• In 1903, after studying recorded friction loss

measurements produced by dozens of

experimenters, Allen Hazen and Gardner
Williams published an empirical formula now
known as the Hazen-Williams friction loss
formula.
• Until the early 1970s using this friction loss
formula was tedious, requiring the use of
logarithms and a slide rule.

• Hydraulic calculations were first introduced

into NFPA 13 Standard for the Installation of
Sprinkler Systems in the 1966 edition.
• In 1972 the concept of sizing system piping and
water supplies based on density and area of
expected sprinkler operation was introduced.

• Between 1966 and 1978 the standard was revised

four times to include successively expanded
hydraulic design criteria such as area/density
curves for different hazard severities.
• The advent of electronic calculators and
personal computers made application of the
Hazen-Williams formula routine and as a
result, hydraulically designed systems
eventually became the norm.
• The significant digits of a number are those digits that
carry meaning contributing to its precision (1.4136 vs
1.4).
• