20th-century music

Pianist Arthur Rubinstein in 1962

American jazz singer and songwriter Billie Holiday
in New York City in 1947.

Russian cellist Mstislav Rostropovich in 1978

During the 20th century there was a
huge increase in the variety of music
that people had access to. Prior to the
invention of mass market gramophone
records (developed in 1892) and radio
broadcasting (first commercially done
ca. 1919–20), people mainly listened to
music at live Classical music concerts or
musical theatre shows, which were too
expensive for many lower-income
people; on early phonograph players (a
technology invented in 1877 which was
not mass-marketed until the mid-1890s);
or by individuals performing music or
singing songs on an amateur basis at
home, using sheet music, which required
the ability to sing, play, and read music.
These were skills that tended to be
limited to middle-class and upper-class
individuals. With the mass-market
availability of gramophone records and
radio broadcasts, listeners could
purchase recordings of, or listen on
radio to recordings or live broadcasts of
a huge variety of songs and musical
pieces from around the globe. This
enabled a much wider range of the
population to listen to performances of
Classical music symphonies and operas
that they would not be able to hear live,
either due to not being able to afford
live-concert tickets or because such
music was not performed in their region.

Sound recording was also a major

influence on the development of
popular music genres, because it
enabled recordings of songs and bands
to be inexpensively and widely
distributed nationwide or even, for some
artists, worldwide. The development of
relatively inexpensive reproduction of
music via a succession of formats
including vinyl records, compact
cassettes, compact discs (introduced in
1983) and, by the mid-1990s, digital audio
recordings, and the transmission or
broadcast of audio recordings of music
performances on radio, of video
recordings or live performances on
television, and by the 1990s, of audio
and video recordings via the Internet,
using file sharing of digital audio
recordings, gave individuals from a wide
range of socioeconomic classes access
to a diverse selection of high-quality
music performances by artists from
around the world.[1] The introduction of
multitrack recording in 1955 and the use
of mixing had a major influence on pop
and rock music, because it enabled
record producers to mix and overdub
many layers of instrument tracks and
vocals, creating new sounds that would
not be possible in a live performance.[2]
The development of sound recording
and audio engineering technologies and
the ability to edit these recordings gave
rise to new subgenres of classical
music, including the Musique concrète
(1949) and acousmatic[3] (1955) schools
of electronic composition. In the 1970s,
African-American hip hop musicians
began to use the record turntable as a
musical instrument, creating rhythmic
and percussive "scratching" effects by
manipulating a vinyl record on the
turntable.
In Beethoven's and Felix Mendelssohn's
time in the 19th century, the orchestra
was composed of a fairly standard core
of instruments which was very rarely
modified. As time progressed, and as
the Romantic period saw changes in
accepted modification with composers
such as Berlioz and Mahler, the 20th
century saw that instrumentation could
practically be hand-picked by the
composer. Saxophones were used in
some 20th-century orchestra scores
such as Vaughan Williams' Symphonies
No.6 and 9 and William Walton's
Belshazzar's Feast, and many other
works as a member of the orchestral
ensemble. Twentieth-century orchestras
generally include a string section,
woodwinds, brass instruments,
percussion, piano, celeste, harp(s),[4]
with other instruments called for
occasionally, such as electric guitar[5]
and electric bass.[6]

The 20th century saw dramatic

innovations in musical forms and styles.
Composers and songwriters explored
new forms and sounds that challenged
the previously accepted rules of music
of earlier periods, such as the use of
altered chords and extended chords in
1940s-era Bebop jazz. The development
of powerful, loud guitar amplifiers and
sound reinforcement systems in the
1960s and 1970s permitted bands to hold
large concerts where even those with the
least expensive tickets could hear the
show. Composers and songwriters
experimented with new musical styles,
such as genre fusions (e.g., the late
1960s fusion of jazz and rock music to
create jazz fusion). As well, composers
and musicians used new electric,
electronic, and digital instruments and
musical devices. In the 1980s, some
styles of music, such as electronic
dance music genres such as house
music were created largely with
synthesizers and drum machines. Faster
modes of transportation such as jet
flight allowed musicians and fans to
travel more widely to perform or hear
shows, which increased the spread of
musical styles.

Classical

Composer Igor Stravinsky as drawn by Picasso

Modernism

In the early 20th century, many

composers, including Rachmaninoff,
Richard Strauss, Giacomo Puccini, and
Edward Elgar, continued to work in
forms and in a musical language that
derived from the 19th century. However,
modernism in music became
increasingly prominent and important;
among the most important modernists
were Alexander Scriabin, Claude
Debussy, and post-Wagnerian
composers such as Gustav Mahler and
Richard Strauss, who experimented with
form, tonality and orchestration.[7]
Busoni, Stravinsky, Schoenberg, and
Schreker were already recognized before
1914 as modernists, and Ives was
retrospectively also included in this
category for his challenges to the uses
of tonality.[7] Composers such as Ravel,
Milhaud, and Gershwin combined
classical and jazz idioms.[8]

Nationalism

Late-Romantic and modernist

nationalism was found also in British,
American, and Latin-American music of
the early 20th century. Composers such
as Ralph Vaughan Williams, Aaron
Copland, Alberto Ginastera, Carlos
Chávez, Silvestre Revueltas, and Heitor
Villa-Lobos used folk themes collected
by themselves or others in many of their
major compositions.

Microtonal music

In the early decades of the 20th century,

composers such as Julián Carrillo,
Mildred Couper, Alois Hába, Charles Ives,
Erwin Schulhoff, Ivan Wyschnegradsky
turned their attention to quarter tones
(24 equal intervals per octave), and
other finer divisions. In the middle of the
century composers such as Harry
Partch and Ben Johnston explored just
intonation. In the second half of the
century, prominent composers
employing microtonality included Easley
Blackwood, Jr., Wendy Carlos, Adriaan
Fokker, Terry Riley, Ezra Sims, Karlheinz
Stockhausen, La Monte Young, and Iannis
Xenakis.

Neoclassicism

A dominant trend in music composed

from 1923 to 1950 was neoclassicism, a
reaction against the exaggerated
gestures and formlessness of late
Romanticism which revived the balanced
forms and clearly perceptible thematic
processes of earlier styles. There were
three distinct "schools" of neoclassicism,
associated with Igor Stravinsky, Paul
Hindemith, and Arnold Schoenberg.
Similar sympathies in the second half of
the century are generally subsumed
under the heading "postmodernism".[9]

Experimental music

A compositional tradition arose in the

mid-20th century—particularly in North
America—called "experimental music". Its
most famous and influential exponent
was John Cage (1912–1992).[10] According
to Cage, "an experimental action is one
the outcome of which is not foreseen",[11]
and he was specifically interested in
completed works that performed an
unpredictable action.[12] Some of the
composers who influenced John Cage
were Erik Satie (1866–1925), Arnold
Schoenberg (1874–1951) and Henry Dixon
Cowell (1897–1965).

Minimalism

Minimalist music, involving a

simplification of materials and intensive
repetition of motives began in the late
1950s with the composers Terry Riley,
Steve Reich, and Philip Glass. Later,
minimalism was adapted to a more
traditional symphonic setting by
composers including Reich, Glass, and
John Adams. Minimalism was practiced
heavily throughout the latter half of the
century and has carried over into the
21st century, as well as composers like
Arvo Pärt, Henryk Górecki and John
Tavener working in the holy minimalism
variant. For more examples see List of
20th-century classical composers.

Contemporary classical music

Contemporary classical music can be
understood as belonging to the period
that started in the mid-1970s to early
1990s, which includes modernist,
postmodern, neoromantic, and pluralist
music.[13] However, the term may also be
employed in a broader sense to refer to
all post-1945 musical forms.[14]

Many composers working in the early

21st century were prominent figures in
the 20th century. Some younger
composers such as Oliver Knussen,
Wolfgang Rihm, Georg Friedrich Haas,
Judith Weir, George Benson, Richard
Barrett, Simon Bainbridge, John Luther
Adams, Toshio Hosokawa, Bright Sheng,
Kaija Saariaho, Tan Dun, Magnus
Lindberg, Philippe Manoury, Olga
Neuwirth, Rebecca Saunders, David Lang,
Hanspeter Kyburz, James MacMillan,
Mark-Anthony Turnage, Thomas Adès,
Marc-André Dalbavie, Unsuk Chin, Claus-
Steffen Mahnkopf, and Michael
Daugherty did not rise to prominence
until late in the 20th century. For more
examples see List of 21st-century
classical composers.

Electronic music
Karlheinz Stockhausen in the electronic-music
studio of WDR, Cologne in 1991

For centuries, instrumental music had

either been created by singing, or using
mechanical music technologies, such as
drawing a bow across a string that is
strung on a hollow instrument or
plucking taut gut or metal strings (string
instruments), constricting vibrating air
(woodwinds and brass) or hitting
something to make rhythmic sounds
(percussion instruments). In the early
twentieth century, electronic devices
were invented that were capable of
generating sound electronically, without
an initial mechanical source of vibration.
As early as the 1930s, composers such
as Olivier Messiaen incorporated
electronic instruments into live
performance. While sound recording
technology is often associated with the
key role it played in enabling the
creation and mass marketing of popular
music, new electric and electronic sound
recording technology was used to
produce art music, as well. The musique
concrète (French: “concrete music”),
developed about 1948 by Pierre
Schaeffer and his associates, was an
experimental technique using recorded
sounds as raw material.[15]

In the years following World War II, some

composers were quick to adopt
developing electronic technology.
Electronic music was embraced by
composers such as Edgard Varèse,
Karlheinz Stockhausen, Milton Babbitt,
Pierre Boulez, Bruno Maderna, Henri
Pousseur, Karel Goeyvaerts, Ernst
Krenek, Luigi Nono, Luciano Berio,
Herbert Brün, and Iannis Xenakis. In the
1950s the film industry also began to
make extensive use of electronic
soundtracks. Major rock groups that
were early adopters of synthesizers
include The Moody Blues, The Beatles,[16]
The Monkees,[17] and The Doors.[18]

Folk music
Folk music, in the original sense of the
term as coined in the 18th century by
Johann Gottfried Herder, is music
produced by communal composition
and possessing dignity, though by the
late 19th century the concept of ‘folk’
had become a synonym for ‘nation’,
usually identified as peasants and rural
artisans, as in the Merrie England
movement and the Irish and Scottish
Gaelic Revivals of the 1880s.[19] Folk
music was normally shared and
performed by the entire community (not
by a special class of expert or
professional performers, possibly
excluding the idea of amateurs), and
was transmitted by word of mouth (oral
tradition).[20]

In addition, folk music was also

borrowed by composers in other genres.
Some of the work of Aaron Copland
clearly draws on American folk
music.[21]
An important work on registering
traditional tunes of the Balkanic region
was that of Béla Bartók since it is
probably the first composer who was
interested in recording audios as well as
analysing them from an ethnological
point of view.[22]

Barbara Allen (song)

Barbara Allen (song) is a traditional

folk ballad.

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Bluegrass music
Bluegrass music is a form of American
roots music, and a related genre of
country music. Influenced by the music
of Appalachia,[23] Bluegrass has mixed
roots in Irish, Scottish, Welsh, and
English[24] traditional music, and was
also later influenced by the music of
African-Americans[25] through
incorporation of jazz elements.

Settlers from the United Kingdom and

Ireland arrived in Appalachia during the
18th century, and brought with them the
musical traditions of their homelands.
These traditions consisted primarily of
English and Scottish ballads—which were
essentially unaccompanied narrative—
and dance music, such as Irish reels,
which were accompanied by a fiddle.[26]
Many older bluegrass songs come
directly from the British Isles. Several
Appalachian bluegrass ballads, such as
"Pretty Saro", "Barbara Allen", "Cuckoo
Bird" and "House Carpenter", come from
England and preserve the English ballad
tradition both melodically and
lyrically.[27] Others, such as The Twa
Sisters, also come from England;
however, the lyrics are about Ireland.[28]
Some bluegrass fiddle songs popular in
Appalachia, such as "Leather Britches",
and "Pretty Polly", have Scottish roots.[29]
The dance tune Cumberland Gap may be
derived from the tune that accompanies
the Scottish ballad Bonnie George
Campbell.[30] Other songs have different
names in different places; for instance
in England there is an old ballad known
as "A Brisk Young Sailor Courted Me", but
exactly the same song in North
American bluegrass is known as "I Wish
My Baby Was Born".[31]

In bluegrass, as in some forms of jazz,

one or more instruments each takes its
turn playing the melody and improvising
around it, while the others perform
accompaniment; this is especially
typified in tunes called breakdowns.
This is in contrast to old-time music, in
which all instruments play the melody
together or one instrument carries the
lead throughout while the others provide
accompaniment. Breakdowns are often
characterized by rapid tempos and
unusual instrumental dexterity and
sometimes by complex chord
changes.[32]

