Greenhouse Structural Design Manual

National Greenhouse Manufacturers
Association
Structural Design Manual
January, 2004
PLEASE VISIT US ON THE WEB:
www.ngma.com
communications@ngma.com
4305 North Sixth Street, Suite A
Harrisburg, PA 17110
800-792-NGMA (6462)
717-238-4530 FAX 717-238-9985

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... 1-1

1.0 General................................................................................................................ 1-1
Cladding Design ................................................................................................ 1-1
1.1 Greenhouses Defined ......................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Intent ................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.3 Limitations.......................................................................................................... 1-2
1.4 How to use this manual...................................................................................... 1-2
Table 1.1 - Greenhouse Design Comparison ............................................ 1-3
1.5 Methodology....................................................................................................... 1-4
Chapter 2 - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS...................................................................... 2-1

2.0 General................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.0.1 Scope ................................................................................................ 2-1
2.0.2 Definitions........................................................................................ 2-1
2.0.3 Limitations ....................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 Basic Requirements............................................................................................ 2-1

2.1.1 Design............................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Serviceability ................................................................................... 2-2
2.1.3 Analysis............................................................................................ 2-2
2.2 Administrative Issues ......................................................................................... 2-2

2.2.1 Design Requirements........................................................................ 2-2
2.2.2 Required Information on Plans ........................................................ 2-3
2.2.3 Additions and alterations................................................................. 2-4
2.2.4 Load Testing .................................................................................... 2-4
2.3 Design Methodology.......................................................................................... 2-4
NGMA Structural Design Manual i

2.4 Loads................................................................................................................... 2-5
2.4.1 General ............................................................................................. 2-5
2.4.2 Dead loads ........................................................................................ 2-5
2.4.3 Live loads ......................................................................................... 2-5
2.4.4 Collateral Loads ............................................................................... 2-5
2.4.5 Plant Loads....................................................................................... 2-5
2.5 Snow ................................................................................................................... 2-5

2.5.1 General ............................................................................................. 2-5
2.5.2 Definitions........................................................................................ 2-6
2.5.3 Design Procedure............................................................................. 2-6
2.5.4 Calculation of Snow Loads ............................................................. 2-6
Table 2.1 - Thermal Factor, Ct................................................................... 2-8
Table 2.2 - Classification of Greenhouses
for Snow Load Importance Factors ........................................ 2-8
Table 2.3 - Common Warm-roof Slope Factors ....................................... 2-9
Table 2.4 - Common Roof Slope Factors Cs
for Just Above Freezing Greenhouse ...................................... 2-9
Table 2.5 - Common Unheated Roof Slope Factors ............................... 2-10
2.6 Wind.................................................................................................................. 2-12

2.6.1 General ........................................................................................... 2-12
2.6.1.1 Simplified Provisions ................................................................. 2-12
2.6.2 Definitions...................................................................................... 2-13
2.6.3 Design Procedure........................................................................... 2-13
2.6.4 Calculation of Wind Loads............................................................ 2-13
Table 2.6 - Classification of Greenhouses
for Wind Load Importance Factors....................................... 2-14
2.6.5 Wind and Seismic Detailing.......................................................... 2-15
2.7 Seismic Loads................................................................................................... 2-16
NGMA Structural Design Manual ii

2.8 Other Loads ...................................................................................................... 2-17
2.8.1 Flood and hydrostatic .................................................................... 2-17
2.8.2 Other Loads.................................................................................... 2-17
Chapter 3 - STRUCTURAL DESIGN............................................................................... 3-1

3.0 General................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.0.1 Design Overview ............................................................................. 3-1
3.0.2 Structural Design ............................................................................. 3-1
3.0.3 Bracing ............................................................................................. 3-2
3.0.4 Connection Materials....................................................................... 3-3
3.0.5 Technical Definitions and Explanations ......................................... 3-3
3.1. Roof Support Systems....................................................................................... 3-4

3.1.1 Primary Systems .................................................................................... 3-4
3.1.1.1 Trusses...................................................................................... 3-5
3.1.1.2 Parallel Chord Trusses ............................................................. 3-9
3.1.1.3 Arches..................................................................................... 3-10
3.1.1.4 Rigid Frame............................................................................ 3-12
3.1.2 Secondary Systems .............................................................................. 3-13

3.1.2.1 Gutters/ Primary and Secondary (Eave Members) ............... 3-13
3.1.2.2 Ridge....................................................................................... 3-14
3.1.2.3 Purlins..................................................................................... 3-15
3.1.2.4 Roof Glazing Bars.................................................................. 3-15
3.2. Wall Elements and Columns........................................................................... 3-16

3.2.1 General ................................................................................................. 3-16
3.2.2 Columns................................................................................................ 3-17
3.2.3 End Walls ............................................................................................. 3-18
3.2.4 Girts ...................................................................................................... 3-18
NGMA Structural Design Manual iii

3.3. Lateral Load Resisting System ........................................................................ 3-19
3.3.1 Knee Braces ......................................................................................... 3-19
3.3.2 Diagonal Bracing ................................................................................. 3-20
3.4. Foundations ..................................................................................................... 3-21

3.4.1 Flagpole Footings (Designs Employing Lateral Bearing).................. 3-21
3.4.2 Spread Footings.................................................................................... 3-22
3.4.3 Continuous Footings ............................................................................ 3-22
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Design Example 1 .........................................................................................Pages 1-7
Single building – snow & wind design
Design Example 2 ........................................................................................Pages 1-13
Gutter connected greenhouse – snow, wind & seismic design
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NGMA Structural Design Manual iv

Chapter 1 - Introduction
1.0 General
This National Greenhouse Manufacturers Association (NGMA) Structural Design Manual is
intended to provide a consistent set of criteria and design approaches for member manufacturers
to use for design of production and commercial greenhouse structures.
Designs meeting this manual will comply with the International Building Code’s (IBC) structural
design criteria and its referenced standards such as ASCE 7.
Cladding Design
Cladding design is considered non-structural and not included in this manual. Certain elements
of greenhouse structures contain systems not specifically considered in building codes. An
example would be some types of cladding materials, which do lend themselves to a rational
analysis using code specified loads.
Further, greenhouse enclosure elements may be of materials not included in building code
structural provisions or elements that are not installed as anticipated by the building code. Non-
included materials are the acrylics, polycarbonate, and polyethylene enclosure materials.
Glazing in buildings is designed in accordance with the building code to be supported on four
sides while in greenhouse construction it is typically supported on two sides. Acrylic,
polycarbonate, and polyethylene design is in accordance with the manufacturer provided
information and test information, called manufacturer’s information in this handbook. Glazing
requires a different set of tables currently based on engineering judgement and soon to become
an industry standard.
1.1 Greenhouses Defined

This manual covers two types of greenhouse structures. These are defined as:
• GREENHOUSE, PRODUCTION - A building not normally occupied. (It is considered the
same as an agricultural building in the IBC.) A greenhouse that is occupie d for growing
plants on a production or research basis, without public access. Incidental use such as tending
or moving products and other incidental use is considered production activities and does not
deem the building a commercial greenhouse.
• GREENHOUSE, COMMERCIAL - Any other greenhouse structure used for the display
and sale of horticultural products and supplies. For the purposes of this manual all greenhouse
structures other than production are considered commercial greenhouses.
1.2 Intent
Greenhouse structures are built in many variations to meet grower needs and site specific
conditions. This applies to all components of the basic structural system. Cladding is not included
NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 1 - 1

in this manual. Because of the nature of the structures a number of design approaches have
evolved. Some of these approaches are consistent with the building code, others may be ad hoc;
and some based on the specific product manufacturer’s tests and published data. In some cases
there may be specific design safety issues. Some ma y not meet building codes. In order to
establish a code complying baseline for greenhouse design, this Structural Design Manual has
been developed.
The manual summarizes design provisions of the International Building Code 2000 Edition
applicable to greenhouse structures. Building code provisions that are not applicable, such as
provisions for multi-story structures, are omitted. Special provisions for agricultural structures,
often contained in footnotes in building codes are included herein.
Each type of common greenhouse structural system is covered. The design of these different
systems must be based on a rational analysis. Since most are of light metal construction the
design is to AISI or other standards adopted by reference in the building code. The exact
implementation of the standards may use differing analysis techniques based on the judgement of
the engineer. In some cases physical testing may be required. Where engineering judgement is
noted, available manufacturer’s literature or other information is presented. Where there is an
industry consensus of the approach, it is included. Where judgement is necessary available
guidance is included.
1.3 Limitations
This manual is based on the International Building Code (IBC) and its adopted reference
standards, including ASCE 7. ASCE 7 is updated on a three year cycle. The standard is being
reformatted and equation and section numbers will change.
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Building Code – NFPA 5000 is new. It
references ASCE 7 for loads. The NFPA code provisions for structural may be different for some
sections of ASCE 7.
Specific codes in a state or jurisdiction may vary and contain other limitations not included
herein. Users should check locally for specific local code require ments.
This manual covers the structural design only. Not all cases or issues can be included since
designs will vary. Further, other design requirements are not included, notably fire safety.
Building codes may limit the size and percentage of plastic ma terials on roofs depending on the
use. Designers must consider these requirements.
Other limitations not covered include fabrication and erection of the structure and cladding
elements, specifications, energy conservation requirements and similar attribute s.
1.4 How to use this manual

This manual guides the designer through the building code provisions for production and
commercial greenhouse structures. Included are the provisions for roof live load, snow load, wind
loads as well as seismic and collatera l loads as contained in the building code or reference
standards.

The manual then goes on to detail the structural design methods for various roof framing systems,
the support columns and the lateral bracing systems. For each type of structure and element the
design approach and assumptions are summarized. References are made to applicable building
code and consensus standards and provisions, industry standards, manufacturer’s literature and
finally engineering judgement issues.
The table below shows some of the differences in IBC requirements for production and
commercial greenhouses.
Table 1.1 - Greenhouse Design Comparison

PRODUCTION GREENHOUSE COMMERCIAL
GREENHOUSE*
ASCE 7 Category I ASCE 7 Category II
Structural material selection (IBC Category IV) (IBC Category I)
Cladding selection No limitations Overhead glass
Overhead plastic
Flame-resistant membranes
Loads Is = 0.80 Is = 1.0
Iw = 0.87 (Non-Hurricane Prone Iw = 1.00

Regions)
Iw = 0.77 (Hurricane Prone Regions) Earthquake loads
Collateral loads Collateral loads
Structural design Larger deflections may be allowed More control of deflection
(per IBC Table 1604.3)
Cladding design No limitations Fire safety

* Note: Refer to the Code for structures that can be classified in other Categories due to the number of
occupants or use.

1.5 Methodology
Production versus Commercial Greenhouses
The first question that must be addressed before starting a greenhouse design is whether it will be
a production greenhouse or a commercial greenhouse (retail, etc.). The distinction between a
production greenhouse and other commercial greenhouses may lead to differences in major
design parameters such as building area. In addition, it leads to differences that may be significant
in four areas:
• Selection of cladding materials (to determine the dead loads)
• Loads
• Structural design
• Structural members supporting cladding is are to be designed.
The IBC assigns importance factors (I) as a function of building use. Agricultural buildings,
including production greenhouses, are assigned a lower importance factor than other buildings,
and this leads directly to a reduction in snow loads (I s = 0.8) and wind loads (I w = 0.87 or 0.77 for
hurricane regions) on both the structural system and the cladding.
The IBC exempts agricultural buildings, including production greenhouses, from seismic design
requirements. In other greenhouses earthquake loads imposed on the structure by nonstructural
components (mechanical equipment, irrigation equipment, etc.) may need to be considered an d
could be the critical load in some cases. In production greenhouses the code allows these loads to
be ignored.
The IBC requires that structures be designed to support collateral loads, (i.e. growing racks,
irrigation equipment, etc.).

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Chapter 2 - Design Considerations
2.0 General
2.0.1 Scope
Greenhouse structures designed per this manual shall meet the requirements of the International
Building Code (IBC), referred also as the code. The IBC adopts portions of ASCE 7 by
reference, which must be included as design loads.
This manual provides commentary on the load requirements of the IBC and ASCE 7 as it applies
to greenhouses, load and design requirements for the design of greenhouse structures, their
components and enclosure elements (cladding). The loads specified herein are based on the
ASCE 7. The loads are to be used in conjunction with the stress criteria of the International
Building Code and referenced standards. Where no standards are referenced in the building
code, recognized manufacturer’s literature may be used with regard to code compliance.
2.0.2 Definitions
• Loads:
Dead and Live Loads - defined by the building code
Environmental Loads - defined by the building code
Collateral Loads - weight of support equipment used fo r the operation or
maintenance of plant material, including water
Plant Live Load - weight of supported or suspended plant material
• Importance Factors: I w (wind), Is (snow), and Ip (seismic) - a factor that accounts for the
degree of hazard to human life a nd damage to property
2.0.3 Limitations
The scope of this manual is intended for greenhouse structures. The design of special structures
must refer to the code for conditions that are applicable.
2.1 Basic Requirements
2.1.1 Design
Greenhouse structures and all parts thereof shall be designed and constructed to safely support all
loads specified in this manual and the building code. These loads include the dead and live,
collateral loads, environmental loads and equipment loads specified by the purchas er.

