A

Seminar Report
On

Lattice Boltzmann Method

Submitted to

Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University,

Amravati (M.S.) 444 203
In partial fulfillment of the requirement

FOR THE DEGREE OF

Bachelor of Engineering
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BY

Mr. Himanshu R. Banait

Under the guidance of
Prof. M. B. Bhambere

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Shri Sant Gajanan Maharaj College of Engineering
Shegaon-444203 (M.S.)
Recognised by AICTE, accredited by NBA, New Delhi, NAAC, Banglore & ISO 9001:2000
ssgmce.ac.in
 Shri Sant Gajanan Maharaj College of Engineering,
Shegaon-444203. (M.S.)
Affiliated to Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Amravati, Recognised by
A.I.C.T.E. New Delhi, Accredited by N.B.A. and ISO 9001:2000 Certified

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that,
The seminar report on

“Lattice Boltzmann Method”

Presented by
Himanshu Ramesh Banait (43)
Is Submitted
As per the requirement of Sant Gadge Baba Amravati
University, Amravati in partial fulfillment of degree of
B.E. (Mechanical Engineering)
(Academic Session 2019-20)

Prof. M. B. Bhambere Prof. K. R. Gandhare Dr. S. P. Trikal

Seminar Guide Seminar In-Charge HOD
Lattice Boltzmann Method

Acknowledgment

With great pleasure I hereby acknowledge the help given to me by various

individuals in preparation of the seminar. This seminar itself is an acknowledgment to the
inspiration, drive and technical assistance contributed by many individuals. This seminar
would never have seen the light of the day without help and guidance I have received.

I would like to take opportunity to express my gratitude to my guide Prof. M. B.

Bhambere sir, for his valuable guidance and encouragement. His suggestions has
broadened my vision and guide me to succeed in this work. I am also very grateful for his
guidance and comments while studying part of my seminar and learned many things
under his leadership.
I extend my thank to Dr. S. P. Trikal, Head of Mechanical Engineering
Depertment, Shri Sant Gajanan Maharaj College of Engineering, Shegaon for their
valuable support that made me consistent performer.
I also extend my thanks to Dr. S. B. Somani, Principal, Shri Sant Gajanan
Maharaj College of Engineering, Shegaon for their valuable support.
I would also like to express my gratitude toward my colleague in developing the
seminar and people who willingly helped me out and made this seminar a reality.

Place: SSGMCE Shegaon Himanshu Ramesh Banait (4M)

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

Abstract

Lattice Boltzmann method is relatively new method in the field of computational fluid
dynamics. It has been derived from lattice gas automata and is still under development.
This seminar provides an introduction to the lattice Boltzmann method as a tool for the
numerical simulation of fluid flow. The history of the lattice Boltzmann Method and its
precursor to the lattice Boltzmann methods is discussed. The lattice Boltzmann bases
physics and different application areas of engineering interest are covered, including
turbulent flows, flows through porous media, and multiphase flow. Some open source
source software based on lattice Boltzmann method are mentioned.

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Lattice Gas Automata (LGA) 3
2.2 Limitations Of Lattice Gas Automata 5
2.3 The Transition From LGA To LBM 5

Chapter 3: Kinetics Of Particles

3.1 Particle Dynamics 6
3.2 Molecular Dynamics 6
3.3 Distribution Function 7
Chapter 4: The Lattice Boltzmann Method In CFD
4.1 Lattice Boltzmann Based Physics 8
4.2 Comparison Between Navier-Stokes Approach 10
And Lattice Boltzmann Approach
4.2.1 Navier-Stokes Approach 11
4.2.2 Lattice Boltzmann Approach In 12
Comparison With Navier-Stokes Approach
4.3 Advantages Of LBM 13
4.4 Limitations Of LBM 13
Chapter 5: Applications Of LBM In CFD 14
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
There are two main approaches in simulating the transport equations (heat, mass, and
momentum), continuum and discrete. In continuum approach (Fig. 1.1), ordinary or
partial differential equations can be achieved by applying conservation of energy, mass,
and momentum for an infinitesimal control volume. Since it is difficult to solve the
governing differential equations for many reasons (non-linearity, complex boundary
conditions, complex geometry, etc.), therefore finite difference, finite volume, finite
element, etc., schemes are used to convert the differential equations with a given
boundary and initial conditions into a system of algebraic equations. The algebraic
equations can be solved iteratively until convergence is insured. Let us discuss the
procedure in more detail, first the governing equations are identified (mainly partial
differential equation). The next step is to discretize the domain into volume, girds, or
elements depending on the method of solution. We can look at this step as each volume or
node or element contains a collection of particles (huge number). The scale is
macroscopic. The velocity, pressure, temperature of all those particles represented by a
nodal value, or averaged over a finite volume, or simply assumed linearly or bi-linearly
varied from one node to another. The phenomenological properties such as viscosity,
thermal conductivity, heat capacity, etc. are in general known parameters (input
parameters, except for inverse problems). For inverse problems, one or more thermo-
physical properties may be unknown.