There are three major subgenres of

bluegrass and one unofficial subgenre.
Traditional bluegrass has musicians
playing folk songs, tunes with simple
traditional chord progressions, and
using only acoustic instruments, with an
example being Bill Monroe. Progressive
bluegrass groups may use electric
instruments and import songs from
other genres, particularly rock & roll.
Examples include Cadillac Sky and
Bearfoot. "Bluegrass gospel" has
emerged as a third subgenre, which uses
Christian lyrics, soulful three- or four-
part harmony singing, and sometimes
the playing of instrumentals. A newer
development in the bluegrass world is
Neo-traditional bluegrass; exemplified
by bands such as The Grascals and
Mountain Heart, bands from this
subgenre typically have more than one
lead singer. Bluegrass music has
attracted a diverse following worldwide.
Bluegrass pioneer Bill Monroe
characterized the genre as: "Scottish
bagpipes and ole-time fiddlin'. It's
Methodist and Holiness and Baptist. It's
blues and jazz, and it has a high
lonesome sound."[33]

Opera
In the early years of the century,
Wagnerian chromatic harmony was
extended by opera composers such as
Richard Strauss (Salome, 1905; Elektra,
1906–1908; Der Rosenkavalier, 1910;
Ariadne auf Naxos, 1912; Die Frau ohne
Schatten, 1917), Claude Debussy (Pelléas
et Mélisande, 1902), Giacomo Puccini
(Madama Butterfly, 1904; La fanciulla del
West, 1910; Il trittico, 1918), Ferruccio
Busoni (Doktor Faust, 1916, posthumously
completed by his student Philipp
Jarnach), Béla Bartók (Bluebeard's
Castle, 1911–17), Leos Janáček (Jenůfa,
1904; Osud, 1907; Kát´a Kabanová, 1919-
1921) and Hans Pfitzner (Palestrina, 1917).

Further extension of the chromatic

language finally broke with tonality and
moved into the style of atonal music in
the early operas of Arnold Schoenberg
(Erwartung, 1909; Die glückliche Hand,
1912) and his student Alban Berg
(Wozzeck, 1925), both of whom adopted
twelve-tone technique for their later
operas: Schoenberg's Moses und Aron,
and Berg’s Lulu. Neither of these operas
were completed in their composers’
lifetimes, however, so that the first
completed opera using the twelve-tone
technique was Karl V (1938) by Ernst
Krenek.[34]

Some of the most important operas of

the twenties and thirties were composed
by the Russian Dmitri Shostakovich (The
Nose, 1928 and Ledi Makbet Mtsenkovo
Uyezda [Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk
District], 1932).[35]

At the same time, the neoclassicism that

became fashionable in the 1920s is
represented by Stravinsky's opera buffa
Mavra (1922) and his opera-oratorio
Oedipus Rex (1927). Later in the century
his last opera, The Rake's Progress (1951),
also marks the end of the neoclassical
phase of his compositions. Other operas
of this period by composers identified
as neoclassicists include Paul
Hindemith's Mathis der Maler (1938),
Sergei Prokofiev's Voina y Mir (War and
Peace, 1941–1943), Bohuslav Martinu's
Julietta aneb snár (1937) and Francis
Poulenc's Les mamelles de Tirésias
(1945).

In the sixties, it should be noted, the

Bernd Alois Zimmermann opera, Die
Soldaten (1965), had a great impact.

One of the most particular operas of the

seventies was Le Grand Macabre, by
György Ligeti. It deals with the subject
of mortality through irony and collage.

The most internationally accepted post–

World War II composer of operas was
Englishman Benjamin Britten (Peter
Grimes, 1945; The Rape of Lucretia, 1946;
Albert Herring, 1947; Billy Budd, 1951;
Gloriana, 1953; The Turn of the Screw, 1954;
A Midsummer Night's Dream, 1960; Owen
Wingrave, 1970; Death in Venice, 1973)[36]

Popular music
The examples and perspective in this section
may not represent a worldwide view Learn
of themore
subject.
The relationship (particularly, the relative
value) of classical music and popular
music is a controversial question.
Richard Middleton writes:

Neat divisions between "folk"

and "popular", and "popular"
and "art", are impossible to
find... arbitrary criteria [are
used] to define the complement
of "popular". "Art" music, for
example, is generally regarded
as by nature complex, difficu lt,
demanding; "popular" music
then has to be defined as
"simple", "accessible", "facile".
But many pieces commonly
thought of as "art" (Handel's
Hallelujah Chorus, many
Schubert songs, many Verdi
arias) have qualities of
 simplicity; conversely, it is by no
means obvious that the Sex
Pistols' records were
"accessible", Frank Zappa's
work "simple", or Billie
Holiday's "facile". [37]

Blues

Blues singer Bessie Smith

Blues musicians such as Muddy Waters
brought the Delta Blues, played mostly
with acoustic instruments, from the
Mississippi delta north to cities like
Chicago, where they used more electric
instruments to form the Chicago
Blues.[38]

The Wrong Road

The Hall Brothers' "The Wrong Road"

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Country music
Country music, once known as Country
and Western music, is a popular musical
form developed in the southern United
States, with roots in traditional folk
music, spirituals, and the blues.[39]

Disco

Disco is an up-tempo style of dance

music that originated in the early 1970s,
mainly from funk, salsa, and soul music,
popular originally with homosexual and
African-American audiences in large U.S.
cities, and derives its name from the
French word discothèque.[40]
Hip hop

Hip hop music, also referred to as rap

or rap music, is a music genre formed
in the United States in the 1970s that
consists of two main components:
rapping (MCing) and DJing (audio
mixing and scratching).

Jazz

Jazz has evolved into many sometimes

contrasting subgenres including smooth
jazz, Bebop, Swing, Fusion, Dixieland
and free jazz. Jazz originated in the
early 20th century out of a combination
of the Blues, Ragtime, Brass Band Music,
Hymns and Spirituals, Minstrel music
and work songs.[41]

New-age music

Mostly instrumental pieces creating

sounds of a soothing, romantic, mood-
elevating or generally relaxing nature.
Steven Halpern's Spectrum Suite,
released in 1975, is generally credited as
the album that began the new-age music
movement.[42]

Polka
The polka, which first appeared in
Prague in 1837, continued to be a
popular form of dance music through
the 20th century, especially in
Czechoslovakia, Poland, and areas of the
United States with a large population of
central-European descent. A particularly
well-known 20th-century example is
Jaromír Vejvoda’s Modřanská polka
(1927), which became popular during
World War II in Czechoslovakia as "Škoda
lásky" ("A Waste of Love"), in Germany
as the Rosamunde-Polka, and among the
allied armies as the Beer Barrel Polka
(as a song, known as "Roll out the
Barrel"). In the United States, the "Eastern
style" Polish urban polka remained
popular until about 1965. Polka music
rose in popularity in Chicago in the late
1940s after Walter ‘Li’l Wally’ Wallace
Jagiello created "honky" polka by
combining the Polish-American rural
polka with elements of Polish folksong
and krakowiak. A later, rock-influenced
form is called "dyno" polka.[43]

Rock and roll

Rock and roll developed from earlier

musical forms including rhythm and
blues, which had earlier been called race
music, and country music.[44] See also
rock musical and rock opera.

Alternative rock

Progressive rock

Progressive rock band Yes performing in

Indianapolis in 1977.