2.1.2 Serviceability
Greenhouse structures and their components shall have adequate stiffness to limit vertical and
transverse deflections, vibrations or any other deformation that may adversely affect their
serviceability.
Dead and live load deflection shall not exceed the deflection limits specified in the building code.
Table 1604.3 of the IBC gives vertical deflection limits as l/120. While there are drift limits in
the code for seismic design (IBC, Section 1617.3), lateral displacements are not regulated by the
code for wind.
However, even when wind loads govern the design of a building, the lateral -force-resisting
systems shall meet seismic detailing requirements and limitations prescribed in the code. See
Section 2.6.5 of this Manual.
Cladding attachment must be designed to accept differential movement under loads.
2.1.3 Analysis
The design of greenhouse structures, the load effect on the individual components and
connections shall be by rational engineering analysis methods. Rational engineering analysis is a
computational analysis, either by hand or computer, that use s accepted load distribution and
determination methods. Unusual structural and construction methods shall be based on
engineering analysis or physical testing by an app roved laboratory.
Greenhouse structures shall be analyzed for all building code required load conditions. Elements
and components shall be designed for load combinations specified in the building code or
referenced standards.
2.2 Administrative Issues
2.2.1 Design Requirements

Prior to design the manufacturer should obtain local load information, i.e. wind, snow, etc.
Information should include:
Code of jurisdiction
Determination of loads:
• Roof Live Load
• Wind speed (3-second gust wind speeds)
• Snow load (ground snow load)
• Earthquake zone or design spectra
Soil type and allowable pressure

2.2.2 Required Information on Plans
Certain information must be shown on the construction drawings. The following information
shown below is required even if it is not a controlling design load. Information to be provided on
the plans includes:
• Dead Loads
• Roof Live Loads
• Collateral Loads (irrigation equipment, including water)
• Plant loads
• Snow Loads
Ground Snow Load pg
Flat-roof snow load, pf
Snow exposure factor, C e
Snow load importance factor, I s
Thermal factor, C t
• Wind Load
Basic wind speed (3 second gust), miles per hour
Wind importance factor, Iw and building category
Wind exposure category
Applicable internal pressure coefficient and prevailing wind direction
Design Wind Pressure on Components and cladding.
Exterior components and cladding materials are not specifically designed by the
Design Professional.
• Earthquake design data
Seismic use group
Spectral response coefficients (S DS and S D1)
Site class
Basis seismic-force resisting system
Design base shear
Analysis procedure
• Flood load - If a building is located in a flood hazard area, established by a
jurisdiction having authority, the following shall be shown for areas not subject to
high-velocity wave action:

Elevation of the lowest floor
Elevation to which any nonresidential building will be dry floodproofed
• Foundation Design
Reactions of structural elements when the foundation or other systems are to be
designed by others. If the structure is designed for fu ture additions, the
foundation information should include the probable design load information.
2.2.3 Additions and alterations

Additions to existing greenhouses may be made. The new structure shall not make the existing
structure unsafe. The definition of unsafe and dangerous is included in the code or supporting
documents. For structural purposes it is related to the percent of overstress in structural members.
When a greenhouse is added to an existing building, the capability of the building to withst and
any loads superimposed by the greenhouse shall be verified including lateral loads due to
attachment and snow drift loads due to proximity.
Alterations may be made to any greenhouse if the new work complies with current code
provisions and any loads imposed on the existing structure do not create an unsafe condition.
2.2.4 Load Testing

Load testing is an option provided for in the code. Load testing is typically not desirable for any
product that is within the scope of computational analysis. Typic ally, specialty products such as
cladding components are candidates for testing rather than calculations. Any load testing must be
carried out by an independent approved testing agency.
2.3 Design Methodology

2.3.1 Allowable stress design vs. strength design requirements - Design of typical greenhouse
structures may be made by using the allowable stress design (ASD) or the strength (LRFD)
design methods. The load combination equations used will depend on the design method. The
ASD is the most common approach used by most engineers for greenhouse structures.
2.3.2 Safety factors for greenhouse components - Safety factors for the structural members are
included in the code referenced standards.
2.3.3 Greenhouse classification (Code occupancy group under IBC 2000) - Greenhouse
structures may be considered an occupancy classification “U” when used as a Production
Greenhouse. Research facilities may be considered the same .
Commercial greenhouse structures used for retail use are considered as a “B” or “M” occupancy
classification. This is based on the fact that the building is normally occupied.
2.3.4 Deflection and Drift - Deflection of greenhouse components are defined in IBC - Table
1604.3. There is no criteria limiting drift. The engineer should consider the serviceability
requirements of the building, previously discussed in Section 2.1.2 of this manual.

2.4 Loads
2.4.1 General
Buildings and other structures shall be designed to resist the load combinations specified in the
Chapter 16 and Chapters 18 through 23 of the IBC. Applicable loads shall be considered,
including both earthquake and wind, in accordance with the specified load combinations. Effects
from one or more transient loads not acting shall be investigated.
2.4.2 Dead loads

• Structure weight
• Cladding weight
2.4.3 Live loads

2.4.3.1 Roof
• 10 psf minimum in the IBC (ASCE -7 permits the Authority having jurisdiction to
accept 10 psf.)
2.4.4 Collateral Loads

Collateral loads shall not be included in Wind Uplift resistance analysis. The se loads shall be
considered a live load for wind design.
• Mechanical Equipment - Irrigation, transfer systems, etc.
• Permanently mounted service equipment (heaters, fans, water lines, etc.) Such
permanently mounted equipment shall be considered dead load w hen considering
load combinations.
2.4.5 Plant Loads

• Hanging plants, 2 psf minimum , applied as a concentrated load at the truss panel
points. Greenhouse purchasers may have additional or other criteria for hanging
plant loads or mechanical watering systems.
2.5 Snow
2.5.1 General
Provisions for the determination of design snow loads on greenhouse structures are per ASCE 7 -
98 (Section 7.0). They apply to the calculation of snow loads for both continuously heated
greenhouses and for intermittently heate d or unheated greenhouses.

2.5.2 Definitions
The following definitions apply only to this section.
Continuously heated greenhouse. Any greenhouse, production or commercial, with a constantly

maintained interior temperature of 50 oF or more during winter mo nths. Such a greenhouse must
also have a maintenance attendant on duty at all times or a temperature alarm system to provide
warning in the event of a heating system failure. In addition, the greenhouse roof material must
have a thermal resistance (R -value) less than 2.0 ft 2·hr· of/Btu.
Intermittently heated or unheated greenhouse. Any greenhouse that does not meet the
definition of a continuously heated greenhouse.
2.5.3 Design Procedure

The elements outlined herein are the general process for snow design . Individual building
configuration may dictate additional design requirements as specified in the code.
Design snow loads for greenhouses shall consider:
• The ground snow load pg - based on map in code or local requirements
• The flat-roof snow load pf calculated taking into consideration the roof exposure , the
roof thermal condition, and the occupancy of the structure.
• The sloped-roof snow load ps for greenhouses with gabled, hipped, arched, and gutter -
connected roofs shall be determined as referenced in 2 .5.4 of this manual.
• Partial loading conditions to account for wind scour, melting, or snow -removal
operations shall be considered as referenced in 2.5.4 of this manual.
• Unbalanced snow loads due to the effects of winds on sloped roofs shall be considered
as referenced in 2.5.4 of this manual.
• Local snow load surcharges due to snow drifts on lower roofs and from roof projections
as referenced in 2.5.4 of this manual.
• Local snow load surcharges from snow sliding off of adjacent higher sloped roofs shall
be considered as referenced in 2.5.4 of this manual.
2.5.4 Calculation of Snow Loads

2.5.4.1 Ground Snow Loads: Per ASCE 7 Section 7.0, or local code requirements.
2.5.4.2 Flat-Roof Snow Loads: (ASCE 7, Equation 7-1) Although greenhouses rarely, if ever,
have flat roofs, the calculation of flat -roof snow loads, pf, is necessary for the calculation of
sloped-roof snow loads, ps.
A flat roof is a roof with a slope less than or equal to 5 degrees. For low -sloped roofs, refer to
ASCE 7, Section 7.3.4 for further information and load limitations.
First the flat roof snow load pf is calculated. If the building has a low-slope roof (generally
between 5 and 15 degrees), the flat roof snow load will have a minimum value determined by the

Code. The governing flat roof snow load, either calculated or Code-determined minimum, is then
used to determine the sloped roof snow load, ps by multiplying with a slope factor Cs.
If the building has a sloped roof (greater than 15 degrees), the calculated value for pf is used,
with a slope factor Cs, to determine the sloped roof snow load ps. For greenhouses, where the
ground snow load, pg, is in the 15 psf to 20 psf range, the snow load will generally govern over
the roof live load.
For gutter-connected greenhouses resulting in a multiple folded plate, sawtooth or barrel vault
roof, the value of Cs is 1.0.
The flat roof snow load pf shall be calculated using the following equation, with exposure factor
Ce, thermal factor Ct, and snow importance factor Is found in ASCE 7.
pf = 0.7 C e Ct Is pg
The flat roof snow load pf, for low-sloped roofs only, shall not be less than the following:
pf = Is pg , when pg is less than or equal to 20 psf or
pf = Is 20 psf , when pg is greater than 20 psf
Where:
Pg = Ground snow load, per ASCE 7, Figure 7-1
Ce = Exposure factor, per ASCE 7, Table 7-2
Ct = Thermal factor, per ASCE 7, Table 7-3
Is = Importance factor for snow loading, per ASCE 7, Table 7 -4
Exposure Factor: is a function of the greenhouse site terrain category and ro of exposure
category.
Most greenhouse roofs are likely to be fully or partially exposed and located in Exposures B or C.
Thus, the snow exposure factor is most likely to be 0.9 or 1.0.
Thermal Factor: is a function of the thermal resistance of the greenh ouse roof glazing and the
temperature conditions within the greenhouse, and shall be determined from the following Table:

Table 2.1 - Thermal Factor, Ct
THERMAL CONDITION Ct
Continuously heated greenhouse (see 2.5.2) 0.85
Intermittently heated greenhouse kept just above freezing 1.1
Unheated greenhouse 1.2
All greenhouses except those above 1.0

Note:
The thermal condition should be representative of the anticipated conditions during winters for the life of
the greenhouse.
Snow Load Importance Factor: The value of the snow load importance factor, Is, used in the
calculation of pf is a function of the type of greenhouse and its use, and shall be determined in
accordance with the following Table:
Table 2.2 - Classification of Greenhouses for Snow Load Importance Factors

Category Nature of Occupancy and Location of Greenhouse Factor Is
ASCE 7 IBC
II I All commercial greenhouses that are not in ASCE 7 Category I 1.0

(IBC Category IV)
I IV Production greenhouses that are occupied for growing plants on 0.8

production or research basis, without public access
Note:
ASCE 7 Category III (IBC Category II) greenhouses where more than 300 people congregate in one area,
greenhouses with capacity greater than 250 in schools, and greenhouses with capacity greater than 500 in
colleges shall have a snow load importance factor of 1.1.
2.5.4.3 Sloped-Roof Snow Loads: (ASCE 7 Section 7.4) The sloped-roof snow load, ps, shall
be obtained by multiplying the flat -roof snow load, pf, by the roof slope factor, C s, as given in
Equation 7-2.
Warm-Roof (Ct = or < 1.0) Slope Factor, Cs: For all greenhouses, except unheated and
intermittently heated greenhouses kept just above freezing with unobs tructed slippery roof
surface that will allow snow to slide off the eaves (such as light transmitting coverings including
plastics, glass and similar materials), the roof slope factor shall be determined by using the
following formula, as depicted in ASCE 7, Fig. 7-2a:
Cs = 1 – [(θ-5)/65] (when θ > 5ο)
where θ is the angle of slope from the horizontal in degrees.

Warm-roof slope factors for common roof slopes are given in the following Table:
Table 2.3 - Common Warm-roof Slope Factors

ROOF SLOPE Cs
3/12 0.85
4/12 0.80
6/12 0.65
8/12 0.55
12/12 0.40
Gutter Connected 1.00
Greenhouses Kept Just Above Freezing (Ct = 1.1) Roof Slope Factor, Cs: For all intermittently
heated greenhouses kept just above freezing with unobstructed slippery roof surface that will
allow snow to slide off the eaves (such as light transmitting coverings including plastics, glass
and similar materials) the roof slope factor shall be determined from the average of the values
obtained for warm-roof slope factors and cold-roof slope factors. For common roof slopes these
values are given in the following Table:
Table 2.4 - Common Roof Slope Factors Cs for Just Above Freezing Greenhouse
ROOF SLOPE Cs
3/12 0.95
4/12 0.90
6/12 0.80
8/12 0.60
12/12 0.45
Unheated Greenhouse (Ct = 1.2) Roof Slope Factor, Cs: For all unheated greenhouses with
unobstructed slippery roof surface that will allow snow to slide off the eaves (such as light
transmitting coverings including plastics, glass an similar materials), the roof slope factor shall be
determined by using the following formula, as depicted in ASCE 7, Fig. 7 -2b:
Cs = 1 – [(θ-15)/55]
where θ is the angle of slope from the horizontal in degrees.

Unheated greenhouse roof slope factors for common roof slopes are given in the following Table:
Table 2.5 - Common Unheated Roof Slope Factors

ROOF SLOPE Cs
3/12 1.00
4/12 0.95
6/12 0.75
8/12 0.65
12/12 0.45
Gutter Connected 1.00
Curved Roof Slope Factor, Cs: (ASCE 7, Section 7.4.3) Portions of arched greenhouse roofs
having a slope exceeding 70 degrees shall be considered free of snow load (i.e., Cs = 0). The point
at which the slope exceeds 70 degrees shall be considered the “eave” for such roofs. For arched
roofs the roof slope factor shall be determined from the appropriate formula in Sections 2.5.4.3,
by basing the angle of slope on the slope line from the “eave” to the crown.
Multiple Roofs Slope Factor, Cs, (Gutter-Connected): (ASCE 7, Section 7.4.4) Gutter-
connected (multiple) gable, sawtooth and barrel vault greenhouse roofs shall have a Cs = 1, with
no reduction in snow load because of slope (i.e., ps = pf). Greenhouse design should consider
future additions when the gutter is on an exterior wall or on a single building to allow for future
additions.
Ice Dams and Icicles Along Eaves: (ASCE 7, Section 7.4.5) Two types of warm roofs that
drain water over their eaves shall be capable of sustaining a uniformly distributed load of 2p f on
all overhanging portions. These roof types include the unventilated roof with an R -value less
than 30 ft 2 . h . oF/ BTU, and the ventilated roof with an R -value less than 20 ft 2 . h . oF/ BTU. No
other loads except dead loads shall be present on the roof when this uniformly distributed load is
applied.
2.5.4.4 Partial Loading: (ASCE 7, Section 7.5) Roofs with continuous beam systems need to
be designed for the partial loading of selected spans with the balanced snow load, while the
remaining spans are loaded with half the balanced snow load.
2.5.4.5 Unbalanced Snow Loads: (ASCE 7, Section 7.6) The combination of snow and wind
from all directions contributes to unbalanced snow load conditions. The amount of the
unbalanced snow load is often dependent upon the width of the building, as well as the slope of
the roof. The gable roof drift parameter b, based on the relative shape of the building, and the
snow density g, derived from the ground snow load, are used to determine the slope of the roof
that limits the amount of unbalanced snow loads for the varying roof shapes.

Balanced and unbalanced loads are to be analyzed separately.
It is important to refer to the Code- referenced ASCE 7, for proper definition and application of
unbalanced snow loads.
2.5.4.5.1 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Hip and Gable Roofs: (ASCE 7, Section 7.6.1 & Figure 7 -
5)
For greenhouse roofs with an eave to ridge distance, W, of 20 feet or less, the structure shall be
designed to resist an unbalanced uniform snow load on the leeward side. Refer to ASCE 7 for
the value of the unbalanced uniform snow load to be applied. Refer also for roofs with W greater
than 20’, and for applicable exemptions.
Balanced and unbalanced loading diagrams are presented in Figure 7-5, ASCE.
2.5.4.5.2 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Curved Roofs: (ASCE 7, Section 7.6.2 & Figure 7 -3)
Portions of curved roofs having a slope between 10 o and 70 o must be designed for unbalanced
snow loads.
2.5.4.5.3 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Multiple Roofs (Gutter -Connected): (ASCE 7, Section
7.6.3 & Figure 7-6) Unbalanced snow loads shall be applied to folded plate, sawt ooth, and barrel
vaulted multiple roofs with a slope exceeding 3/8 in/ft.
2.5.4.5.4 Unbalanced Snow Loads for Dome roofs: (ASCE 7, Section 7.6.4)
2.5.4.6 Drifts on Lower Roofs (Aerodynamic Shade): (ASCE 7, Section 7.7) Greenhouse
roofs shall be designed to sustain localized loads from snow drifts that form in the wind shadow
of higher portions of the same structure and adjacent structures and terrain features.
Lower Roof of a Greenhouse: (ASCE 7, Section 7.7.1) Drift loads shall be superimposed on the
balanced snow load. As the difference in adjacent building heights approaches zero, drift loads
are not required to be applied. Refer to ASCE 7 for surcharge loads from leeward drifts, formed
by snow coming from a higher upwind roof, and windward drifts, formed next to a taller
downwind building.
Note that the clear height difference between the upper roof height and the top of the balanced
snow load on the lower roof, hc., as shown in Figure 7-8, ASCE, is determined based on the
assumption that the upper roof is blown clear of snow in the vicinity of the drift. This is a
reasonable assumption when the upper roof is nearly flat. However, sloped roofs often
accumulate snow at eaves. For such roofs, it is appropriate to assume that snow at the upper roof
edge effectively increases the height difference between adjacent roofs, and using half the depth
of the unbalanced snow load in the calculation of hc produces more realistic estimates of drift
loads.
Adjacent Structures and Terrain Features: (ASCE 7, Section 7.7.2) The effect of higher
structures or terrain features within 20 feet of a lower roof shall be considered in the design of
that lower-roofed building.
2.5.4.7 Roof Projections: (ASCE 7, Section 7.8) Gives a method that shall be used to calculate
drift loads on all sides of roof projections and at parapet walls. If the side of a roof projection is
less than 15 ft. long, a drift load is not required to be applied to that side.

2.5.4.8 Sliding Snow: The extra load caused by snow sliding off a sloped roof of a greenhouse
or other structure onto a lower greenhouse roof shall be superimposed on the balanced snow load.
It shall be determined assuming that all the snow that accumulates on the upper roof under the
balanced loading condition (p s times the roof area) slides onto the lower roof. Even if the upper
roof is a greenhouse roof that is an unobstructed slippery surface (and as such, is subject to lower
sloped-roof snow loads as specified in 2.5.4.3), it shall be considered as not being slippery for
purposes of calculating the extra sliding snow load.
The final resting-place of snow that slides off a higher roof onto a lower roof will depend on the
size, position and orientation of each roof. Distribution of the sliding snow might vary from a
uniform load 5 feet wide if a significant vertical offset exists between the two roofs, to a 20 -foot
wide uniform load where a low-slope upper roof slides its load onto a roof that is only a few feet
lower or when snow drifts on the lower roof create a sloped surf ace that promotes lateral
movement of the sliding snow.
2.5.4.9 Rain-on-Snow Surcharge Load: Rain-on-snow surcharge loads need not be considered
on greenhouse roofs when they have slopes that exceed ½ inch per foot. However, all gutters in
gutter-connected greenhouses shall be provided with adequate slope and drains to allow for run
off of rain and snow melting and to prevent ponding.
2.5.4.10 Ponding Instability: Roofs shall be designed to preclude ponding instability. For roofs
with a slope less than ¼ in./ ft., roof deflections caused by full snow loads shall be investigated
for ponding instability from rain-on-snow or from snow meltwalter.
2.5.4.11 Existing Roofs: Existing roofs shall be evaluated for increased snow loads caused by
additions, alterations, and new structures located nearby, and strengthened as necessary.
2.6 Wind
2.6.1 General
Provisions for the determination of wind loads and other wind design criteria on greenhouse
structures are contained in the IBC, which in turn references ASCE 7. Whether wind loads are
derived from the IBC simplified method, or from the ASCE 7 simplified or analytical methods as
referenced in the IBC, the choice is up to the designer and will undoubtedly depend upon the
physical characteristics of the structure and the site. The provisions found in either source apply
to the calculation of wind loading on the main windforce -resisting system and the components
and cladding (including glazing) of the structure.
2.6.1.1 Simplified Provisions

A simplified procedure is available in the IBC, Sec 1609.6. The determination and application of
wind pressures in the design of greenhouses that are simple diaphragm buildings (see definition in
the IBC) with a single gabled roof may use the procedures specified in Section 1609.6 of the
International Building Code 2000.
There is also a simplified procedure to determine wind loads found in ASCE 7. The ASCE 7
simplified procedure has slightly different criteria for the building than the simplified procedure

in the IBC. Either may be used, provided that the building meets the conditions required for using
that particular design procedure in the determination of wind loads.
Neither simplified procedure is applicable to buildings that are subject to topographic effects.
2.6.2 Definitions
Windward -toward the wind; toward the point from which the wind blows
Leeward -the side or point to which the wind blows
Simple Diaphragm Building – there may be minor discrepancies in the definition of a simple
diaphragm building between the IB C and the ASCE, so it is best to refer to each specific code or
standard in question. While traditional greenhouse coverings are not considered diaphragm
materials, a horizontal truss system at the roof level will transfer lateral loads to vertical latera l-
force-resisting systems and be considered a diaphragm.
2.6.3 Design Procedure

Design wind loads for greenhouses shall consider:
• The basic wind speed, V
• The velocity pressure qz, where z is the height, which is calculated taking into
consideration the exposure category, the surrounding terrain, the wind directionality,
and the occupancy of the structure
• The design wind pressure p, which is calculated taking into consideration the
direction of the wind, the exposure category, the height of the building or element,
and the openness of the structure.
2.6.4 Calculation of Wind Loads

2.6.4.1 General: The design wind loads, pressures and forces are determined by the appropriate
equations given in ASCE 7, Section 6.5.12 or 6.5.13; or in the case of the simplifi ed procedure,
found in Figures 6-3 and 6-4 of ASCE 7.
Gust effect factors and pressure coefficients are found in figures and tables in ASCE 7.
2.6.4.2 Basic Wind Speed: The basic wind speed, V, in miles per hour, for the determination of
the wind loads shall be found in a figure in the referenced code or standard being used.
2.6.4.3 Importance Factor: Greenhouses shall be assigned a wind load importance factor, Iw, in
accordance with the following Table:

Table 2.6 - Classification of Greenhouses for Wind Load Importance Factors
Category Nature of Occupancy and Location of Greenhouse Wind Factor Iw
ASCE 7 IBC
II I All commercial greenhouses that are not in ASCE 7 1.00

Category I (IBC Category IV)
I IV Production greenhouses in non-hurricane prone regions and 0.87

in hurricane prone regions with V = 80-100 mph and Alaska
I IV Production greenhouses in hurricane prone regions with V > 0.77

100 mph
Notes:
ASCE 7 Category III (IBC Category II) greenhouses where more than 300 people congregate in one area,
greenhouses in schools with capacity greater than 250, and greenhouses in colleges with capacity greater
than 500 shall have a wind load importance factor of 1.15.
2.6.4.4 Wind Speed-up Over Hills and Escarpments, Kzt: Wind speed-up over isolated hills
and escarpments that constitute abrupt changes in the general topography shall be considered for
buildings and other structures sited on the upper half of hills and ridges or near the edges of
escarpments. The effect of wind speed -up shall not be required to be considered when hill height
to distance upwind of crest of hill ration H/L h < 0.2, or when height of hill H < 15’ for Exposure
D, or H< 30’ for Exposure C, or H < 60’ for all other exposures. Factor K zt shall not be less than
1.0. Refer to Sec. 6.5.7 of ASCE 7 for further information.
2.6.4.5 Wind Directionality Factor: A wind directionality factor, Kd, shall be used in the
analytical method of determining the wind velocity pressure, q z, per Sec. 6.5.10 and 6.5.4.4 of
ASCE 7. Care should be taken in applying the wind directionality factor, which is a number less
than 1.0. By ASCE 7 definition, the factor is to be used with ASCE load combinations, and is
contrary to use of the IBC load combinations.
2.6.4.6 Exposure Categories: For each wind direction considered, an exposure category that
adequately reflects the characteristics of ground surface irregularities shall be determined for the
site at which the greenhouse is to be constructed. For a site located in the transition zone between
categories, the category resulting in the largest wind forces shall apply. Account shall be taken of
variations in ground surface roughness that arise from natural top ography and vegetation as well
as from constructed features. For any given wind direction, the exposure in which a specific
greenhouse is sited shall be assessed as being one of the exposure categories A, B, C, or D.
Exposure categories are defined in both the IBC and ASCE 7, with minor differences between the
two documents found in Exposures B and C. Reference the photos in the Commentary of ASCE 7.
2.6.4.7 Enclosure Classifications: All buildings are classified as enclosed, partially enclosed, or
open. Whether the IBC or ASCE 7 is used to determine wind loads, the enclosure classifications
are essentially identical. In wind -borne debris regions, special consideration is given to glazing
with respect to the determination of openness.

ASCE 7 continues beyond the basic definitions to provide for clarification of buildings that fall
under multiple classifications, by stating if a greenhouse by definition complies with both the
“open” and “partially enclosed” definitions, it shall be classified as an “ope n” building. A
greenhouse that does not comply with either the “open” or “partially enclosed” definitions shall
be classified as an “enclosed” building.
2.6.4.8 Velocity Pressure, qz: When using the analytical method in calculating the wind loads,
the velocity pressure at height z is calculated by factoring the given basic wind speed with the
velocity pressure exposure coefficient K z, the wind speed-up factor K zt, the wind directionality
factor, Kd, and the importance factor I. Refer to Sec. 6.5.10 of A SCE 7.
2.6.4.9 Internal & External Pressure Coefficients and Gust Effect Factors, Gcpi: Internal and
external pressure coefficients, and gust effect factors are needed when using the analytical
method of determining wind pressures. The factors are found in Sec. 6.5.11 of ASCE-7, based on
physical characteristics of the structure and the site.
2.6.4.10 Design Loads and Wind Pressures: No matter which method is used in determining
wind loads on a structure, the goal is to determine the worst case loading on the main wind force-
resisting system and on the components and cladding.
Using the IBC simplified method of Sec. 1609.6.2, design wind pressures are given in Tables
1609.6.2.1 and are multiplied by the appropriate factors for height, exposure, and im portance.
When using the simplified method of Sec. 6.4.2 in ASCE 7, design wind pressures are found in
Tables 6-2 and 6-3, and are adjusted by importance, exposure or area reduction factors.
When using the analytical method of Sec. 6.5.12 in ASCE 7, de sign wind pressures are calculated
by factoring the wind velocity pressure with internal and external pressure coefficients and gust
effect factors. Sec. 6.5.13 in ASCE 7 gives the equation that is used in determining the design
wind force for open buildi ngs.
2.6.5 Wind and Seismic Detailing

The IBC requires that lateral force -resisting systems shall meet seismic detailing requirements
and limitations prescribed in the code, even when wind code prescribed load effects are greater
than seismic load effects, per Sec. 1609.1.5.
Seismic requirements in the IBC (Sections 1616.4 & 1620.1) state that all parts of the structure
shall be interconnected. These connections are designed to resist the seismic force, F p, induced by
the parts being connected. Any smal ler portion of the structure shall be tied to the remainder of
the structure with a connection that shall be capable of transmitting the greater of 0.133 times the
design, 5% damped, spectral response acceleration for short periods (S DS) times the weight of the
smaller portion, or 5% of the weight of the smaller portion to a larger portion of the structure.
Each beam, girder, or truss member shall be provided with a positive connection to its support for
resisting horizontal forces acting on the member. T his support connection shall have sufficient
strength to resist 5% of the dead and live load vertical reaction applied horizontally. Similar
seismic detailing requirements are found in ASCE 7, Section 9.5.2.6.

2.7 Seismic Loads
2.7.1 Seismic Design -Background

Seismic design no longer uses the concept of seismic zones. Instead it uses maps, soil type and
occupancy. The seismic maps in the building code and ASCE 7 are based on recent work by the
US Geological Service. Some areas of the country have had their seismicity reduced. A number
of areas are now in seismic zones that never were considered as areas having seismic potential.
Seismic design requires determination of the Seismic Design Category (SDC). The SDC is a
classification assigned to a structure based on its occupancy (Seismic Use Group) and the level of
expected soil modified seismic ground motion. The SDC is determined by:
• the anticipated earthquake ground accelerations at the site,
• the type of soil at the specific site and

• the Seismic Use Group (SUG)
Because earthquake design seldom governs for greenhouses, designers may find that the use of
default values may reduce the amount of calculations. All greenhouse structures would be
Seismic Use Group I. The default soil type, Site Class D, simplifies the determination of the SDC.
Designers will have to determine the site ground shaking (Ss and S1) by use of the applicable
seismic map. These seismic maps are contained in the building code and ASCE 7.
Using Ss and S1 and the Site Class (soil type), coefficients SDS and SD1 are computed. Then based
on these computed values and the Seismic Use Group, the Seismic Design Category can be
determined from the tables in the code or ASCE 7. The SDC directs users to specific code
requirements. SDC A has minimum requirements, whereas an SDC E structure would have
numerous analysis and detailing requirements.
Exceptions in the seismic design requirements (IBC 1614.1, Exception 3) include exemptions for
agricultural storage buildings intended only for incidental human occupancy, areas with low Ss
and S1 values and for computed SDS and SD1 with low values. Most production greenhouses should
qualify for the agricultural exemption. However individual state and local regulations may still
require design of all agricultural structures.
Once the seismic design category is determined, an R-value ( a measure of the ductility of the
structure) is determined from the building code (IBC Table 1617.6 or ASCE 7 Table 9.5.2.2).
Greenhouse structures appear to qualify as ordinary steel concentrically braced frames, which
have an R-value equal to 5. If a greenhouse is mounted on the roof of another structure, the R-
value for the greenhouse is independent of that underlying structure. The connection reactions
for the greenhouse shall be applied to the underlying structure’s roof, just as roof-mounted
equipment would be, and the supporting structure’s roof shall be designed for those loads,
considering all applicable load combinations.
Users should note that seismic design approaches are changing and the terms described herein
may change in future codes.
Designers will have to determine whether such earthquake design loads, and the installed
equipment, are critical compared to wind loads. For a greenhouse, this will depend on the

location and mass of the structure and its equipment compared to the exposed areas that the
building presents.
Minimum seismic detailing requirements are given in both the IBC (Sections 1616.4 & 1620.1)
and in ASCE 7(Sec. 9.5.2.6). See Section 2.6.5 of this manual for further information.
2.8 Other Loads
2.8.1 Flood and hydrostatic

2.7.1.1 Soil and hydrostatic pressure and flood loads - Local regulations will identify flood
design zones. Whether such criteria are critical for a greenhouse will depend on FEMA and local
requirements.
2.8.2 Other Loads

Other design factors the engineer should consider in individual structures include:
• Thermal expansion and the need for joints
• Rainwater
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Chapter 3 - Structural Design
3.0 General
3.0.1 Design Overview

Greenhouse buildings are a complete structure including the structural support and enclosure
elements.
The primary structural system includes:
• The Primary Roof system - This is typically a truss, rigid frame, arch or similar system
• Secondary Structural System - This includes bracing elements and enclosure support
components such as purlins, glazing bars, ridge beam and gutters as well as girts. End
wall framing may be a primary or secondary s tructural system. Many of these secondary
components have several roles, supporting the glazing, dead and live load, as well as
bracing a structure, and axial load.
• Columns - Columns, end walls, enclosing walls or other elements
• Foundations - The foundation may be spread footings, continuous concrete footings or
flagpole type foundations placed directly in the earth. Sometimes the flagpole type
footings may be backfilled with concrete or other fill. In greenhouse design, flagpole
type footings are usually designed as unrestrained foundations. Where there is a slab on
grade present, a restrained pole footing may be used. Such a footing requires a positive
“hoop” tie that extends into the slab and around the pole, and the pole footing cannot be
isolated by an expansion joint.
• Cladding - Cladding may be of many materials including glass, polycarbonates,
fiberglass or polyethylene. Cladding support and fastening systems vary by material.
Cladding is not part of the structural system and is not covered in this structural design
manual. Cladding, and its design criteria, is discussed at length in a separate document.
3.0.2 Structural Design

The IBC requires all buildings to have a rational analysis. Rational engineering analysis is a
computational analysis, either by hand or computer, that use s accepted load distribution and
determination methods. Such analysis shall follow acceptable engineering practices. Where the
code is non-specific in the method of analysis, as with trusses vs. arches, the engineer shal l
analyze the system using a method acceptable to the approving authority. Thus, each engineer
will analyze the system using an accepted method. However, the detailed design must
accommodate all the forces and moments on the individual members as discussed above.
Manual or graphical solutions are permissible if such analysis can account for the various
unbalanced load or other special design requirements. For most structures a computer modeling
type analysis will be necessary. Based on the typical greenhous e design, the sections herein

specify acceptable types of design methods.
Allowable stresses for various materials will be obtained from ASTM Standards and industry
sources, such as AISC, AISI or AA, as applicable.
Steel design criteria is established by t he American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) for hot -
rolled structural members, and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) for cold -formed light
gauge steel design. Cold-formed steel is usually less than 3/16” thick and is made from a variety
of steel types. These are generally high strength materials when compared to conventional, small
shapes in structural steel. Cold-formed materials may be formed to any shape but are typically the
shape of a channel, square or round tube. Structural steel ha s 3/16” or greater thickness and is
available in a range of shapes including I-shape, channel, angle, flat bar, pipes, and tubing. The
AISC standards are in their handbook, which includes a commentary. The AISI provisions are in
other handbooks. These books provide both the design formulas and the allowable stresses.
There are two design approaches for steel today. Allowable stress design (ASD) is the traditional
methodology used by engineers. Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is a newer, strength
design approach. Its usefulness to small structures such as short trusses will need to be
determined by the individual design. The design approach used will determine whether ASD or
LRFD load combinations are used.
Many manufacturers use aluminum components as part of the truss system. Aluminum design
shall be in accordance with the Aluminum Handbook published by the Aluminum Association.
This manual includes a general discussion of typical greenhouse roof structural systems. It also
includes specific design issues related to individual roof systems and elements.
Because some issues cross all different structural systems and components, a general discussion
of issues related to bracing and connections is included in this section.
3.0.3 Bracing
Steel and other structures include secondary bracing members incorporated into the system of
main members. These bracing elements include the following:
Slender compression members: trusses, beams, etc. are laterally supported or braced so as to
resist the tendency to buckle in a direction normal to the stress path.
Needed structural rigidity is provided by the secondary bracing members or by rigid joints
between members. (Trusses, being rigid, do not require additional rigidity in the plane of the
truss.)
Bracing may be needed during erection. Good design integrates this bracing as part of the total
structure.
There are no fixed rules or specifications for lateral bracing of beams. Tests and studies indicate
that it takes a rather small force to balance the lateral thrusts of initial buckling. Most engineers
use the rule of thumb of 2% of the axial load of columns or 2% of the total compressive stress in
beam flanges. (Studies indicate that these values are conservative.) NGMA designs shall be
laterally braced for a minimum of 2% of the axial load.

3.0.4 Connection Materials
Regardless of the specific roof framing system and materials, the components must be fastened
together. The individual sections of this manual describe specific connection considerations. This
section describes some of the considerations for fasteners and fastening methods. Examples of
approvals and manufacturer’s information are provided at the end of this manual.
Connections may be made with:
• Structural Steel Bolts - When structural steel shapes of A-36 are used. Such bolts are
usually 5/8 inch diameter or larger. The allowable loads are published in the AISC
Handbook.
• Bolts - Bolts are usually steel of ½ inch diameter or less. These are used for light gauge
steel members. Values for bolts shall be obtained from AISI publications.
• Screws - Screws may be placed in drilled holes or be self -tapping. Values for screws are
usually obtained from manufacturer’s literature. Manufacturers’ literature may
recommend design values or may report test results. Some will report an average
ultimate, others the low ultimate or range of test results. Screws having Building Code
Evaluation Reports are recommended. Screws not having Building Code Evaluation
Reports are subject to the Building Official’s approval. Usually these screws have a
Factor of safety of 3.5 for the average ultimate test value or 2.5 from the lowest ultimate
test value.
• Welding - Published values for weld metal and strengths shall be obtained from AWS,
AISC books or Aluminum Association literature.
3.0.5 Technical Definitions and Explanations

In the course of the following chapter the terms listed below are used frequently.
• CONSENSUS STANDARD – a consensus standard is developed by an organization that
is accredited by ANSI. These are vol untary consensus standard for products and
processes and require that there be a balanced committee consisting of producers,
consumers, and general interest persons. Within the consensus standard process there is
openness and due process. Building codes adopt consensus standards by reference. But
it takes a building code to implement to provide an enforcement context to them.
• RATIONAL ENGINEERING ANALYSIS – a computational analysis, either by hand or
computer, that uses accepted load distribution and determination methods. As late as the
1997 UBC, ‘rationality’ was included in the code (Section 1605.2) with the statement
“Any system or method of construction to be used shall be based on a rational analysis in
accordance with well-established principles of mechanics. Such analysis shall result in a
system which provides a complete load path capable of transferring all loads and forces
from their point of origin to the load-resisting elements.”
• TRUSS ANALYSIS – a hand or computer analysis of a truss syst em that follows the
principles of statics and mechanics.

3.1 Roof Support Systems
3.1.1 Primary Systems

The primary roof supporting structure shall be designed, along with secondary components and
bracing, to take vertical loads as well as lateral wind a nd seismic loads.
Vertical loads consist of dead load, live load, collateral loads, plant loads, snow load, wind load,
and rain load. The loads are transferred through the roof systems to vertical supports, such as
columns or end walls, and are then distributed through the foundations into the soil. Lateral loads
consist of wind and seismic loads that are transferred through a continuous load path from the
roof to the foundation.
Section 1604.4 of the IBC requires all structures to be designed. The code states “Load effects on
structural members and their connections shall be determined by methods of structural analysis
that take into account equilibrium, general stability, geometric compatibility, and both short - and
long-term material properties.”
The IBC goes on to state “Any system or method of construction to be used shall be based on a
rational analysis in accordance with well-established principles of mechanics. Such analysis shall
result in a system that provides a complete load path capable of tra nsferring loads from their point
of origin to the load-resisting system.”
This section is comprised of a discussion of primary roof systems. These roof systems include the
following:
• Trusses
• Parallel Chord Trusses
• Arches
• Rigid Frames
Individual elements, such as connections and bracing, are described for each system. The
discussion is further organized into a series of divisions, as follows.
• Criteria
• Commentary
• Design Approach and Assumptions
• Building Code and Referenced Consensus Standards (typically ado pted by reference) – a
consensus standard is a standard that has been developed using an American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) approved consensus process.
• Industry Standards – have not been developed by an ANSI approved consensus process.
• Manufacturers’ Literature – the engineer must verify the manufacturers’ literature and
critically review the supplied information for code compliance.

• Engineering Judgement and Technical Literature – the basis for the evaluation and design
process that utilizes published engineering journals as a design resource.
3.1.1.1 Trusses
General Requirements
Trusses shall be analyzed by a rational procedure as required by the building code and discussed
in earlier sections. Where trusses do not meet all the assumptions li sted, or are of unusual shape
or configuration, the truss and its individual members shall be designed using a rational analysis
method that considers the specific configuration conditions.
Several shapes can be considered for truss designs. Typically a peaked or curved top chord is
seen. Some shapes will require a more rigorous analysis.
Each member must be designed for the actual load acting on it including both vertical and lateral
loads. The member shall be sized for the combined load.
The appropriate load combinations and allowable stress increases shall be considered in
determining the member sizing.
The building code requires a rational analysis. Since there is a well established body of
knowledge of statics for truss analysis, as long as the basi c assumptions are followed the design
should be acceptable. However, the detailed design must accommodate all the forces and
moments on the individual members as discussed above.
Steel design criteria is established by the American Institute of Steel Const ruction (AISC) for hot-
rolled structural members, and the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) for cold -formed light
gauge steel design. The AISC standards are in their handbook, which includes a commentary. The
AISI provisions are in their handbook. T hese books give both the design formulas and the
allowable stresses.
Many manufacturers use aluminum components as part of the truss system. Aluminum design
shall be in accordance with the Aluminum Handbook published by the Aluminum Association.
Design of Truss Top Chords
In theoretical analysis, chord elements are assumed straight and pinned at each end. Chord
elements that are continuous, curved, arched or of other configurations not in compliance with the
assumptions described above shall be analyzed u sing rigorous methods.
All top chords shall be designed for the vertical loads specified in the loads chapter of this manual
or the building code. Where the cladding supports, purlins and other members are applied to a top
chord at other than the panel po int, the effect of such loads as a bending moment shall be
accounted for in the truss and member design. Such loads are in addition to the axial (and
bending) determined by the analysis.
Collateral loads applied on the top chord shall be considered for the ir imposed load and the
effects on the truss.