Fig. 1.1 Macroscopic Scale

On the other extreme, the medium can be considered made of small particles (atom,
molecule) and these particles collide with each other. This scale is micro-scale. Hence, we
need to identify the inter-particle (inter-molecular) forces and solve ordinary differential

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

equation of Newton’s second law (momentum conservation). At each time step, we need
to identify location and velocity of each particle, i.e, trajectory of the particles. At this
level, there is no definition of temperature, pressure, and thermo-physical properties, such
as viscosity, thermal conductivity, heat capacity, etc. For instance, temperature and
pressure are related to the kinetic energy of the particles (mass and velocity) and
frequency of particles bombardment on the boundaries, respectively. This method is
called molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. In bookkeeping process we need to identify
location (x; y; z) and velocity (cx; cy; and cz are velocity components in x; y and z
direction, respectively) of each particle. Also, the simulation time step should be less than
the particles collision time, which is in the order of fero-seconds (1012 s). Hence, it is
impossible to solve large size problems (order of cm) by MD method. The question is, is
the velocity and location of each particle important for us? For instance, in this room
there are billions of molecules traveling at high speed order of 400 m/s; like rockets,
hitting us. But, we do not feel them, because their mass (momentum) is so small. The
resultant effect of such a ‘‘chaotic’’ motion is almost nil, where the air in the room is
almost stagnant (i.e., velocity in the room is almost zero). Hence, the behavior of the
individual particles is not an important issue on the macroscopic scale, the important
thing is the resultant effects.

Fig. 1.2 Microscopic Scale Fig. 1.3 Mesoscopic Scale

What about a middle method, sitting at the middle of both mentioned techniques, the
lattice Boltzmann method (LBM). The main idea of Boltzmann is to bridge the gap
between micro-scale and macro-scale by not considering each particle behavior alone but
behavior of a collection of particles as a unit. The property of the collection of particles is
represented by a distribution function. The keyword is the distribution function. The
distribution function acts as a representative for collection of particles. This scale is called
mesoscale (Fig. 1.3). LBM enjoys advantages of both macroscopic and microscopic
approaches, with manageable computer resources. [1]

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Lattice Gas Automata

The Lattice Gas Automata (LGA) method or HPP method, started as early as the 1970
under the supervision of Hardy, Pomeau and de Pazzis. A lattice gas is the representation
of a gas by its restriction on the nodes of a regular lattice for discrete time steps. LGA has
single-particle distribution function. The lattice gas automata, can be considered as a
simplified and fictitious version of molecular dynamics in which mass, space, time, and
particle velocities are all discrete. Each lattice node is connected to its neighbors by, for
example, the HPP (Hardy, Pomeau and de Pazzis) model (Fig.2.1). In this model the
lattice takes the form of a two-dimensional square grid, with particles capable of moving
to any of the four adjacent grid points which share a common edge, and particles cannot
move diagonally. Particles exist only on the grid points, never on the edges or surface of
the lattice. Each particle has an associated direction (from one grid point to another
immediately adjacent grid point). Each lattice grid cell can only contain a maximum of
one particle for each direction. A single particle moves in a fixed direction until it
experiences a collision. Two particles experiencing a head-on collision are deflected
perpendicularly. Two particles experience a collision which isn't head-on simply pass
through each other and continue in the same direction. When a particles collides with the
edges of a lattice it can rebound. [2]

Fig. 2.1 HPP Model

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

The particles would follow a simple repeating process; first collision rules were applied,
then transport rules were applied, finally the time step is completed and the algorithm
returns to the collision step. During the collision step every node is searched for a
collision, where a collision is defined as either two particles sharing a node or a particle
on a boundary node. Wherever a collision is found the velocities are updated using a
series of "rules”, that are merely simplified cases derived from the conservation of
momentum. After all collisions are resolved, transport occurs. In this step every particle is
moved to the next node in the direction of its velocity. Now the time step ends and the
processes repeats at the next time step. The main assets held by the lattice gas model are
that the boolean states mean there will be exact computing without any round-off error
and that the cellular automata system makes it possible to run lattice gas automaton
simulations with parallel computing.

The hexagonal grid model (Fig. 2.2) was first introduced in 1986, in a paper by Uriel
Frisch, Brosl Hasslacher and Yves Pomeau, and this has become known as the FHP
model after its inventors. The model has six or seven velocities, depending on which
variation is used. In any case, six of the velocities represent movement to each of the
neighboring sites. [2]

Fig. 2.2 FHP Model

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

2.2 Limitations Of Lattice Gas Automata

The model is badly flawed, as momentum is always conserved in both the horizontal and
vertical lanes. No energy is ever removed from the model, either by collisions or
movement, so it will continue indefinitely. The HPP model lacked rotational invariance,
which made the model highly anisotropic. This means for example, that the vortices
produced by the HPP model are square-shaped. The hexagonal grid does not suffer as
large anisotropy troubles as those that plague the HPP square grid model. Another
problem is the difficulty in expanding the model to handle three dimensional problems,
requiring the use of more dimensions to maintain a sufficiently symmetric grid to tackle
such issues. Disadvantages of the lattice gas method include the lack of Galilean
invariance. For starters, a massive number of particles have to be used to get a picture of
the overall fluid motion, this will enormously increase computational time when there are
massive numbers of particles. Furthermore, due to the fact that particles are represented
discretely, LGA is enormously dependent on the number of lattice directions. By the
nineties work on Lattice Gas Automata had come to nearly a halt as Lattice Boltzmann
grew more popular. [3]

2.3 The Transition From LGA To LBM

The main motivation for the transition from LGA to LBM was the desire to remove
statistical noise by replacing the boolean particle number in a lattice direction with its
ensemble average, the so-called density distribution function. Accompanying this
replacement, the discrete collision rules also have to be modified as a continuous
function – the collision operator. In the LBM development, an important simplification is
to approximate the collision operator with the Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook (BGK) relaxation
term. This lattice BGK (LBGK) model makes simulations more efficient and allows
flexibility of the transport coefficients. On the other hand, it has been shown that the
LBM scheme can also be considered as a special discretized form of the continuous
Boltzmann equation. [4]

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

CHAPTER 3
KINETICS OF PARTICLE

3.1 Particle Dynamics

As far as we know, the main building block of all the materials in nature is the molecules
and sub-molecules. These molecules can be visualized as solid spheres moving
‘‘randomly’’ in conservatory manner in a free space. The motion satisfies conservation of
the mass, momentum, and energy. Hence, Newton’s second law (momentum conservation)
can be applied, which states that the rate of change of linear momentum is equal to the net
applied force. For a constant mass, it can be simplified as, product of mass and
acceleration. The position of the particle can be determined from definition of velocity.

3.2 Molecular Dynamics

In the molecular dynamics simulation, the equations are solved provided that force term
from Newton’s second is a known function. If an external force, F, is applied to a particle
of mass m, the velocity of the particle will change from c to c + Fdt/m and its position
changes from r to r + cdt. In the absence of an external force, the particle streams (moves)
freely from one location to another location without changing its direction and speed,
assuming no collision takes place. The magnitude of the particle velocity increases and
interaction between the particles increases as the internal energy of the system increases
(for example, heating the system). Increases in the kinetic energy of the molecules are
referred as increases in temperature in the macroscopic world. The particles (molecules)
are continuously bombarding the container walls. The force exerted by those actions per
unit area is referred as pressure in the macroscopic measure. From this simple model, we
can see that there is a relationship between temperature and pressure, as the temperature
increases, which means the kinetic energy of the molecules increase, we expect that the
probability of particles bombarding the container wall, increases.

