CIVL 111 Construction Materials

Prof. Zongjin Li
Department of Civil Engineering

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5.4 Admixtures
--Definition and Classifications
Material other than water, aggregates, cement and
reinforcing fibers that is used in concrete as an
ingredient and added to the batch immediately before or
during mixing.
i. Air-entraining agents (ASTM C260)
ii. Chemical admixtures (ASTM C494 and BS5075)
iii. Mineral admixtures
iv. Miscellaneous admixtures include:
Latexes
Corrosion inhibitors
Expansive admixtures 2
5.4 Admixtures
--Definition and Classifications (2)
Beneficial effects of admixtures on concrete properties

Concrete property Admixture

Workability ‡Superplasticizer
‡Air-entraining agents
Setting ‡Accelerators
‡Retarders

Strength ‡Silica
fume
‡Polymers

Durability ‡Air-entraining agent

‡Silica
fume
‡Corrosion inhibitors

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5.4 Admixtures for concrete

Admixture in liquid form

Admixture in solid form

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5.4 Admixtures
-- Water reducing admixtures (1)
Water-reducing admixture lowers the water required to
attain a given workability.
Cement Water / Compressive strength
Slump (Mpa)
Test series content cement
(mm)
(kg/m3) ratio 7 days 28 days
1Reference concrete
300 0.62 50 25 37
(no admixture)
A given dosage of a
water-reducing
admixture is added
with the purpose of:
2Consistency
300 0.62 100 26 38
increase
3Strength increase 300 0.56 50 34 46
4Cement saving 270 0.62 50 25.5 37.5

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5.4 Admixtures
-- Water reducing admixtures (2)
a. Mechanism:
separate the cement particles
Release the entrapped water

Water is trapped
Cement Particle

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5.4.2.1 Water reducing admixtures (3)
b. Two kinds of water-reducing admixture:
The normal range (WR):
i. Reduce 5 – 10% of water
The high range water reducing admixture (HRWR):
i. Superplasticizer
ii. Reduce water in a range of 15-30%

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5.4.2.1 Water reducing admixtures (4)
c. Superplasticizer
Superplasticizers are used for two main purposes:
i. To produce high strength concrete at w/c ratio in a
range of 0.23 – 0.3 (60 – 150MPa)
ii. To create “flowing” concrete with high slumps in the
range of 175 to 225mm. Self compacting concrete: for
beam-column joint and footing (heavy reinforced)
Two forms
i. Solid power
ii. Liquid --- 40% - 60% of water

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5.4.2.1 Water reducing admixtures (5)
c. Superplasticizer
Dosage:
Normal dosage of superplasticizer for concrete is 1%-2%
by weight of cement.
Other benefits on hardened concrete may be stated as:
A lower w/c ratio would lead to better durability and
lower creep and shrinkage.
The major drawbacks of superplasticizer are:
i. retarding of setting (especially at large amount
addition)
ii. causing more bleeding
iii. entraining too much air.
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5.4.2.2 Setting control admixtures (1)
a. Mechanisms
Change the rate of the crystallization of portland cement
by adding certain soluble chemicals to influence the ion
dissolution rate.
Anions (silicate and aluminate)
Cations (calcium)
The setting will be speeded up when dissolution rates of
cations and anions are higher. On the other hand, the
setting will be slow down when dissolution rates of
cations and anions are lower.

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5.4.2.2 Setting control admixtures (2)
a. Mechanisms (Cont’d)
Accelerating admixture:
must promote the dissolution of cations and anions.
Retarding admixture must impeded the dissolution of
cations and anions
Two different setting control admixture:

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5.4.2.2 Setting control admixtures (3)
a. Mechanisms (Cont’d)
i. Dual role setting control admixture
A lot of chemical admixtures has both
complementary and opposing effects.
The dominate effect usually depends on the
concentration.
ii. Monotonic retarding agent
Forming insoluble and impermeable products or
delaying bond formation.

Coating
C3S

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5.4.2.2 Setting control admixtures (4)
a. Mechanisms (Cont’d)
ii. Once insoluble and dense coatings are formed
around the cement grains, further hydration slows
down considerably. Surger and carbonated
beverage belongs to this category.