Design of Bottom Chords
Truss analysis develops loads, which are axial, in the bottom chord. Bottom chords shall be
designed for the specific applied loads in addition to the computed axial loads. Collateral and
plant loads shall be applied linearly along the bottom chord to account for irrigation equipment,
hanging baskets, etc. The moments created by collateral loads shall be considered in the design of
the bottom chord.
Design of Truss Diagonals
Diagonal and vertical truss elements typically carry only axial loads. Diagonal members shall be
designed for the axial load determined in the truss analysis. Where loads other than axial loads
occur due to the truss joint conditions, or for other element or load c onditions, the members shall
be designed for the specific loads.
Where elements are “non-prismatic” at any point in their length, the effect of the change of
section shall be considered in determining the load carrying capacity. See commentary for
additional remarks regarding non-prismatic elements.
Design of Connections
All connections of elements are assumed to have their centroids coincide at a point. Where
members entering the joint are not concentric the effect on the members, connector plates and
fasteners shall be analyzed. All stresses induced in the truss members shall be considered.
Design of Lateral Bracing
Lateral support shall be provided for top and bottom chord members to resist loads due to
compressive forces. The reduced stress based on the l/r ratio of the section with bracing shall be
considered and a reduced allowable stress used. Purlins, ridges and other elements serving as
lateral bracing shall be designed for the bracing load.
Bracing shall be designed for a minimum of 2% of the axia l load of columns or 2% of the
compressive stress in the member.
Where cable type bracing is proposed, the design and detailing shall provide a method of
applying and adjusting tension to the cables.
Commentary - Trusses
a. Design Approach and Assumptions
General
Component Description – A truss is any framework of “bars” placed together to form triangles.
(“Bars” is the original steel term for selected elements.) Typically trusses of this type are
statically determinate internally because all of the stresses in the elements can be computed by
use of the equations of statics. Whenever a truss member forms the sides of more than two
triangles it is statically indeterminate. (The equations of statics cannot be used to calculate the

loads in the members.)
There are fundamental assumptions made in truss design. These are:
• The center of gravity lines of all bars meeting at a joint intersect at a point
• All joints are pinned with a frictionless pin
• There is no bending in the members. (For the truss analysis)
• The bars are any structural element, such as an angle, I-shape, tube or flat bar.
• All members are straight.
In the initial analysis, the truss is assumed to be composed of axially loaded members. When the
detailed design of the truss and sizing of members is conducted, the design is more complex. The
initial design determines the axial load in each member. The detailed design requires each
member to be analyzed for the specific loads imposed on the member.
For example a top chord, which in preliminary design had only axial loads from roof loads,
which are applied at the panel points, may actually have loads at several points. This includes
loads applied by purlins, collateral loads, or by equipment not at the panel point. Further, in
some designs, the top chord may not be straight, therefore the member needs to be designed for
the axial load, the moments created by the applied loads and the moment caused by the curved
top chord.
Top Chord
Technical Issues – The top chord is loaded by the dead load and the live load and snow load or
the lateral load. A unique issue in greenhouse design is the lateral bracing of the top and bottom
chords. A compression member may buckle under compression. Top chord lateral stability must
be considered. The allowable stresses are determined and considered for the actual unbraced
length. Typically roof purlins provide bracing. See the discussion on bracing for recommended
criteria.
One design approach is to extend the top chord beyond the connection with the bottom chord to
connect with the column. The cantilevered top chord design must consider the moments and shear
loads resulting from the cantilever. Since this is a continuous member, the stresses in the top
chord in the truss itself (beyond the bottom chord joint) must also be considered. If this is
accomplished by a sleeve over part of the top chord, to provide additional section, the sleeve, its
length and the imposed stress on the truss must be considered.
Curved top chords will have a moment created by the eccentricity of the chord to the theoretical
straight chord. This additional moment must be considered in the design of the member.
Bottom Chord
Technical Issues- The bottom chord is a tension member under live and dead load. It may be a
compression member under wind loads. The bottom chord becomes a compression member due
to the uplift caused by wind. The bottom chord must be checked for stability under various load
combinations. The criteria for tension members are not as restrictive as for compression
members. Under wind uplift conditions the bottom chord could be a compression member

requiring special evaluation and bracing. The stability of the bottom chord under lateral load
shall be demonstrated and bracing provided if required by the analysis. Design load on the
bracing would be 2% of the compression load in the bottom chord.
Truss Diagonals
Technical Issues- Diagonal members usually are simple axially loaded members. Their design is
much more straightforward. An exception would be the loading of the diagonal with other loads
such as sprinklers or equipment. In such cases the diagonal would have to be designed for these
additional loads. (An issue to be considered, is owner installed equipment occurring after
construction is completed. This should be considered in the collateral load determination)
Industry Practice
Where elements have a shape change, typically at the ends of members, for fabrication and are
“non-prismatic” at any point in their length, the effect of the change of section shall be
considered in determining the load carrying capacity. (Such conditions occur when a shape is
bent or flattened.) The practice of a number of engineers notes that when the change in shape
occurs within 2 times the least dimension of the element from the end of the element, the effects of
shape change may be ignored. If this practice is used, computations justifying this should be on
file.
Connections
Technical Issues- Connections in trusses are assumed to have the resultant (center of gravity) of
each member joining at a common point. This is easy to accomplish with two members. With
three members entering a joint it becomes a challenge. The eccentric joint creates a moment in
the members that must be considered in design.
Out-of-Plane Bracing
Technical Issues- Bracing between the trusses is required to stabilize the buckling potential of the
top chord, the bottom chord, and other long compression elements such as struts. The bracing
can be spaced to meet the client needs. But increased bracing spacing means that the truss
members will be larger to limit the potential for buckling. Each engineer and manufacturer will
select their desired and economical top and bottom chord bracing spacing. The bracing should
be designed for the 2% of the axial load criteria noted above. The size of the bracing will depend
on the unbraced length of the span between trusses and whether it is straight or diagonal.
b. Building Codes and Consensus Standards
c. Industry Standards
d. Manufacturers’ Literature
Manufacturers’ literature will provide the specific structural properties of the structural sections
used. Manufacturer’s literature needs to be reviewed by the designer to verify that values
provided in the literature are the same as assumed in the design.
Manufacturers’ literature may be a valuable resource for certain types of connection methods.

e. Engineering Judgement and Technical Literature
Connections
The effect of an eccentric connection may be ignored where it does not exceed the depth of
member. The reason for this is that the stiffness of the member will distribute the load and it
will not effect the chord or diagonal. Where such assumptions are used, an analysis of a
typical condition should be made to verify this.
Values for screws may be reported based on test values, such as an average of X tests or as
a range of values. The engineer must determine the factor of safety to use under these
conditions. A minimum factor of safety of 3.5 against the average ultimate bolt value is
suggested. (AISI)
Books on structural analysis and design cover the subject of truss analysis and design. Books
such as the Structural Engineers Handbook, AISC Manual of Steel Construction and the Building
Code provide criteria for the design of the individual truss members and connections.
Any design that does not meet all the conditions noted above, such as curved top chord,
continuous members and eccentric connections, will require additional analysis. This may be by
computer analysis with a truss or finite element analysis, or by other numerical analysis methods
with engineering judgement. The engineer must carefully consider the effects of the non-standard
truss condition. Further, the connection conditions and assumptions must be considered.
ASTM standards provide yield and ultimate strengths for various steel grades. Care must be
taken in selecting materials.
The Aluminum Handbook will provide the criteria for aluminum.
3.1.1.2 Parallel Chord Trusses
A parallel chord truss is a truss in which the top and bottom chords are parallel. Par allel chord
trusses shall be designed using all of the principles discussed under truss design.
This type of truss, because they frequently have rigid connections, will require analysis by
rigorous methods or by physical testing by an independent approved lab. All imposed loads,
including point loads, shall be considered.
Where additional structure is added above the parallel chord truss, the system shall be designed to
support the superimposed loads.
Commentary - Parallel Chord Trusses
Design Approach and Assumptions
Component Description - Parallel chord trusses are used to span in the transverse direction of a
structure, or they may be spaced more closely and span in the longitudinal direction of the

building. The beams are supported on columns or on beams that convey the load to columns. The
purlins are solid or may be open web metal joists.
Sections
Literature from product manufacturers may be relevant for some systems.
Connections
Connections are required from the parallel chord truss to the support members. This is usually a
pinned connection with no lateral or moment type loads.
Connection design shall consider any eccentricity in the connection and on the beam.
Bracing
Bracing shall be provided between parallel chord trusses when the span to depth ratio exceeds
10. Regardless, evaluation of the potential of load-induced rotation must be considered by the
engineer.
Engineering Judgement
In some cases, when the bar joist extends over a column creating a cantilever, a stiffener may be
required to prevent local buckling. Analysis of the reaction and local buckling is especially
warranted in these cases, and may require stiffeners.
3.1.1.3 Arches
Arch type roof structures shall be analyzed and designed using rational methods as required by
the building code and discussed in earlier sections. All imposed loads including point loads shall
be considered. Unbalanced loads shall be considered for all elements of the arch.
Each arch, and the individual members shall be designed for the actual load acting on it including
both vertical and lateral loads. The member shall be sized for the combined load
Collateral and plant loads, based on the projected area, shall be applied at the arch quarter points.
Design of Tension Ties
The tension tie shall be designed for the loads resulting from the horizontal force of the arch
analysis. The tension tie shall be designed considering any superimposed vertical loads. Alternate
methods to resist the tension force may be used. Industry practice examples include columns,
gutters and other elements.
Design of Connections
Connections shall consider the effects of the tension and other loads on the arch.

Design of Bracing
Arch bracing shall be provided. Such bracing shall be designed for a minimum of 2% of the axial
load in the arch.
Commentary - Arches
Component Description - An arch is a curved beam acting in compression. It has a very large
radius of curvature relative to its section depth. The vertical loads induce both bending and direct
compressive stress in an arch. Further there may be horizontal deflection in addition to vertical
deflection.
Stability of an arch is similar to that of the truss. The arch is loaded by the dead load and the live
load or the lateral load. A unique issue in greenhouse design is the lateral bracing of the arch. A
compression member tries to buckle under compression. Arch lateral stability must be
considered. The allowable stresses are determined and considered for the actual unbraced
length. Typically roof purlins provide bracing. See the truss discussion on bracing for
recommended criteria.
Reactions from an arch have horizontal components even though the loads are vertical. The
horizontal reaction in an arch is significantly different than in a truss design. There are no
horizontal components at the truss supports. It may be resisted by a tension tie between the
supports or by the columns or beams (gutters) acting as buttresses. The specific slope of the arch
will determine the type of stresses that must be designed for.
An arch may be shaped several ways depending on the material and spans. The typical arch is a
radial arch or bow, but it can be a gothic shape or even an “A” frame. A common arch shape
seen in greenhouses is that of the Quonset hut.
The arch may span between columns, beams, gutters or may spring from a foundation near
grade.
Gutters that are located on the exterior wall may have an unbalanced load conditions that must
be considered. Gutters connecting these arches also produce valley loading that must be
considered in the gutter design.
Technical Issues-
Reactions
The reaction at each end of an arch will include a horizontal force outward. This must be resisted
by either a tension tie or a beam or gutter or support that can resist this outward load.
Consideration of buckling and shear to the beam, gutter or support is required in a complete
design. Anchorage of the roof arch at the top of a cantilevered column must consider these
forces. The vertical component of the arch reaction is similar to truss reactions and can be
treated in the same manner.

Connections
Connections are required from the arch to the support members. The supporting members
require consideration for the horizontal components, as well as the vertical components, of the
arch reaction. A connection to the tension tie, if applicable, is also required. Special care is
warranted when designing this critical connection.
Bracing
Bracing out of plane is necessary to prevent the arch from lateral buckling.
3.1.1.4 Rigid Frame
General requirements
Rigid frames shall be designed considering all loads on the system. Consideration shall be made
for the moment connections and the required details. All superimposed loads described in the
general section or in the truss sections shall be considered in the design.
Component design, bracing and connections shall be designed as described in this handbook.
Appropriate unbalanced and collateral loads shall be applied as required.
Rigid frames will have both horizont al and vertical reactions at the column bases. Structural
elements to be supported by foundations, building walls and other means that are to be designed
or evaluated by others, shall have the design reactions noted on the plans.
Commentary - Rigid Frame
Component Description - A system of beams and columns in which the connections between the
members are designed to transfer moment. The connection is designed to allow translation and
rotation of all the members without allowing rotation between the members. The angle between
the members remains constant. Frames are designed to resist vertical and horizontal loads. Rigid
frames are similar to an arch in concept when one considers the connections as a continuation of
the structure.
A ”Gothic” type roof structure can be designed as a rigid frame, provided the same moment-
resisting connections that one would find in a rigid frame are used. However, not all connections
in a Gothic roof structure will necessarily be moment resisting.
The critical design feature of a rigid frame is the beam to column connection. This connection
must carry the moments as well as the other loads. The vertical and horizontal loads should be
adequately transferred to the foundation. The members are designed for bending, shear, and
axial stresses. Rigid frames have a horizontal component to their reaction at the column base.