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3.3 Distribution Function

Dealing with a huge number of molecules is difficult to formulate, even though the
governing equation (Newton’s second law) is known. As mentioned before, tracing the
trajectory of each molecule is out of hand for a macroscopic system. Then, the idea of
averaging came into picture. The idea of Maxwell is that the knowledge of velocity and
position of each molecule at every instant of time is not important. The distribution
function (Fig. 3.1) is the important parameter to characterize the effect of the molecules;
what percentage of the molecules in a certain location of a container have velocities
within a certain range, at a given instant of time. The molecules of a gas have a wide
range of velocities colliding with each others, the fast molecules transfer momentum to
the slow molecule. The result of the collision is that the momentum is conserved. For a
gas in thermal equilibrium, the distribution function is not a function of time, where the
gas is distributed uniformly in the container; the only unknown is the velocity distribution
function. The value of distribution function should be positive ( between 0 and1 ). [1]

Fig. 3.1 Maxwell–Boltzmann probability density function

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

CHAPTER 4
THE LATTICE BOLTZMANN IN CFD

4.1 Lattice Boltzmann Based Physics

The Lattice Boltzmann method was originated from Ludwig Boltzmann’s kinetic theory
of gases. The fundamental idea is that gases/fluids can be imagined as consisting of a
large number of small particles moving with random motions. The exchange of
momentum and energy is achieved through particle streaming and billiard-like particle
collision. This process can be modeled by the Boltzmann transport equation, which is

∂f
+ u · ∇f = Ω (4.1)
∂t

where f ( x , t) is the particle distribution function, u is the particle velocity, and Ω is the
collision operator. The LBM simplifies Boltzmann’s original idea of gas dynamics by
reducing the number of particles and confining them to the nodes of a lattice. For a two
dimensional model, a particle is restricted to stream in a possible of 9 directions,
including the one staying at rest. These velocities are referred to as the microscopic

velocities and denoted by e i , where i = 0, . . . , 8. This model is commonly known as the

D2Q9 model (Fig. 4.1) as it is two dimensional and involves 9 velocity vectors. [5]

Fig. 4.1 D2Q9 model (9 particles)

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

For each particle on the lattice, we associate a discrete probability distribution function

f i
( x , e i, t) or simply f i
( x , t), i = 0 . . . 8, which describes the probability of streaming

in one particular direction. Similarly, we have D3Q19 model for 3-dimensional lattice.

Fig. 4.2 D3Q19 model (19 particles)

Since much of the challenge in solving the Boltzmann equation originates with the
complex collision term, attempts have been made to "model" and simplify the collision
term. The best known model equation is due to Bhatnagar, Gross and Krook. The
assumption in the BGK approximation is that the effect of molecular collisions is to force
a non-equilibrium distribution function at a point in physical space back to a Maxwellian
equilibrium distribution function and that the rate at which this occurs is proportional to
the molecular collision frequency (relaxation time). The Boltzmann equation is therefore
modified to the BGK form, [6]

∂f
u · ∇f
f 0
− f eq
+ + F.∇f = (4.2)
∂t τ

∂f
Where is a temporal term, u ·∇f is convective term , and the collision operator can
∂t
be defined as,

f 0
− f eq
Ω(f) = (4.3)
τ

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

Where f 0
( x ,t) is local (present) value of distribution function, f eq
( x ,t) is equilibrium

distribution function when the system is in the equilibrium state and τ is the relaxation
time towards local equilibrium. The fluid kinematic viscosity is related to τ in the
momentum equation and related to thermal conductivity for energy equation. The
equation is a linear partial differential equation. The equation looks like an advection
equation with a source term. The right-hand side of the equation represents the advection
(streaming). The left-hand side term represents the collision process, source term.

The above equation 4.2 can be discretized as,

eq
f i
( x + c e i ∆t , t + ∆t ) - f i
( x , t) = - [ f i
( x , t) - f i
( x ,t) ] / τ (4.4)

Streaming Collision

The macroscopic fluid density can be defined as a summation of microscopic particle

distribution function,

ρ ( x, t ) = ∑ f i
( x ,t) (4.5)
i

Accordingly, the macroscopic velocity u ( x , t) is an average of microscopic velocities

e i weighted by the distribution functions f i and c = ∆x it the lattice speed,
∆t

1
u ( x , t) = ∑c f e (4.6)
ρ i i i

4.2 Comparison Between Navier-Stokes And LBM Approach

To get a deeper sense of how the two approaches to simulating fluid flow compare, we
can examine the theoretical framework underlying both of them. First, both methods
begin with what you might call microscopic physical reality. At this level, we find a very
large number of discrete particles moving about in continuous space. The particles are
free to move about in any direction, occupy any location in space and have any speed.

