function of depth is also given.’
On the exact values, amongst others, the stress-strain curve of the clay has of course
considerable influence. A more bended curve ought to lower the values by giving conditions
for local failure and also the loading rate influences. In a slow loading the water is pressed
18 .4. BERGFELT

out from the region under the load and the bearing capacity increases but some of this excess
water is also pressed into the surrounding soil and may decrease the strength at that point.
Even for sand it is probable that the loading rate has a certain influence, and possibly a very
slow load increase will increase the N values.
The loading tests performed on clay in situ have hitherto been made usually for only one
or two different shapes of the foundation plate. To check the dependence of the value
N, on the plate’s shape the Author began tests at the Port of Gothenburg during 1954-55
with a number of loading plates of different shapes. Also some model tests were performed
in which the movements in the interior of the clay were determined by X-ray during the
loading of the plates. The intention was to try to find a confirmation of which of the theories
used for determining the failure load was most in agreement with the real deformations.
As the tests may have a general interest they are reported in this Paper.

GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE CLAY IN GOTHENBURG AND OF THE INVESTIGATION

METHODS

Descri$tion of the clay at the testing place

Gothenburg lies near the mouth of the Gota River. The valley had its origin in tectonic
disturbances of the bedrock, which took place during an early geological period. Later it
was formed through the action of the land-ice, and at present is almost filled by an enormous
deposit of post-glacial clay but also in the lower layers by many regions of late-glacial clay.
The clay was deposited in salt water and has probably remained thus until the present time.
In certain parts the clay is so thick that borings have been made more than 100 m below
sea level. The highest hills in the city near the river rise to approximately 80 m.
The clay has been investigated by over 1,000 deep borings with a piston sampler, and
by the taking of many soundings along that portion (about 25 km of the river) which lies
within the Port of Gothenburg.
When selecting the place where the tests were to be made it was, of course, necessary to
do some complete borings. Although the clay is fairly homogeneous there are local
irregularities. Furthermore, for doing the work it was necessary to choose a site where the
dry crust was not too thick. It was also necessary to take the settlement into consideration,
and thought wise to localize the investigation to a place where the test results could be of
value for some future harbour.
To locate the suitable testing place more precisely, a simple portable sampler and a vane
borer (constructed at the Port in 1939) were used. For taking samples at the chosen place
in order to make more exact investigations of the clay, a piston sampler made by Olsson
and improved by Petterson was used. This piston sampler has normally been in use at
the Port since 1933.
In Fig. 3 the characteristic properties for the clay are given. Shear strength is determined
by the cone test. The value “ relative grain size ” shown in the Figure is commonly used in
Sweden ; also at times in the other Scandinavian countries. It is determined by the cone
test and is generally very close to Atterberg’s Liquid Limit. From other investigations on
Gothenburg clay (Bergfelt 1955) it will be seen that the cone test gives strength values, which
at least for this very small depth coincide with those from other standard tests, i.e., the
unconfined compression test, triaxial test, or vane borer test.
Apart from the results shown in Fig. 3 the proportion of humus was also determined.
Here 1% was obtained, and some single root fibres were seen, also a certain drainage around
them. The salt percentage was also determined ; it was between 0.3 and 1.0%. This salt,
in combination with the values of the sensitivity, measured to between 14 and 7, gave
results that were in relatively good agreement with a series of similar values given by
Skempton (1953), even if somewhat higher values of the sensitivity could have been expected.
 LOADING TESTS ON CLAY 19

zlative Volume Volume

.ain size % water o/o Shear T ton/sq.m Sensitivity
weight
60 70 1.4 I.5 1.6

---- B.H.l602
. . . . .. . ... . . . &+,&Jj
- B.H 1604
- BH.1605

Fig. 3. Properties of the clay at testing place

Rosenquist has indicated a somewhat different connexion for Norwegian clays. It might
also be mentioned that the grain-size distribution for Gothenburg clay is normally about
55% < 0.002 mm, about 2-5% > 0.006 mm, the rest being rather evenly distributed within
each of the three groups : 0.002 to - O-006, 0.002 to - 0.02, and 0.002 to - 0.6 mm.