Sections
Section properties of various elements may be obtained from manufacturer’s literature.
Connections
Connections must be adequately designed to allow the frame joints to take moments and act as
one unit. As stated above, the connection allows the members to have translation and rotation as
a unit without allowing rotation between the individual members. The detailing of the rigid
connection requires close attention.
Bracing
Bracing shall be provided based on the AISC provisions.
3.1.2 Secondary Systems

Secondary systems, including gutters, ridges, purlins and glazing bars, shall be designed for all
loads, including dead and li ve loads, lateral and applicable collateral loads. Load combinations as
required by the building code shall be considered. Designs shall use the analysis methods
described earlier in this chapter.
Material properties and strengths shall be as permitted by applicable codes and industry
standards.
3.1.2.1 Gutters / Primary and Secondary (Eave Members)
Gutters shall be designed for the loads described in the paragraph 3.1.2 above. Gutters may act as
the edge purlin (and carry vertical l oads), or may support glazing bars. These gutters may also
support arch ends and carry horizontal reaction loads and bending moments along their weak
axis. In addition, gutters shall be designed for any lateral loads when used as a collector for lateral
forces.
For polyethylene enclosed structures, the gutters shall be assumed to carry the entire upward wind
load of the polyethylene when it is attached to the gutter.
Sections
Gutter sections properties shall be noted in the calculations. The details of t he gutter section shall
be shown on the plans. In some cases the sections properties of the gutter section may be
obtained from the metal fabricator.
Connections
Gutter connections to support elements shall be detailed on the plans.

Component Description - The role of the gutters in the structure include the following.
• Bracing element - the gutter acts as a horizontal bracing element between the framing
members.
• Distribution member - The gutter may act to distribute the wind loads as part of the
bracing system.
• Purlin - the gutter acts as a purlin and carries vertical loads from the enclosure material.
• Beam - the gutter transfers both vertical and horizontal loads.
• Convey water - the gutter conveys water and provides proper drainage for the roof.
3.1.2.2 Ridge
Ridge shall be designed for the loads described in paragraph 3.1.2 in this section. In addition,
ridge members shall be designed for any lateral loads that may be imposed when acting as a brace
for the end walls or when used as a collector for lateral forces. Ridges used to convey lateral
loads shall be designed for the compressive forces in addition to the vertical loads using the load
combinations specified in this handbook.
Sections
Structural section properties for ridge members shall be noted in the calculations. The details of
the ridge section shall be shown on the plans. Section properties of various elements may be
obtained from manufacturer’s literature or computed based on the section.
Connections
Ridge member connections to support elements shall be detailed on the plans.
Component Description - The roles of the ridge in the structure are the following.
• Bracing element - the ridge acts as a horizontal brac ing element between the framing
members.
• Purlin - the ridge acts as a purlin and carries vertical loads.
• Beam – carries glazing bar reactions

3.1.2.3 Purlins
Purlins support the cladding and glazing bars. Purlins shall be designed for roof dead load and
other loads such as snow and wind as determined by building code requirements. Purlin design
shall consider the actual field installation conditions such as simple or continuous members and
the point loads of glazing bars. Purlins shall be designed for the loads described in paragraph
3.1.2 in this section
Sections
Purlin section details and properties shall be shown in the calculations and on the plans.
Manufactures literature may provide the design information for structural purlin s ections.
Connections
Purlin connections to support elements shall be detailed on the plans.
Component Description - The purlins support vertical loads of the enclosure material and also
act as bracing elements between the framing members.
Based on the roof slope, the load direction on the purlin may not be normal to the main axis of the
member. When this occurs, the design shall address the horizontal component of the roof load
acting on the weak direction of the purlin.
Building Codes and Consensus Standards
Purlins supporting glazing may require special consideration.
Engineering Judgement and Technical Literature
The decision of whether the glazing bars impose a point load or are to be considered a continuous
load is usually a matter of engineering judgement. Where relative stiffness can be analyzed and
the load distribution determined, an analysis is preferred.
3.1.2.4 Roof Glazing Bars
Roof glazing bars shall be designed for tributary dead, live, w ind and snow loads and load
combinations as described in paragraph 3.1.2. (Glazing bars shall be designed to support
appropriate loads regardless of the cladding type.)
Sections
Glazing bar section details and properties shall be shown in the calculation s and on the plans.

Connections
Glazing bar connections to support elements shall be detailed on the plans.
Component Description - Glazing bars shall be designed as a beam element. Glazing bars may
be simple or continuous members, span between purlins and support vertical loads of the
enclosure element. When designed for the loads, they can also act as bracing elements between
the purlins. Typically, purlins are designed so bracing is not required. In such a case, the
glazing bar may have no axial load.
3.2 Wall Elements and Columns
3.2.1 General
Wall elements consist of side and end walls and their components. Walls may be construc ted with
horizontal girts connecting to columns. End walls may consist of similar elements.
Walls must be designed for the wind loads on a building. Each element and its connection must
be analyzed for adequacy.
All wall loads must be resisted by a syste m that conveys the loads in a continuous path. For side
walls, this is often a braced system using the column or truss. In some cases it is a rigid frame.
End walls take the wind load through columns to the roof bracing systems. Then the load path
consists of diagonal braces in the plane of the roof, or in the plane of the bottom chord of the
truss. The load then is conveyed through diagonal braces along the side walls to the foundation or
through the gutter to columns with moment resisting bases.
All wall elements and columns shall be designed for all loads, including dead and live loads,
cladding, lateral and applicable collateral loads. Designs shall use the analysis methods described
earlier in this chapter. Live load reductions based on tributary areas are permitted for columns and
some roof members.
Adjacent structures
Part of the greenhouse can be supported by the wall or other element of an adjacent building. This
is often a “commercial or institutional” greenhouse.
The building code requires that the load imposed on existing structural elements by a new
structure, such as a greenhouse addition, not create an unsafe condition by overloading existing
structural elements and foundations. Codes for existing building, now under development, specify
that an overstress of less than 5 percent is acceptable. Where an overstress of 5 percent or
greater occurs, a new element and/or new foundation would be required.

3.2.2 Columns
Columns support the roof system. They also act as part of the lateral force bracing system. In
many structures there is a knee brace or “kicker” from the truss to the column. In other cases,
diagonal x-bracing may be used from truss to truss. Both types of lateral bracing systems may be
used in a structure.
Sections
Columns shall support all imposed vertical and lateral loads
Connections
All elements shall be connected to columns to covey the design loads.
Columns carry vertical loads to the foundation.
End wall columns take wind loads but may not carry any vertical load.
The column section must be designed for bending, shear, and axial stresses depending on the type
of primary support structure (truss vs. rigid frame) and applied forces as well as the type of
secondary lateral bracing system (knee braces and diagonal bracing).
The connection at the top and bottom of the column must be adequately designed to transfer loads
through the column and into the foundation, including uplift. Pinned connections shall be
adequately detailed to assure adequacy of the connection as well as providing for others designing
the foundations. Base plates for columns shall be designed in accordance with the buildin g code
and shall be shown on the contract drawings.
A column that attaches to a footing must have adequate anchor bolt embedment to transfer all
design loads, including uplift, to the foundation. Anchor bolt embedment length is an important
element in the design of a greenhouse.
Anchor bolts, even if installed by others, shall be shown on the contract drawings.
Where sleeved connections are used, the lap length shall be verified as well as the adequacy of
the elements and connections. Adequate protection against movement at both ends of the sleeve
shall be provided.
Consideration shall be given to local column buckling and the need for stiffeners at connections,
especially due to lateral loads.
Some designers use “flagpole” type footings for columns to a ct as bracing elements by
transferring moment to the ground.
The connection from the column to the footing shall be capable of developing the moment at the

base of the column. This may be accomplished by embedment of the column a sufficient length,
or by anchor bolts extending into the foundation the length required by the concrete design
standards.
3.2.3 End walls
End Walls
The end walls of a greenhouse structure shall be designed to resist the loads specified in this
manual. The reactions of such loads and the end wall members shall be resisted by a calculated
system that provides a continuous load path from the wall through the structure to the ground.
The construction drawings should contain sufficient details to show the load path. This
continuous load path will include horizontal and/ or vertical wall elements such as columns and
braces.
Bracing
End walls elements shall be braced as required for member stability. Bracing shall be designed
for loads as specified for truss bracing.
Sections
End wall sections may be of any type. Section properties of various elements may be obtained
from manufacturer’s literature.
Connections
End wall members shall be capable of conveying all required vertical and lateral loads.
End walls may carry vertical loads from the roof system to the foundation. They can also be
designed for applicable lateral loads. In this case they distribute the lateral load, namely wind or
earthquake load, to the foundation.
The engineering approach to the design of end walls and the conveying of the lateral loads
through a continuous stress path will vary by individual practice, but shall be analyzed and shall
comply with all building code requirements.
3.2.4 Girts
Girts shall be designed for the tributary lateral load. Girts shall be considered as simple or
multiple span elements and connected to each column.

Sections
Girt sections may be any formed section, often C, Z, rectangular or other shape. They must be
capable of supporting the lateral loads. Girts shall be supported as required to keep from sagging.
Connections
Girts shall be connected to columns to transfer the lateral (wind) or other loads.
Girts are usually horizontal members spanning between vertical members such as columns that
frame the walls. It is also possible to design a girt to span vertically. Whether horizontal or
vertical, girts. They are designed for lateral loads, typically wind, that are applied perpendicular
to the exterior walls. Girts transfer these loads to columns, which then transfer the loads to the
foundation.
Girts acts as beams and are typically designed for bend ing stresses but may carry axial loads too.
Girts braced by typical greenhouse enclosure materials need to have their unbraced length
considered in their design.
3.3 Lateral Load Resisting System
Frames or shear resisting elements sha ll be calculated for the loads, and load combinations
specified in the International Building Code.
All buildings require a system to resist lateral loads such as wind and earthquakes. Wind is
usually the governing load in greenhouse design except for a fe w structures in the highest seismic
zones. The effective seismic weight, W, of a structure shall include 20% of the flat roof snow
load, pf, where the flat roof snow load exceeds 30 psf.
The lateral force resisting system may consist of bracing or moment r esisting systems. The most
important factor in lateral load design is to provide a continuous stress path for the loads. The
design engineer should take into consideration the various code requirements for load
combinations when considering lateral loads.
Even when wind is the governing load, lateral force -resisting systems are required to meet the
seismic detailing requirements and limitations prescribed in the code.
3.3.1 Knee Braces
Knee braces and their connections shall be sized for the design loads based on the design code.

Sections
Any section type is permitted. Section properties of various elements may be obtained from
manufacturer’s literature.
Connections
Knee braces shall be connected to convey all loads.
Knee braces are diagonal braces connecting two members. The members act together as a braced
frame and are able to carry horizontal loads to the foundation. The columns must be designed for
the loads imposed by the knee brace.
3.3.2 Diagonal Bracing
Diagonal bracing that acts as a part of the lateral load resisting system shall be designed for all
required loads. Bracing used for temporary support during erection of a structure shall comply
with all applicable construction safety requirements.
Diagonal bracing may be in the plane of a sloped roof, or parallel the floor at the bottom chord, to
act as a horizontal truss to brace the building for lateral loads. Such bracing shall be designed for
the applied loads.
Diagonal bracing in the plane of the wall shall convey the lateral forces from the roof system to
the foundations.
Sections
Bracing may be of any section including, but not limited to, rods, steel cable, or structural
sections.
Connections
Connections for all bracing elements shall be adequate to convey the required loads. The design
shall permit adjusting the bracing to assure the required tension in rod or cable bracing systems.
[IBC Section 2211.7.5]
Diagonal bracing runs from jo int to joint, creating a triangle with the framing members. The
addition of diagonal bracing results in a unit that can be designed like a truss. The bracing
members are designed for axial stresses.
The unbraced length of compression members shall be check ed for l/r due to lateral loads.

Engineering judgement is often used to define the lateral force bracing system. The designed
system shall be fully analyzed and calculated, with design assumptions noted.
3.4 Foundations
Foundations may be designed by the engineer responsible for the greenhouse structure or by other
engineers. If the design by others is to be used, the building’s base reactions at columns and wall
loads shall be shown on the construction drawings . In addition the contract drawings should show
the anchor bolts and base plate layout.
Foundations may be several forms. Each foundation style follows standard design practice.
3.4.1 Flagpole Footings (Designs Employing Lateral Bearing)
Flagpole footing shall be designed for the vertical and lateral loads. Flagpole footing shall be
designed per IBC Section 1805.7. Unless otherwise noted, all flagpole type footings shall be
designed as non-constrained. Exception: Buildings with slabs on grade may be designed as a
constrained footing when adequate anchorage is provided when the floor slab is properly
designed to provide restraint.
Understanding the soil at the site is critical in providing an adequate design.
The design criteria, including lateral soil bearing pressures, shall be noted on the drawings.
Flagpole footings are designed for vertical and horizontal loads. The footing must be adequate for
the vertical loads. It must also be able to distribut e the lateral bearing to the soil produced by a
lateral load applied to the column. Greenhouse footings will typically be the non -constrained
type.
A constrained flagpole footing design can be used when there is a slab on grade surrounding the
flagpole footing. There shall be adequate positive load transfer to any constraining elements. See
earlier discussions regarding hoop ties and column anchorage.
Assumptions, options and other design issues should be noted on the plans. Where a ssumptions
such as lateral bearing and allowable stress increases permitted by the code in soil shall be noted
on the plans.