World music

See also
Notes
1. Arditi, David (2014). "iTunes:
Breaking Barriers and Building
Walls". Popular Music and Society.
37 (4): 408–424.
doi:10.1080/03007766.2013.810849 .
hdl:10106/27052 .
2. Watson, Allan. Cultural Production in
and Beyond the Recording Studio.
Routledge, 2014. (Multitrack
recording and mixing made the
recording "...studio a tool of musical
composition" in which producers
could "...create a reality which could
 not actually exist" in a live
performance. p. 25)
3. Schaeffer, P. (1966), Traité des
objets musicaux, Le Seuil, Paris.
4. "The Classical Orchestra Description
Page" . Retrieved 12 June 2016.
5. Lagnella, David. The Composer's
Guide to the Electric Guitar. Mel Bay
Publications, 2003. (Ex. Composers
Tim Brady, Steve Mackey, Rhys
Chatham, René Lussie, Glenn
Branca, Scott Johnson and Eliot
Sharp used the electric guitar in
their chamber works and orchestral
works, p. 5)
6. Walker-Hall, Helen. Music by Black
Women Composers: A Bibliography
of Available Scores. Center for
Black Music Research, 1995. (Ex.
Composer Margaret Harris-
Schofield wrote Piano Concerto No.
2 in 1971, scored for solo piano, full
orchestra, electric bass and drums.
p. 35)
7. Botstein 2001.
8. Wooten, Roy. "Classical Music Meets
American Jazz" . National Museum
of African American Music. National
Museum of African American Music.
 Archived from the original on 7
August 2016. Retrieved 13 June 2016.
9. Whittall 2001.
10. Grant 2003, 174
11. Cage 1961, 39
12. Mauceri 1997, 197.
13. Botstein "Modernism " §9: The Late
20th Century (subscription access).
14. "Contemporary" in Du Noyer 2003,
272.
15. "Musique concrète – Musical
composition technique" .
Encyclopædia Britannica.
 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Retrieved 13 June 2016.
16. W. Everett, The Foundations of Rock:
from "Blue suede shoes" to "Suite:
Judy blue eyes" (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2009), ISBN 0-19-
531023-3, p. 81.
17. E. Lefcowitz, The Monkees Tale (San
Francisco CA: Last Gasp, 1989),
ISBN 0-86719-378-6, p. 48.
18. T. Pinch and F. Trocco, Analog Days:
The Invention and Impact of the
Moog Synthesizer (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 2004),
ISBN 0-674-01617-3, p. 120.
 19. Pegg 2001.
20. Nettl, Bruno. "Folk Music" .
Encyclopædia Britannica.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Retrieved 13 June 2016.
21. "Aaron Copland, 1900–1990: His
Music Taught America About Itself" .
ManyThings.org. Retrieved 13 June
2016.
22. Béla Bartók The Musical Quarterly
Vol. 33, No. 2 (Apr., 1947), pp. 240–
257
23. Robert Cantwell, Bluegrass
Breakdown: The Making of the Old
 Southern Sound (University of
Illinois Press, 2002), pgs 65–66.
24. Musicologist Cecil Sharp collected
hundreds of folk songs in the
Appalachian region, and observed
that the musical tradition of the
people "seems to point to the North
of England, or to the Lowlands,
rather than the Highlands, of
Scotland, as the country from
which they originally migrated. For
the Appalachian tunes...have far
more affinity with the normal
English folk-tune than with that of
the Gaelic-speaking Highlander."
Olive Dame Campbell & Cecil J.
 Sharp, English Folk Songs from the
Southern Appalachians, Comprising
122 Songs and Ballads, and 323
Tunes, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1917, pg
xviii.
25. Nemerov, Bruce (2009). "Field
Recordings of Southern Black
Music" . A Tennessee folklore
sampler: selections from the
Tennessee folklore society. Univ. of
Tennessee Press. pp. 323–324.
Retrieved 22 September 2011.
26. Ted Olson, "Music — Introduction".
Encyclopedia of Appalachia
(Knoxville, Tenn.: University of
 Tennessee Press, 2006), pp. 1109–
1120.
27. Goldsmith, Thomas (6 February
2005). "The beauty and mystery of
ballads". The Raleigh News &
Observer. p. G5.
28. Joseph Jacobs, English Fairy Tales,
transcript
29. Cecelia Conway, "Celtic Influences".
Encyclopedia of Appalachia
(Knoxville, Tenn.: University of
Tennessee, 2006), p. 1132.
30. Song notes in Bascom Lamar
Lunsford: Ballads, Banjo Tunes, and
Sacred Songs of Western North
 Carolina [CD liner notes].
Smithsonian Folkways, 1996.
31. the version performed by Tim
Eriksen, Riley Baugus and Tim
O'Brien for the Cold Mountain
Soundtrack was based on this song
and is lyrically identical to it
32. "A short History of Bluegrass
Music" . Reno & Harrell. Retrieved
13 June 2016.
33. "Bill Monroe: The Father of
Bluegrass" , billmonroe.com,
retrieved 17 February 2013
34. Sitsky, Larry (2002). Music of the
Twentieth-century Avant-garde: A
 Biocritical Sourcebook (illustrated
ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group.
p. 238. ISBN 9780313296895.
Retrieved 13 June 2016.
35. Template:Riding, Alan. Eyewitness
Companions: Opera: Dorling
Kindersley Limited, 2006
36. "Twentieth-Century Opera" .
Infoplease. Sandbox Networks, Inc.
Retrieved 13 June 2016.
37. Middleton 1990, 4.
38. Gilliland 1969, show 4.
39. Gilliland 1969, shows 9–10.
40. "The birth of disco" . Oxford
Dictionaries. October 2012. Retrieved
 25 August 2015.
41. Weinstock, Len. "The Origins of
Jazz" . The Red Hot Jazz Archive.
Retrieved 12 June 2016.
42. Wright, Carol. "Spectrum Suite –
Steven Halpern" . AllMusic. All Media
Network, LLC. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
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