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5.4.2.2 Setting control admixtures (5)
b. Applications
i. Retarding admixtures:
1. Offset fast setting caused by hot weather
2. Setting control of large structural units
3. Setting control of long distance transport
ii. Accelerators:
1. Plugging leaks:
2. Emergency repair: High way; Bridge
Swimming pool
3. Winter construction in cold region
E.g. use calcium chloride (CaCl2)
Use cement to
mend the leak

Side effects: corrosion

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5.4.2.2 Setting control admixtures (6)

Influence of calcium chloride Effect of calcium chloride on

in relation to setting period strength development at
different temperatures

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5.4.3 Air-entraining admixtures entrain air in
the concrete
‡ Small size air bubbles is introduced into
concrete uniformly
‡ The air bubbles are enclosed, not
connected

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5.4.3.2 Two types of air bubble introduced in
concrete (1)
‡ Entrained air:
„ On purpose
„ Size: 50 to 200 μm
‡ Entrapped air:
„ By chance
„ As large as 3mm

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5.4.3.2 Two types of air bubble introduced
in concrete (2)

Dimensional range of solids and pores in a hydrated

cement paste

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5.4.3.3 Mechanism of air-entraining
admixtures

Schematic representation of air entrainment by surface

active molecule

Hydrophilic group

Hydrophobic component

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5.4.3.4 Advantages of adding air entraining
admixtures
‡ Improved workability --- air bubble as lubricant
‡ Improved ductility --- more deformation from small hole
‡ Reduced permeability --- isolated air bubble
‡ Improved impact resistance --- more deformation
‡ Improved durability --- freezing and thawing(release ice
forming pressure)

air bubbles air bubbles

water water

Connected air bubbles Isolated air bubbles

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5.4.3.5 Disadvantage of adding air entraining
admixtures
‡ Strength loss of 10-20%

Effect of entrained air on durability

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5.4.3.6 Role of bubble spacing (1)
‡ The smaller the spacing factor, the more durable the
concrete.
‡ Critical spacing: 0.3mm

Relationship between durability and

bubble spacing factor of entrained air

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5.4.3.7 Gel spacing ratio
‡ The formula used to calculate the gel space ratio (X) has
to be modified if entrained air is added into cement
paste as follows:

volume of gel (including gel pores )

X =
volume of gel + volume of capillary pores + entrained air
0.68α
=
0.32α + w / c + entrained air

Where α = degree of hydration

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5.4.4 Mineral admixtures
‡ Finely divided siliceous materials which are added into
concrete in relatively large amount.

5.4.4.1 Silica fume

5.4.4.2 Fly ash

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5.4.4.1 Silica fume (1)
‡ Silica fume is a by-product of the induction arc furnaces
in the silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloy industries.

‡ Silica fume has very fine particles

Below 0.50 micron

Below 0.20 micron
20% below 0.05 micron

Below 0.10 micron

%
70% below 0.10 micron
95% below 0.20 micron 100

99% below 0.50 micron 80

Below 0.05 micron

60

40

20

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5.4.4.1 Silica fume (2)

The typical chemical composition of silica fume

Typical St.dev. Min Max
Moisture % 0.30 0.09 0.09 0.50
LOI % 1.18 0.26 0.79 0.73
SiO 2 % 92.9 0.60 92.0 94.0
Al2 O 3 % 0.69 0.10 0.52 0.86
Fe 2 O 3 % 1.25 0.46 0.74 2.39
CaO % 0.40 0.09 0.28 0.74
MgO 1.73 0.31 1.23 2.24
K 2O % 1.19 0.15 1.00 1.53
Na 2 O % 0.43 0.03 0.37 0.49
C% 0.88 0.19 0.62 1.30
Cl % 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03
S% 0.20 0.10 0.30
P% 0.07 0.03 0.12

LOI --- Loss of ignition

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5.4.4.1 Silica fume (3)

Silica fume particle

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5.4.4.1 Silica fume (4)

A comparison of size distribution of silica fume to other materials

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Effect of silica fume
‡ Physical: Packing
‡ Chemical: Pozzolanic reaction

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Packing effect

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Pozzolanic reaction

pozzolan + calcium hydroxide

+
water
=
calcium silicate hydrate (secondary)

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Classification of coal ash (1)
‡ Fly ash
The fine particulate matter rises with flue
gasses collected by electrostatic
precipitators
‡ Bottom ash
Larger particles and fused particles fall to
bottom

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5.4.4.2 Fly ash

Fly ash particles

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Classification of coal ash (2)
- Fly ash classification (ASTM)

‡ Classified according the coal burned

- Class F: Anthracite or bituminous
coal
- Class C: Lignite or subbituminous
coal
‡ Class C is more active than Class F

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Various Usage of Coal Ash
- Construction
Concrete production

- 25% to 30% replacement

- can improve durability
- Good for long term strength
- better to used with other mineral
admixtures

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5.4.4.2 Fly ash
‡ Advantages of incorporation of fly ash
„ Low cost --- $200-300/Ton (cement $500/Ton)
„ Low energy demand --- Industry by product
„ Low hydration hear --- pozzolanic reaction
‡ Disadvantages of incorporation of fly ash
„ Low early age strength
„ Longer initial setting time
Solution: Alkali activator (1% NaOH)

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Chapter 5 Concrete
--Hardened concrete

Harden concrete is the concrete have

gain sufficient strength and ready to
carry out the external load. Its
properties have to meet the
requirement of end users.