3.4.2 Spread Footings
Spread footing shall be designed to support all vertical and lateral loads on the supp orting soil.
Where the design of the foundation system is by others, the reactions and other design
information for the foundations shall be provided on the greenhouse drawings.
Spread footings are designed to distribute ver tical and horizontal loads to the soil. The size of the
footing is determined by the vertical load acting on the footing and the bearing pressure of the
soil. Care should be taken to align the load to act at the center of the footing, otherwise moments
must be taken into account. Horizontal load is resolved by lateral bearing on the soil.
Settlement, soil pressure and other factors will have to be considered depending on the use of the
building.
3.4.3 Continuous Footings
Continuous footings are frequently used for greenhouses. They will often be constructed with a
curb to act as a base for the glazing. Where the curb is more than a foot in height and supports the
columns in bearing or as a flagpole, the reactions at the column base should be noted on the
design drawings for use by others.

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SITE CRITERIA AND LOADS ON STRUCTURE
SITE CRITERIA:
Basic Wind Speed 90 mph, Exposure C

Ground Snow 40 psf
Roof Live Load 10 psf
Roof Dead Load 5 psf assumed
CODE IBC 2000 / ASCE 7-98
NGMA Structural Design Manual Design Example 1 - 1

WIND DESIGN
Assume 20o roof slope
Velocity pressure, qz:
qz = 0.00256KzKztKdV2I (psf) (Eq. 6-13)
Where:
Kz = 0.85 (Table 6-5, Exposure C, 0-15' ht)
Kzt = 1 (Assume no wind speed-up effects)
Kd = 0.85 (Table 6-6)
V= 90 mph (Figure 6-1)
I= 0.87 (Table 6-1, Category I)
qz = 13.03 psf
Design wind pressures, p (Eq. 6-15)
p = q(GCpf) - qi(GCpi) (psf)
Where:
q = qi = 13.0 psf (= qz = qh for this example)
(transverse)
(GCpf) =
CASE A
0.53 (Figure 6-4, Case A, building surface 1 = wall, windward)
-0.69 (Figure 6-4, Case A, building surface 2 = roof, windward)
-0.48 (Figure 6-4, Case A, building surface 3 = roof, leeward)
-0.43 (Figure 6-4, Case A, building surface 4 = wall, leeward)
-0.45 (Figure 6-4, Case B, building surface 1 = wall)

-0.69 (Figure 6-4, Case B, building surface 2 = roof) (longitudinal)
CASE B
-0.37 (Figure 6-4, Case B, building surface 3 = roof)

0.40 (Figure 6-4, Case B, building surface 5 = wall, windward)
-0.29 (Figure 6-4, Case B, building surface 6 = wall, leeward)
(GCpi) = 0.55
(Table 6-7, partially enclosed buildings)
-0.55
0.18
(Table 6-7, enclosed buildings)
-0.18

Design Wind Pressure, p
Case A
(psf)
Partially Enclosed Enclosed
max min max min
Windward:
Wall (surface 1) 14.08 -0.26 9.25 4.56
Roof (surface 2) -1.82 -16.16 -6.65 -11.34
Leeward:
Roof (surface 3) 0.91 -13.43 -3.91 -8.60
Wall (surface 4) 1.56 -12.77 -3.26 -7.95

Case B
(psf)
max min max min
Wall (surface 1) 1.30 -13.03 -3.52 -8.21

Roof (surface 2) -1.82 -16.16 -6.65 -11.34
Roof (surface 3) 2.35 -11.99 -2.48 -7.17
Wall (surface 4) 1.30 -13.03 -3.52 -8.21
Windward:
Wall (surface 5) 12.38 -1.96 7.56 2.87
Leeward:
Wall (surface 6) 3.39 -10.95 -1.43 -6.13
Determine which wind loads to use (which govern) in load combinations:
Transverse direction (Case A):

Vertical load due to wind, on roof (outward pressure)
-11.34 psf, max
Horizontal load
9.25 psf, max - windward
-7.95 psf, max - leeward
Longitudinal direction (Case B):

-11.34 psf, max (same as vertical load due to
wind in transverse direction)
Horizontal load
side walls:
-8.21 psf, max

WIND PRESSURES ON STRUCTURE:
-8.60 psf
3
-7.95 psf
4
2
-11.34 psf
1
9.25 psf
CASE A
-7.17 psf
3 6
-8.21 psf -6.13 psf
4
2
-11.34 psf
1
-8.21 psf
5
7.56 psf
CASE B

SNOW DESIGN
Flat-roof snow load, p f:
p f = 0.7CeCtIpg (Eq. 7-1)
Where:
pg = 40 psf (Figure 7-2)
Ce = 1.0 (Table 7-2, partially exposed roof)
Ct = 1.1 (Table 7-3, structure kept just above freezing)
pf = 24.6 psf
Sloped-roof snow load, p s:
p s = Cs p f (Eq. 7-2)
Where:
pf = 24.6 psf
Cs = 0.90 (Figure 7-2a, 4:12 roof slope, warm roof)
ps = 22.2 psf

LOAD COMBINATIONS
Roof Dead Load, D = 5.0 psf

Roof Live Load, Lr = 10.0 psf (Lr < than S therefore S governs)
Snow Load, S = 22.2 psf
Wind Load, W = 9.25 psf (inward pressure at wall, transverse) 7.56 psf (inward pressure at wall, longitudinal)
Assume enclosed -7.95 psf (outward pressure at wall, transverse) -6.13 psf (outward pressure at wall, longitudinal)
building -11.3 psf (upward wind pressure acting normal to roof)
Basic Combinations - Strength Design (Section 2.3.2)

(Note, only the governing load combinations are given with the governing loads)
3. 1.2 D + 1.6 S = 1.2 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (22.2 psf) = 6.0 psf D + 23.8 psf S
4. 1.2 D + 1.6 W + 0.5 S = 1.2 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (9.25 psf) + 0.5 * (22.2 psf) = 6.0 psf D + 14.8 psf W + 11.1 psf S Wind - transverse, inward pressure at wall
= 1.2 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (-7.95 psf) + 0.5 * (22.2 psf) = 6.0 psf D - 12.72 psf W + 11.1 psf S Wind - transverse, outward pressure at wall
= 1.2 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (7.56 psf) + 0.5 * (22.2 psf) = 6.0 psf D + 12.1 psf W + 11.1 psf S Wind - longitudinal, inward pressure at wall
= 1.2 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (-6.13 psf) + 0.5 * (22.2 psf) = 6.0 psf D - 9.8 psf W + 11.1 psf S Wind - longitudinal, outward pressure at wall
= 1.2 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (-11.3 psf) + 0.5 * (22.2 psf) = 6.0 psf D - 18.1 psf W, roof + 11.1 psf S Wind ld acting normal to roof (upward wind pressure)
6. 0.9 D + 1.6 W = 0.9 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (9.25 psf) = 4.5 psf D + 14.8 psf W Wind - transverse, inward pressure at wall
= 0.9 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (-7.95 psf) = 4.5 psf D - 12.72 psf W Wind - transverse, outward pressure at wall
= 0.9 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (7.56 psf) = 4.5 psf D + 12.1 psf W Wind - longitudinal, inward pressure at wall
= 0.9 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (-6.13 psf) = 4.5 psf D - 9.8 psf W Wind - longitudinal, outward pressure at wall
= 0.9 * (5.0 psf) + 1.6 * (-11.3 psf) = 4.5 psf D - 18.1 psf W Wind ld acting normal to roof (upward wind pressure)
Allowable Stress Design - Load Combinations (Section 2.4.1)
2. D+S = 5.0 psf D + 22.2 psf S
3. D+W+S = 5.0 psf D + 9.25 psf W + 22.2 psf S Wind - transverse, inward pressure at wall
= 5.0 psf D - 7.95 psf W + 22.2 psf S Wind - transverse, outward pressure at wall
= 5.0 psf D + 7.56 psf W + 22.2 psf S Wind - longitudinal, inward pressure at wall
= 5.0 psf D - 6.13 psf W + 22.2 psf S Wind - longitudinal, outward pressure at wall
= 5.0 psf D - 11.3 psf W + 22.2 psf S Wind ld acting normal to roof (upward wind pressure)
4. 0.6D + W = 0.6 * (5.0 psf) + (9.25 psf) = 3.0 psf D + 9.25 psf W Wind - transverse, inward pressure at wall
= 0.6 * (5.0 psf) + (-7.95 psf) = 3.0 psf D - 7.95 psf W Wind - transverse, outward pressure at wall
= 0.6 * (5.0 psf) + (7.56 psf) = 3.0 psf D + 7.56 psf W Wind - longitudinal, inward pressure at wall
= 0.6 * (5.0 psf) + (-6.13 psf) = 3.0 psf D - 6.13 psf W Wind - longitudinal, outward pressure at wall
= 0.6 * (5.0 psf) + (-11.3 psf) = 3.0 psf D - 11.3 psf W Wind ld acting normal to roof (upward wind pressure)

STRUCTURE DESIGN
Roof Design:
Using Allowable Stress Design or Basic Load Combinations (Strength Design)
Truss Analysis
Connectors
Lateral Design (Wind):

WIND DESIGN:
H = 12'
ES
UT CE
TRIBBRA
S
DI AG.
TER DI
V = w x W/2 V = 912# EC TO
= 912# LL V,
CO AD,
w = p x HT LO
= 76plf
V = 912#
W
VERTICAL =2
BEAM 4'
DIAGONAL BRACE,
T= V x 1.414 (@45°)
= 1290#
WIND PRESSURE, P, AT GABLE END WALL
(LONGIT. DIRECTION), P = 7.6 PSF
w= 7.6 psf x (12'/2 + 2/3x6') = 76 plf
V LONGIT = 76plf x 24'/2 = 912#

(@45°)
TENSION IN DIAG. CROSS BRACE
@ LONGIT. WALL, T = 912# x 1.414 = 1290#
WIND
1E 2E END BAY DESIGN FOR TRANSVERSE

KNEE BRACES
WIND LOAD:
USE KNEE BRACE FRAME

DIAGONAL BRACING OR DIAGONAL BRACING
OR FLAG POLES
FLAG POLES
END BEAM
ELEVATION

www.ngma.com
SITE CRITERIA AND LOADS ON STRUCTURE
CODE ASCE 7-98 / IBC 2000 Note, references to ASCE 7-98 are bold,
references to IBC 2000 are in italics.
SITE CRITERIA:
Roof Live Load 10 psf IBC 1607.11.2.1

Roof Dead Load 5 psf (assumed)
Ground Snow 30 psf Site specific information, Figure 7-1
Basic Wind Speed 90 mph, Exposure C Site specific information, Figure 6-1
Seismic Site Class D Default value per 9.4.1.2.1 (exception)
Occupancy Category I Table 1-1 This is for a production type greenhouse
that is not highly occupied. Commercial greenhouses,
used for retail purposes, would be in category II.
A commercial greenhouse would use a higher I-value
for wind and snow design. It does not affect seismic
design.
Seismic Use Group I Table 9.1.3 and section 9.1.3
Seismic Use Group is based on the occupancy
category of the structure. Occupancy categories I and
II are both Seismic Use Group I.
Mapped Earthquake Ground Ss = 0.5g Site specific information from maps,
Motion S1 = 0.18g figures 9.4.1.1(a) and 9.4.1.1(b)
Example building:
Gutter connected production greenhouse

40 ft span, symmetrical

CONSTRUCTION DOCUMENTS
ITEMS TO BE SHOWN ON PLANS
Per IBC Section 1603 Example Building:
Floor Live Load 1603.1.1 N/A
Roof Live Load 1603.1.2 10 psf
Roof Snow Load 1603.1.3

1. Flat-roof snow load, Pf pf = 18.5 psf
2. Snow exposure factor, Ce Ce = 1.0
3. Snow load importance factor, I I= 0.8
4. Thermal factor, Ct Ct = 1.1
Wind Load 1603.1.4

1. Basic wind speed V= 90 mph
2. Wind importance factor, I I= 0.87
and building category I
3. Wind exposure C
4. Applicable internal pressure coefficient + 0.18 Enclosed building
- 0.18
5. Components and cladding Provide design wind pressure to be used in
design of exterior component and cladding
materials not specifically designed by the
registered design professional.
Earthquake Design Data 1603.1.5

1. Seismic use group I
2. Spectral response coefficients, SDS and SD1 SDS = 0.47
SD1 = 0.25
3. Site class D
4. Basic seismic-force-resisting system Ordinary concentric braced frame
5. Design base shear V= 0.11 *W
6. Analysis procedure Simplified analysis
7. Seismic importance factor, I IE = 1.0
Flood Load 1603.1.6