The loading tests on the clay in situ and their results

At the site where the tests were to be performed, the dry crust was excavated in a
square of 7 x 7 ms down to a depth of 80 cm, so that the relatively homogeneous clay
shown in Fig. 3 was laid bare. Beyond the measured values drawn there it can be mentioned
that the temperature in the air was about 0” C and varied in the clay from about $2” at
the test surface to -j- 6” at 0.5-m depth and then increased slowly to about 7.5” at 2-m depth.
The shape of the different loaded plates and their relative positions are shown in Fig. 4.
Immediately before a plate was laid on the soil, the last centimetre of clay was taken away
so that one could be absolutely certain that the surface to be test-loaded would remain
20 A. BERGFELT

IW E
I
I
I
@
0 0
7 8 q pJ

:_____________L_____________:

No. Size cm Date Time No. Size cm Date Time

1 30 x 30 29.12.54 11.30-~12 12 30 x60e5.0 3.1.55 12.10-12.45

2 30 x 60 do. 13.05-13.30 13 30 x 60 do. 13.30-14.20
3 30 x 30 do. 14.05 14 30 x 60 e 3.7 do. 15.35-16.10
: 3030x 30 ::: 15.50
14.50 E sq.-circ.
21 x 42 4.1.55
do. 10.55-l 1.20
12.25-12.0s
4
6 ti 30 30.12.54 11.15-11.30 17 15 x 60 do. 13.30-13.55
7 30 x 60 do. 12.20-12.40 18 circ./sq. do. 15.05-15.30
8 30 x60e5.0 do. 13.10-13.25 19 30 x 60e 1.2 do. 16.00-16.30
9 sq.-circ. do. 14.15 20 30 x 30 5.1.55 10.20-10.55
IO sq.-circ. do. 15.00 21 30 x 120 do. 11 .oo-12.05
I1 circ./sq. do. 16.15

Figuresprellxedby e are eccentricities

in cm.
Pig. 4. The testing pit. Section with the testing wedge. Plan with
the places for the test of the different plates marked out. Time
and datum
 LOADING TESTS ON CLAY 21
undisturbed. The load was brought on with the aid of a lever, shown in Fig. 4, and at
about & of the calculated failure load per minute. This speed, which is very fast for loadings
on clay, was chosen as the tests were intended chiefly for a comparison between a relatively
large number of plates under various loading conditions. The absolute values were thus not
the most important item. The speed quoted is also approximately that used in the
laboratory at the Port of Gothenburg for routine punch tests. Generally it was possible to
hold this speed at 50°h-70% of the failure load without much trouble with the time
deformations. For bigger loads, the change in deformation was, of course, considerable;
even 1 minute after the load had been put on the deformation had by no means concluded.
Unaltered load was for that reason left on until it was seen by readings every + minute that
the settlement had ceased. Fig. 5 shows a typical settlement curve. Apart from load
and settIement, time is also shown. As soon as the time between two loading steps is more
than the normal 1 minute there is from the actual point a time-settlement curve drawn from
the constant load (see Fig. 5), and the settlement is marked for every 4 minute.

LOAD KILOGRAMMES
10 300 400 500 600 700 t

lime settler
for constant

Fig. 5. Load-settlement curve, typical for the tests. Time-

settlement curves for the constant loads of the different
loading steps. Failure load definitions
4*
ii! A. BERGFELT