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Chapter 5 Concrete -5.5 Hardened concrete
Strength Definition (1)
‡ Definition
„ The ability of concrete to resist stress without
failure
‡ Failure identification
„ Appearance of cracks
‡ Why is strength specified in construction design and
quality control?
„ It is relatively easy to be measured
„ Other properties are related to the strength
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5.5 Hardened concrete
--Strength Definition (2)
‡ General index of concrete strength
„ 28 day compressive strength of concrete
determined by a standard uniaxial
compression test
‡ More realistic criteria of failure of concrete
„ Limiting strain
Tension: 100 X 10-6 to 200 X 10-6
Compression: 70 MPa 2000 X 10-6
14 MPa 4000 X 10-6 40
Examples of transducers for strength test

Transducer

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Compressive strength test
-- Failure mechanism

a. Random microcrack
b. Stably growth of microcracks
c. Microcrack localization
d. Failure (major crack in vertical direction)

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Compressive strength test
-- Specimen preparation (1)
a. Cube specimen
British Standard (BS) 1881: Part 108: 1983. Filling in
3 layers with 50mm for each layer. Stokes 35 times
(150mm cube) and 25 times (100mm cube). Part 11 is
for curing. 20 5oC. Relative humility: 90%

L
L/B = 1

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Compressive strength test
-- Specimen preparation (2)
b. Cylinder specimen
American Society of Testing & Materials (ASTM) C470-
81. Standard cylinder size is 150 x 300mm. Curing
condition is temperature of 23 1.7oC and moist
condition. Grinding or capping are needed for level and
smooth compression surface.

D
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Compressive strength test
--Factors influencing experiment results (1)
a. Loading rate
The faster the load rate, the higher the ultimate load
obtained. The standard load rate is 0.15 – 0.34
MPa/s for ASTM and 0.2 - 0.4 MPa/s for BS.

Max. Load

Loading rate

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Compressive strength test
--Factors influencing experiment results(2)
b. End condition
Influence of platen restraint. Cube’s apparent strength
is 1.15 time of cylinders.

deformation shear force friction

on L/R side
specimen

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Compressive strength test
--Factors influencing experiment results(3)
c. Size effect
Probability having large deficiencies (such as void and
crack) increases with size increases.

Standard size: cube – 150 x 150 x 150mm

cylinder – 150 x 300mm

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Tensile strength and corresponding tests
--Failure mechanism

σ/ σmax

80%
σ / σ max

30%

a. Random crack development

b. Localization of micocracks
c. Major crack propagation

Detection of microcrack: use of acoustic emission

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Stress concentration factor
‡ Stress concentration is the stress at the edge of the
hole, smax , is large than the normal stress sN

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Direct tension test methods (1)
‡ Direct tension tests of concrete are seldom to carry
out because it is difficult to control and because the
specimen holding devices introduce secondary stress
that cannot be ignored. Two frequently used methods
are described below.

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Direct tension test methods (2)
a. Grips dog bone test
b. End plate loading method
tension force
pin

grip

steel plate

Boundary
specimen
L stresses are
complicated

L-Uniform
stress
distribution
zone
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Indirect tension test
--(split cylinder test or Brazilian test) (1)
‡ BS 1881: Part 117:1983
150 x 300mm cylinder. Loading rate 0.02 to 0.04
MPa/s

‡ ASTM C496-71:
150 x 300mm cylinder. Loading rate 0.011 to 0.023
MPa/s

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Indirect tension test
--(split cylinder test or Brazilian test) (2)

(a) Set-up for indirect

tension test
(b) The stress distribution
along diameter

The splitting tensile strength:

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Flexural strength and corresponding test (1)
‡ BS 1881: Part 118: 1983
Flexural test. 150 x 150 x 750mm or
100 x 100 x 500mm (Max. size of aggregate is less
than 25mm)
The arrangement for modulus of rupture is shown in
the following figure, in which, the moment diagram
and distribution of strain and stress along the height
of specimen are also shown.

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Flexural strength and corresponding test (2)

Flexural strength test

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Flexural strength and corresponding test (3)
‡ Modulus of rapture:
For the case of fracture takes place within the middle one third
of the beam,

p . l pl
d Mmax = 2 3 = 6
d
Ymax = 2
b bd3
I= 12
PL
f bt = 2
bd
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Flexural strength and corresponding test (4)
‡ For fracture occurs outside of the middle one-third,

p
Mmax = a
2
d
Ymax =
2
bd3
I= 12

Valid for ASTM standard only

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