For buildings located in flood hazard areas (per 1612.3) Example structure not located in flood zone
Special Loads 1603.1.7 Per NGMA Manual
System and components requiring special Typically not required

inspection for seismic resistance
1603.1.8

SNOW DESIGN
Flat-roof snow load, p f:
p f = 0.7CeCtIpg (Eq. 7-1)
Where:
pg = 30 psf (Figure 7-2)
Ce = 1.0 (Table 7-2, partially exposed roof)
Ct = 1.1 (Table 7-3, structure kept just above freezing)
pf = 18.5 psf
Sloped-roof snow load, p s:
p s = Cs p f (Eq. 7-2)
Where:
pf = 18.5 psf
Cs = 1.00 (Per 7.4.4 roof slope factor for multiple folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault
roofs Cs = 1.0, otherwise Cs = 0.9 per Figure 7-2a for a 4:12 roof slope, warm
roof)
ps = 18.5 psf
There is additional snow load design required at the valley between the two
portions of the structure per 7.6.3 and Figure 7.6.
There will be approximately twice the snow load in the valley and half the snow load at the peak as
shown below.
BALANCED
LOAD
UNBALANCED
LOAD

WIND DESIGN
Assume 4:12 (18.4o) roof slope
Velocity pressure, qz:
qz = 0.00256KzKztKdV2I (psf) (Eq. 6-13)
Where:
Kz = 0.85 (Table 6-5, Exposure C, 0-15' ht)
Kzt = 1 (Assume no wind speed-up effects)
Kd = 0.85 (Table 6-6)
V= 90 mph (Figure 6-1)
qz = 13.03 psf
Design wind pressures, p (Eq. 6-15)
p = q(GCpf) - qi(GCpi) (psf)
Where:
q = qi = 13.0 psf (= qz = qh for this example)
(transverse)
(GCpf) =
CASE A
0.53 (Figure 6-4, Case A, building surface 1 = wall, windward)
-0.69 (Figure 6-4, Case A, building surface 2 = roof, windward)
-0.48 (Figure 6-4, Case A, building surface 3 = roof, leeward)
-0.43 (Figure 6-4, Case A, building surface 4 = wall, leeward)

-0.69 (Figure 6-4, Case B, building surface 2 = roof) (longitudinal)
CASE B
-0.37 (Figure 6-4, Case B, building surface 3 = roof)

0.40 (Figure 6-4, Case B, building surface 5 = wall, windward)
-0.29 (Figure 6-4, Case B, building surface 6 = wall, leeward)
(GCpi) = 0.55
(Table 6-7, partially enclosed buildings)
-0.55
0.18
(Table 6-7, enclosed buildings)
-0.18

Case A
(psf)
max min max min
Windward:
Wall (surface 1) 14.08 -0.26 9.25 4.56
Roof (surface 2) -1.82 -16.16 -6.65 -11.34
Leeward:
Roof (surface 3) 0.91 -13.43 -3.91 -8.60
Wall (surface 4) 1.56 -12.77 -3.26 -7.95

Case B
(psf)
max min max min
Wall (surface 1) 1.30 -13.03 -3.52 -8.21

Roof (surface 2) -1.82 -16.16 -6.65 -11.34
Roof (surface 3) 2.35 -11.99 -2.48 -7.17
Wall (surface 4) 1.30 -13.03 -3.52 -8.21
Windward:
Wall (surface 5) 12.38 -1.96 7.56 2.87
Leeward:
Wall (surface 6) 3.39 -10.95 -1.43 -6.13
Determine which wind loads to use (which govern) in load combinations:
FOR AN ENCLOSED STRUCTURE:

-11.34 psf, max
Horizontal load

Horizontal load
side walls:
-8.21 psf, max

FOR A PARTIALLY ENCLOSED STRUCTURE:

-16.16 psf, max
Horizontal load

Horizontal load
side walls:
-13.03 psf, max

SEISMIC DESIGN
Design per ASCE 7 Ch. 9
Site location: Southern Indiana

Use site location to obtain information from maps (see below)
(Ss = 0.5g See map, Fig. 9.4.1.1(a) )
(S1 = 0.18g See map, Fig. 9.4.1.1(b) )
Site Class: D Default value per 9.4.1.2.1 to use without site specific
geotechnical investigation
Seismic Use Group: I Agricultural facilities/temporary or storage facilities that are not essential
facilities or that do not represent a substantial hazard to human life
Occupancy Category II would be SUG I and would have the same seismic
requirements)
Table 1-1, Table 9.1.3 and Section 9.1.3
Go to maps in ASCE-7/IBC:
9.4.1.1 Ss = 0.5 g Fig. 9.4.1.1(a) Mapped maximum considered earthquake
S1 = 0.18 g Fig. 9.4.1.1(b) spectral response acceleration at short
periods, Ss, and at 1-second period, S1
Calculate the mapped maximum considered earthquake spectral response accelerations:

9.4.1.2.4 SMS = FaSs Eq. 9.4.1.2.4-1
Where:
Fa = 1.4 Table 9.4.1.2.4a For Site Class D & Ss = 0.5
S1 = 0.5 Fig. 9.4.1.1(a)
SMS = 0.7
SM1 = FvS1 Eq. 9.4.1.2.4-2

Where:
Fv = 2.1 Table 9.4.1.2.4b For Site Class D & S1 = 0.18 (interpolate)
S1 = 0.18 Fig. 9.4.1.1(b)
SM1 = 0.378
From this, calculate the design spectral response accelerations:

9.4.1.2.5 SDS = 2/3*SMS Eq. 9.4.1.2.5-1
SDS = 0.4667
SD1 = 2/3*SM1 Eq. 9.4.1.2.5-2

SD1 = 0.252
Determine building period:

9.4.1.2.6 Building period N/A (simplified design used per 9.5.2.5)

Based on SUG = I and calculated SDS and SD1, determine Seismic Design Category from tables:
9.4.2 Seismic Design Category = C based on short period response acceleration
Table 9.4.2.1a For Seismic Use Group I & SDS = 0.47
Seismic Design Category = D based on 1 second period response acceleration

Table 9.4.2.1b For Seismic Use Group I & SD1 = 0.25
Therefore, use Seismic Category = D (per 9.4.2.1, use most severe of the two)
For complete information, see ASCE-7 or IBC

9.5.2.5 Analysis Procedures:
Simplified analysis, in accordance with 9.5.3.8, may be used for any structure in Seismic
Use Group I.
9.5.3.8 V= ((1.2 SDS)/R) * W Eq. 9.5.3.8.1
Where
SDS = 0.467
R= 5 Table 9.5.2.2 Ordinary steel concentrically braced frames (Note,
this would also be applicable to aluminum and light gage steel
frames)
A different R-value may apply in the longitudinal than in the
transverse direction depending on the lateral force resisting
system. The Base Shear, V, would be different in the different
directions.
V= 0.112 *W The load is applied at the eave line of the building.
Notes:
1. See also IBC Sections 2205 and 2211 for minimum provisions for light gage steel structures. Section
2205 references AISI Specification. The provisions of 2211.7 are for buildings assigned to seismic
design category D, E, or F and include minimum design provisions for connections for diagonal bracing
members, top chord splices, boundary elements and collectors. There is special design for diagonal
bracing under certain conditions per 2211.7.5 .
2. Section 1617.4 IBC and 9.5.3.8 of ASCE 7, where the flat roof snow load exceeds 30 psf, twenty
percent of the flat roof snow load must be included as part of the seismic weight (W).

Additional design requirements:
Reliability factor, r
The overall design shall include a review of the redundancy of the structure. This factor is rho, r, and
which is multiplied times the effective seismic mass (Q E). The factor, r, varies from 1.0 to 1.5. The
factor may vary for each building configuration as well as Seismic Design Category. Below is a chart
showing the maximum value. This may be used as the default value in many cases since wind may
govern.
Overstrength factor, W
Specific components shall be designed for an overstrength factor, Omega, W. This applies to collectors,
their splices and their connections to the lateral force resisting elements. This will typically be the gutters
and other edge/boundary members in greenhouses. Its use is dependent on the Seismic Design
Category.
Default Factor
Seismic Design
Category Rho, r Omega, W
(for Braced Frames)
A 1.0 -
B 1.0 -
C 1.0 2.0
D 1.5 2.0
E 1.5 2.0
F 1.5 2.0
Drift (Section 9.5.3.7.1)

Compute the structure drift at the roof of a one story building. This must be compared to the value in
Table 9.5.2.8 for the Allowable Story Drift. The structure drift is based on the type of lateral force
resisting system and uses the Cd factor obtained from Table 9.5.2.2.

Requirements by Seismic Design Category:
Regardless if wind governs the design or not, the lateral-force-resisting systems shall meet seismic
detailing requirements and limitations prescribed in the code (IBC 1609.1.5 )
The following are the minimum requirements for the seismic design and interconnection of building
elements per Chapter 9:
Design basis, per 9.5.2.1, to provide a continuous load path, or paths, to transfer all forces from the
point of application to the final point of resistance.
For Seismic Design Category A 9.5.2.5.1 and 9.5.2.6.1

Minimum seismic design provisions include consideration of the following:
Component load effects - all structure components shall have the strength to resist
minimum seismic loads (9.5.2.6.1.1)
Load path connections - all parts of the structure shall be interconnected to form a
continuous path to the seismic load-resisting system, and the connections shall be designed
for seismic force F p (9.5.2.6.1.2)
Fx = 0.01 W Eq. 9.5.2.5.1 Minimum lateral force (for design of collector

element - gutter), where the weight, W,
includes 20% of flat snow load where flat
roof snow load exceeds 30 psf. (9.5.3.2)
Fp = 0.05 w 9.5.2.6.1.2 Minimum lateral load for design of

or 0.133 SDS * w connections (w is the weight of the smaller
part being connected to the larger part).
Note that connection of beam, girders, or
truss to support is to be designed to resist
5% of the dead and live load vertical reaction
applied horizontally.
Note: All structures are required to be designed for minimum requirements of Seismic Design Category
A, and with further requirements based on the Seismic Design Category.

LOAD COMBINATIONS
Roof Dead Load, D = 5.0 psf

Roof Live Load, Lr = 10.0 psf (Lr < than S therefore S governs)
Snow Load, S = 18.5 psf
Wind Load, W = 13.00 psf design wind pressure
Earthquake Load, E = 0.11 W lb, base shear
Basic Combinations - Strength Design (Section 2.3.2)
1. 1.4 D Where: D = dead load

2. 1.2 D + 0.5 (Lr or S or R) E = earthquake load Note: Per 2.3.3 there are additional load combinations to be
3. 1.2 D + 1.6 (Lr or S or R) + 0.8 W Lr = roof live load considered if the structure is located in a flood zone.
4. 1.2 D + 1.6 W + 0.5 (Lr or S or R) R = rain load
5. 1.2 D + 1.0 E + 0.2 S S = snow load Note: Roof live load, L, has not been included since for one-story
6. 0.9 D + 1.6 W W = wind load greenhouse with a concrete slab floor there is none to be
7. 0.9 D + 1.0 E considered.
Allowable Stress Design - Load Combinations (Section 2.4.1)
1. D
2. D + (Lr or S or R)
3. D + (W or 0.7 E) + (Lr or S or R)
4. 0.6 D + W
5. 0.6 D + 0.7 E

STRUCTURE DESIGN
Roof Design:
Truss Analysis
Connectors
Lateral Design (Wind and Seismic):


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National Greenhouse Manufacturers

Structural Design Manual

PLEASE VISIT US ON THE WEB:

4305 North Sixth Street, Suite A

717-238-4530 FAX 717-238-9985

Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION........................................................................................... 1-1

Chapter 2 - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS...................................................................... 2-1

2.1 Basic Requirements............................................................................................ 2-1

2.2 Administrative Issues ......................................................................................... 2-2

2.3 Design Methodology.......................................................................................... 2-4

NGMA Structural Design Manual i

2.5 Snow ................................................................................................................... 2-5

2.6 Wind.................................................................................................................. 2-12

2.7 Seismic Loads................................................................................................... 2-16

NGMA Structural Design Manual ii

Chapter 3 - STRUCTURAL DESIGN............................................................................... 3-1

3.1. Roof Support Systems....................................................................................... 3-4

3.1.2 Secondary Systems .............................................................................. 3-13

3.2. Wall Elements and Columns........................................................................... 3-16

NGMA Structural Design Manual iii

3.4. Foundations ..................................................................................................... 3-21

PLEASE VISIT US ON THE WEB

NGMA Structural Design Manual iv

1.1 Greenhouses Defined

NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 1 - 1

1.4 How to use this manual

NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 1 - 2

Table 1.1 - Greenhouse Design Comparison

ASCE 7 Category I ASCE 7 Category II

Structural material selection (IBC Category IV) (IBC Category I)

Cladding selection No limitations Overhead glass

Loads Is = 0.80 Is = 1.0

Iw = 0.87 (Non-Hurricane Prone Iw = 1.00

Collateral loads Collateral loads

Structural design Larger deflections may be allowed More control of deflection

(per IBC Table 1604.3)

Cladding design No limitations Fire safety

NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 1 - 3

• Structural members supporting cladding is are to be designed.

PLEASE VISIT US ON THE WEB:

NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 1 - 4

2.1 Basic Requirements

NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 2 - 1

Cladding attachment must be designed to accept differential movement under loads.

2.2 Administrative Issues

2.2.1 Design Requirements

Soil type and allowable pressure

NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 2 - 2

• Roof Live Loads

• Collateral Loads (irrigation equipment, including water)

NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 2 - 3

2.2.3 Additions and alterations

2.2.4 Load Testing

2.3 Design Methodology

NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 2 - 4

2.4.2 Dead loads

2.4.3 Live loads

2.4.4 Collateral Loads

2.4.5 Plant Loads

NGMA Structural Design Manual Chapter 2 - 5

Continuously heated greenhouse. Any greenhouse, production or commercial, with a constantly

2.5.3 Design Procedure