A difficulty of this loading method is how to state what ought to be defined as failure
load. It would be nearer perhaps to assign the maximum reached load. This is, however,
very IargeIy dependent on loading speed, and it ought also to be necessary to state a certain
allowable deformation. The settlement could of course be fixed at an agreed size. In that
case one could get from surface groundings to deep footings.
’ Another alternative would be to assign the load at a determined deformation-either a
certain percentage of the plate breadth or a fixed measure for different plates. In all
instances there must be a certain dependence on time, and also one must ensure whether or
not the deformations are to be in proportion to the plate breadth.
I%rally, the comparative failure load was in this case chosen as the limit load to which
the plate could be subjected during several minutes without the settlement speed being either
accelerated or retarded. Of course there is some time dependence here also which finds
expression in the degree to which the observation time should depend on the plate dimensions.
This uncertainty seems to have been of rather small significance in the performed tests, as
the failure generally showed itself rather quickly, so that the different definitions ought to
have given results which agreed. In Table 1 a comparative failure load is given for some of
the above-mentioned definitions and it will be seen that the differences are not very great.
The plates (see Fig. 4) have been chosen so that it is possible to see both the dependence
on the shape of the plates and on the scale. In addition, special plates have been formed
with regard to a separate comparison between square and circular plates. One of the plates
has been shaped as a combination of a square and a circle, and this was done in order to
facilitate the generation of a one-sided circular-slide surface, such as has been normalIy
observed in several slope failures at Gothenburg. Such a surface was, however, not observed,
but this plate also settled down vertically as the other centrally loaded plates. A series
of plates were also eccentrically loaded.
Fig. 6 shows a collection of the settlement curves for the square plates, and in Fig. 7 the
failure loads are given for the plates of different shape as function of the length-breadth ratio
(or of Area/B2 in order to include the circle also). It can be seen that the agreement compares
favourably with Meyerhof’s (1951) and Skempton’s (1951) curve, in spite of the preliminary
character of the tests reported here. A collation of earlier test results is given by Skempton
(1953) and also in this series the values now available agree very well. The dependence of the
scale seems to be insignificant. With regard to the low value for plate 21 (Fig. 4) it should
be noted that this large plate was last to be loaded and the position then available was near
a little drainage ditch, which perhaps contributed to the small failure load.
A rather unexpected deviation, however, was the high value of the circular plates.
Whether this occurred accidentally, or whether the real value-compared with earlier
theories-is higher than for the square, cannot yet be finally assessed. The latter seems
more probable, since the general tendency is for failure load to increase as the load on the
area becomes more concentrated.
The results for the eccentrically loaded plates are shown in Fig. 8, and it is clear that the
top of the theoretically computed straight-line stress distribution cannot be determined.
The plate loading was considerably higher than that corresponding to this peak value. This
agrees very closely with Meyerhof’s (1953) earlier investigations, in which he takes the stress
pIL as constant at failure.
B-2e
The deformation of the clay surface at the side of the plate was measured. Generally
the surface settled a little in connexion with the early settlement of the plate, but at
increased load it began to rise, and at failure load had risen considerably around the plate.
On the eccentrically loaded plates the rise was most pronounced near the least-loaded edge.
The deformations were of course measured, and Fig. 9 shows tests before and after failure.
 LOADING TESTS ON CLAY 23
Table 1

Shape of plate. Area

Load at failure for various
definitions, kg :
T Failure stress
NO. Dimensions in sq. cm : for definition
cm: (1) (2) (3) (4) (4)
tons/i<. m :
-
5 4 30 707 630 580 500 580
6 4 30 707 620 610 580 600
11 circ./sq. 803 700 630 620 7.85
18 circ./sq. 803 - 560 550 550 6.9

30 x 30 900 780 680 620 720

30 x 30 900 720 720 600 ;:;
30 x 30 900 720 640 600 650 7.25
30 x 30 900 670 580 680 7.6
16 21 x42 900 690 640 620 670 7.5
2 30 x 60 1,800 1,380 1,290 1,300 -
30 x 60 1,800 1,370 1,310 1,280 ;:;
1; 30 x 60 1,800 1,200 1,250 1,250 7.0
15 x 60 900 640 580 650 7.2
30 x 120 3,600 2,200 2,150 2,200 6.1

Eccentric load on 30 x 60

:: e 3.75
1.25 All.25 1,200 1,150 1,200
All.75 1,;o 950 1,000 1,000 ;:;
8 e 5.0 Al2 860 800 860 9.6
12 e 5.0 Al2 930 860 860 910 10.1