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4.2.1 Navier-Stokes Approach

The traditional approach in CFD is to start with the Navier-Stokes (N-S) equations. The
N-S equations are a set of partial differential equations that statistically describe a real
fluid. These equations are fundamentally sound (at least for the majority of practical fluid
flow problems of interest). The problem is that for most cases of interest, the solutions to
these very complex and highly non-linear equations are characterized by many degrees of
freedom. Analytical solutions cannot be obtained except for the simplest of problems. The
problem with the traditional approach employed over the past years lies of course not in
the N-S equations themselves but in the analytical and numerical techniques employed to
provide approximate solutions to them.

∂V 2
ρ[ + ( V. ∇ )V ] = - ∇ P + µ ∇ V (4.7)
∂t

In order to solve these equations computationally, this continuous representation must

now be discretized. This means that instead of solving for the fluid variables at all
locations in time and space, only properties of the fluid at discrete spatial and temporal
locations may be computed numerically. This discrete set of locations is called the
computational grid. One of the requirements to achieve accurate solutions is to use an
adequately resolved grid. This means that there are enough grid points throughout a
simulation volume to capture all of the relevant physics. This discretization step
introduces errors into the solution of the desired continuous equations which, when
coupled with an inadequately resolved grid, can potentially lead to divergent or unstable
solutions, especially when complex models of unresolved physics, such as turbulence, are
introduced. This is because the non-linear nature of these equations makes mathematical
analysis of the discretization step difficult, and sometimes even impossible. There are also
serious issues associated with the realization of physical boundary conditions. Lastly, in
order to avoid numerical instability and to reduce the computational cost of these
solutions, a steady-state solver is often employed. [7]

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4.2.2 Lattice Boltzmann Approach In Comparison With Navier-Stokes Approach

The Navier-Stokes equation is second-order PDE having non-linear convective term,

where as lattice Boltzmann equation is first-order PDE having simple advection term. We
need to solve Poisson equation for the pressure and in LBM we get pressure from
equation of state. In N-S approach there is discrete approximation of PDE by using finite
difference, finite element, etc but in LBM no further approximation required, the
equations are already in discrete form. The numerical integration in N-S solves the
equation on given mesh and apply PDE boundary conditions where as LBM solve on
lattices and apply kinetic based boundary conditions. The LBE is kinetic-based, the
physics associated with the molecular level. Hence, the LBE model can be fruitfully
applied to micro-scale fluid flow problems. With LBM, the necessary discretization step
occurs at the microscopic level. The particle distribution is the main computational
element of this method. All fluid properties and their evolution can be derived from it.
The LBM scheme can also be considered as a special discretized form of the continuous
Boltzmann equation.

On the numerical method front, fluid convection is realized in LBM via particle
microscopic velocities. In comparison, fluid convection in N-S is a nonlinear process that
is a function of both space and time. It is relatively much more difficult to deal with the
convection process with N-S, particularly with time-explicit schemes. The constant
microscopic velocities also enable better handling of boundary conditions involving
complex geometry. Furthermore, nonlinear fluid physics is fully contained in the local
collision process in LBM. The primary reason why LBM can serve as a method for fuid
simulations is that the Navier-Stokes equations can be recovered from the discrete
equations through the Chapman-Enskog procedure. All these factors allow for efficient
and parallel computation of time dependent flows with complex geometry. [7]

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4.3 Advantages Of LBM

Navier-Stokes solvers need to treat the non-linear convective term; the LBE avoids
this term.

LBM does not involve Poisson equation.

Most of the calculations in LBM are local and more suitable for parallel. Parallel
scheme for hardware acceleration; graphics hardware: GPU, GPU cluster.

LBM is well suited for mass-conservative fluid simulation of complex boundaries

(e.g. porous media). Fully resolved multiphase flow with small droplets and bubbles.
LBM can well realize mass-conserving mobile boundary problems and it is very
attractive for soft material simulation.

Thermal disturbances originate from the microscopic and average macroscopic, LBM
includes them in the mesoscopic description.

LBM demonstrates promising results in the area of high Knudsen number flows.

Automated data pre-processing and mesh generation in a time that accounts for a
small fraction of the total simulation.

4.4 Limitations Of LBM

LBM requires a lot of memory to store the distribution function, which is also the
main bottleneck of LBM.

The nature of LBM is time-dependent, so calculating steady flow is not particularly

efficient.

High-Mach number flows in aerodynamics are still difficult for LBM, and a
consistent thermo-hydrodynamic scheme is absent.