Special shape : 30 cm square-circle

15 with cyl. 193 160 160 150 160 8.3
10 no cyl. 193 - 150 130 140
9 no cyl. 193 - 140 120 140 7’:;
- - -
(1) Maximum load during test.
(2) Load at 20 mm settlement.
(3) Load giving a settlement rate of 2 mm during the second minute after latest loadstep.
lvm neither retardation nor acceleration of settlement rate.
i”d tZZ&~n!for “ Shape of the plate,” ” circ./sq. ” means a combination of a half circle and a half
square, “ e ” means the eccentricity of the load on the 30 x 60 plates and “ Special shape ” is a square
from which is taken the inscribed circle. For that special shape the test was done both with and without
a steel cylinder inserted into the clay.

For the scrupulous elaboration of the test results it is, of course, necessary to take account
of the previous history of the clay from the point of view of loading and water content. This
is not, however, vital only for clay, but is also very important for materials such as concrete,
although it is not generally taken’.into account for ordinary calculations.
It is intended to resume tests in the summer, when the weather is more suitable for field
tests. More exacting tests will then be undertaken.

Tests fw determining the movements in the interior of the clay under a loaded plate by means
of X-ray pictures.
A method of measuring the deformations in the interior of a practically undisturbed clay
under an increasing load on a plate at the clay surface has-been experimented with.
24 A. BERGFELT

LOAD KILOGRAMMES

Fig. 6. Arrangement of the load-settlement curves for the

square plates 30 x 30 sq. cm of the tests

Cubes of undisturbed clay with a 35-cm edge were taken out of the soil and enclosed in
wooden boxes, the interiors of which were well treated with paraffin wax. Through holes in
the box walls stabbed lead-shots were brought into the clay with the aid of special needles
(see Fig. 10). From the end view in Fig. 11 it can be seen that this could cause but little
disturbance in the clay, whilst it can also be seen from the cross-section in the same Figure
that in spite of the few holes a large number of lead-shots has been brought in sufficiently
to cover the cross-section very well. One can take it that these well-embedded lead-shots
will follow exactly the deformations of the clay at loading.
The cubes were placed in front of a very strong X-ray apparatus (Figs 11, 12) and the
load was brought on a plate on the clay surface with a lever similar to that used in field
tests but on a smaller scale, so that the loading plates were only about 7 x 7 sq. cm and
7 x 21 sq. cm. X-ray pictures were taken successively as the load increased so that it was
possible to follow the movements of the lead-shots.
At a preliminary trial, cubes with a 17-cm edge were used and the irradiation there was
so satisfactory that it was judged possible to go up to 35-cm cubes in order to secure the
best possible results without too refined measuring methods.
 LOADING TESTS ON CLSY 25

Fig. 7. Failure load for plates of

different shape. The curve of
Meyerhof and Skempton is
shown

Cl 2:1 3:1 4:l c:e

5
Fig. 8. Failure load for various
eccentricity. Peak value of
the pressure and mean value 4
according to Meyerhof are

1
marked
or
3
l-8-i
2 P-q.B’.L,
where B’- B-2e
1 and q- c,Nc
26 A.BERGFELT

With the 35-cm cubes, however, the available X-ray apparatus had to be used to the
utmost. As an exposure five periods of 4.5 seconds each were used, the tension was 125 kV
and the current about 60 mA, i.e. 275 mAs in each period. In order that the X-ray lamp
should not be over-heated an interruption of 2 minutes was made between each of the periods.
To get better sharpness in the pictures a filter was used and this took 10 kV, which is to
be drawn from the 125 kV. Trials were also made at periods of 3.5 seconds and even this
gave usable but rather thin pictures.
The placing of the X-ray lamp a little below the clay surface (see Fig. 11) meant that
the upper rays had very different distances to go through the clay. Thus the lead-shots
near the surface were difficult to distinguish, although speciaI weakening baths were naturally
used when developing the corresponding portions of the picture. In the row nearest to the
surface there were thus only a few lead-shots to be recognized. In order to overcome this
disadvantage trials were made with the X-ray lamp level with the clay surface. Probably
on account of scattered rays and reflexions on the surface the result was even worse. In
further trials it ought to be possible to conquer this disadvantage by arranging suitable filters
for the scattered rays.

350
t
1 682.5 202,5

Fig. 11. Arrangement at time of X-raying

From direct measurements at the loadings and later study of the X-ray pictures the following
can be stated : The taking up of the clay cubes, the boring-in of lead-shots and the test
performance on limited cubes has caused relatively little influence on the failure load, which
at the loadings in connexion with the X-ray was only 100/o-150/o less than at the field tests.
The 15% refers to the long plate, and a crack which occurred in the clay cube probably con-
tributed to the lower value. The size of the plates and the loading speed were also considerably
less than in the field tests. In this connexion it can also be mentioned that near the comers
of the cubes, where the clay ought to have been least disturbed by the loading test, it was later
re-examined and the altered strength found to be very unimportant compared with the
earlier examination ; in spite of that the sensitivity was as high as 50/o-100/o. It appeared
that the clay strength was somewhat higher, about lo%, than the average of the field tests,
possibly dependent on the fact that a somewhat different clay was found in the adjacent
pit for the clay cubes.
The X-ray sketches (see Figs 13 and 14) show that the movements in the clay were similar
to what could be expected, according to Boussinesq, with movements in all directions from
the load centre. It should be noted, however, how dominating is the mainly vertical move-
ment directly under the plate and that it reaches a great depth (over all for the long plate).
 LOAD NG TESTS ON CLAY 27

i -----__
f
____-------~ D 0 3 _- . l ,
l .P&&J
‘ac______L’__--__,’

I
\ . u
l fl . ’ .______ I
I

t
k, I l , ’ D

. . . 0
0
-4 ‘. . .
.
.
\ ,‘* -

. . . . .
0.. . . . .
! t ,\ \.. l

----------------------------- _______ -___-- _____-__---_______________i____i.~~_.

Fig.13. The X-ray pictures from the test with square plate drawn together

The deformations of the clay surface at the side of the plate are, on the other hand,
unexpectedly small. The movements resemble those which were given by Hvorslev (1949)
for movements under a soil sampler.
The reason for these preliminary tests was mainly for working out the testing methods
and not the exact measuring of the displacements. A very rough qualitative comparison
between observed and theoretical displacement has, however, also been done.
Clay is by no means an ideal elastic material ; its deformations are very strongly influenced
by time, any value equivalent to Poisson’s coefficient for lateral deformation being hardly
28 A. BERGFELT

possible to use, and it is not constant. Again the deformations were not small compared with
the dimensions of the loaded area. If, in spite of these and other restrictions, equations from
the theory of elasticity were used in computation, the following estimate might be made.
The vertical displacement in an elastic medium below the centre of a rectangular area
loaded with evenly distributed load was computed by Steinbrenner (1934) by integration of
Boussinesq’s equations. His results can be formulated :

WC= & . ((1 - “2) .fr (B.L.2) + (1 - V - 2V2) .fs (B.L.2))

where B and L are the dimensions of the plate, and z the thickness of the elastic layer under it.

c. 0 0 Q_----- ______

.
r .

Fig. 14. The X-ray pictures from the test with rectangular plate
 LOADING TESTS ON CLAY 29
For the tests a rigid plate was used. The displacement under the centre should
correspond to a mean value, which should be obtained under an evenly distributed load
without any distributing plate. If this mean value were taken as 3/4 of the maximum value,
according to Steinbrenner, and if the value v = 0.5 were chosen for Poisson’s constant, the
formula for a square plate can be written :
3 P
w,, m ; . EB .0*75 . fi (B.z)

From this the settlement of the plate in the test loading gives E = 10 kg/cm2 at load starting,
down to E = 1 kg/cm2 at the end of the loading, some time before total failure.
For the relatively large deformation under early failure, obtained in the test, a mean
value E = 1.2 kg/cm2 seems probable. In Fig. 15 (a) the Steinbrenner curve for w, at various