The coupling between discretized velocity space and configuration space leads to
regular square grids. Especially for aerodynamics where both the far field boundary
condition and the near wall boundary layer need to be carefully implemented. [8]

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CHAPTER 5
APPLICATIONS OF LBM
1) Blood Flow and Perfusion: Flow simulation in arteries + myocardium as porous
medium modeled by means of LBM (Fig. 5.1). Pressure boundary conditions at aorta
and endocardium.[9]

Fig. 5.1 Flow simulation in arteries

2) Blood Clotting in a Human Artery: Arteries that have been affected by disease can
be at high risk to rupture. These ruptures can possibly be prevented by blood clotting
in the vulnerable area. Need to simulate red blood cell changing from liquid to solid
behavior and stick to artery wall. LBM is effective at achieving this because of its
hybrid particle/continuum nature (Fig. 5.2). [10]

Fig. 5.2 Blood clotting in artery

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

3) LBM in Complex Field: The pump water-air system (Fig. 5.3) has two-phase flow,
rotating geometry, fluid turbulence, gravity and fully high resolution resolved
droplets. [10]

Fig. 5.3 Pump water-air system

4) LBM in Computer Graphics: BLENDER is a open-source 3D computer graphics

software which uses LBM for creating visual effects (Fig. 5.4) such as fluid flow,
smoke, fire, snowing etc. [11]

Fig. 5.4 Computer graphics of fluid

5) Rock Melting in a Magma Chamber: The geometry of this three-phase problem is

defined by the porous rock structure of solid magma (Fig. 5.5). The pores are filled
with liquid magma which interacts with the solid through melting/cristallisation. Hot

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Lattice Boltzmann Method

gas bubbles raising inside this media through buoyancy are responsible for heat
convection, leading ultimately to complete melting. This problem puts into play a
complex interaction of physical ingredients, including multiphase flow, buoyancy
effects, thermal convection, and changing geometry. [12]

Fig. 5.5 Multi-phase flow in a melting chamber

Simulating multiphase/multicomponent flows has always been a challenge to

conventional CFD because of the moving and deformable interfaces. The interfaces
between different phases (liquid and vapor) or components (e.g., oil and water)
originate from the specific interactions among fluid molecules. Therefore, it is
difficult to implement such microscopic interactions into the macroscopic Navier–
Stokes equation. However, in LBM, the particulate kinetics provides a relatively easy
and consistent way to incorporate the underlying microscopic interactions by
modifying the collision operator. Several LBM multiphase/multicomponent models
have been developed. Here phase separations are generated automatically from the
particle dynamics and no special treatment is needed to manipulate the interfaces as
in traditional CFD methods. It completely avoids the hassle of interface tracking
which slows down classical methods. Successful applications of
multiphase/multicomponent LBM models can be found in various complex fluid
systems, including interface instability, bubble/droplet dynamics, wetting on solid
surfaces, interfacial slip, and droplet electrohydrodynamic deformations. [13]

The open source software for LBM are Palabos, OpenLB and Taxila-LBM.

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CONCLUSION

The new method was found to be promising method for simulation of flow in complex
geometry. Thus, the capability of LBM to simulate turbulent flows in complex geometry
along with the easiness to implement LBM in complicated geometries make this an ideal
method for simulation of turbulent flows. Future directions for research may include
utilizing nonuniform or unstructured lattice meshes for complex micro-structures (e.g.,
surface roughness), combining LBM with molecular dynamics and CFD (hybrid
algorithms), and applying LBM to bio-microfluidic systems.

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References
1. A. A. Mohamad, “Lattice Boltzmann Method Fundamentals and Engineering
Applications with Computer Codes”,Springer.

2. Oztekin, Dennis Ekin, “The Lattice Boltzmann Methods and Their Applications to
Fluid Flows” (2014) ,Theses and Dissertations, Paper 1581.

3. Sauro Succi (2001), “The Lattice Boltzmann Equation, for fluid dynamics and beyond”,
Oxford Science Publications. (chapter 2 is about lattice gas Cellular Automata )

4. Junfeng Zhanga, Daniel Y. Kwok, “Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM)”,Springer.

5. Yuanxun Bill Bao & Justin Meskas, “Lattice Boltzmann Method for Fluid
Simulations”, April 14, 2011.

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a magma chamber”.

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Wave Breaking and Sea Spray Generation" (2014), Open Access Dissertations. Paper 282.

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