Displacement mm

Fig. 15. (u) Vertical displacement in the clay under the centre of a square plate, measured at
the test and compared with a curve, according to Boussinesq, as shown in (b)

depths is compared with the largest displacements at the same depths measured in the X-ray
test with the square plate of Fig. 13. It can be seen that the agreement is fairly good.
Near the edges of the plate it is obvious that the behaviour of the clay diverges even
more from the presumptions of the elasticity theory than is pointed out above.
So as to make a comparison between test and theory for the whole clay space under the
plate it ought, therefore, to be possible to do nothing more than a very rough calcululation
with simplified presumptions for this preliminary test. The Author takes Boussinesq’s
fundamental case of only one point load on a half-infinite, elastic medium.
The displacements can be taken from some modern textbook (Odqvist 1948) and
formulated for example as :
1+v P 1-2v
26 = - . j=~ _sin + cos f# -
2rr I + cos $
1+v P
W= - . -- . {co@ c#+ 2 - 2 v}
23r Er
30 A. BERGFELT

These displacements are illustrated in Fig. 15 (b) for v = 05. Possibly some resemblance to
Fig. 13 is thought to be seen for the more deep layers, but for the parts near the surface and
the edges of the plate the agreement is not at all good. Instead of a settlement practically
following the plate, one sees here deformations which are very small, and that the plate has
cut straight down through the clay. It is possible to get a little better agreement by choosing
some of those modifications of Boussinesq’s formula, which give a more concentrated
influence just under the load. Although it seems more natural to visualize the real dis-
placement as a combination of a pushing down, according to Fig. 15 (b), and a pushing up at
the sides of the plate, according to Prandtl (1920) (see Fig. 2).
For a more detailed numerical computation of the test results it will be seen that the
coefficient of permeability k generally lies between 0.1 and 05 x 10-s cmjsec for Gothenburg
clay. The greater depth of the movements points to the fact that the disturbance from the
firm resistance at the bottom of the cube must be considerable ; it ought to be expressed
as a horizontal pressure. In tests which the Port made in another connexion, the range of
side pressure at vertical loading was determined as between 0.8 - 0.5 by the Geotechnical
Institute of Copenhagen. The horizontal force caused a vertical crack in the clay cube.
This could be seen at the surface and was obvious for the long plate from the X-ray pictures;
here the horizontal movements for all lead-shots to the left of the plate were relatively
large, and it was rather similar for all points for the second interval. The clay had evidently
not completely filled the wooden box in the first place.
Any tendency to develop a slip surface, apart from the vertical shear crack round the
periphery of the plate, was not observed, although the load was applied until the settlement
attained 10% of the plate breadth. The pushing up of walls at the side of the plate, which
was observed during the field tests, had however just begun to develop at the end of the
model tests. It is thus possible that for a higher load the clay might have begun to show
a new type of deformation. The cracks in the clay surface were similar for field and
model tests.

CONCLUSION

Field tests with the loading of plates of different shapes have been carried out, and the
results agreed well with those of Meyerhof (1953) and Skempton (1951) with regard to the
connexion between shape of plate and failure load. It is, however, possible that some increase
might be expected for circular plates.
The deformations in the interior of the clay have been observed by X-ray during the
performance of loading tests. The deformations were greatest in a deep wedge under the
plate, but no slip surfaces were noticed in this case, even at so large a settlement as
10% of the plate breadth. This does not exclude the possibility of such surfaces being
formed at an increased deformation-they might perhaps have been apparent if the test
measurements had been more exact. Probably a tendency to increased horizontal move-
ment was noticed at a depth under the clay surface equal to the breadth of the plate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the X-ray experiments the chief rontgenologist, Dr Med. I. Wickbom, and his assistant,
Dr J. Johnsson, kindly gave their services and also made the X-ray pictures.
At the Port Office of Gothenburg the Chief Engineer, B. Hultman, also showed great
interest in the Author’s investigations, and allowed the engineering firm at the Port to
manufacture certain apparatus and also placed the services of certain workers at his disposal.
S. Hultgren, engineer at the Geotechnical Laboratory of the design office, assisted the
Author and gave up much of his spare time to help him carry through the experiments.
 LOADING TESTS ON CLAY 31
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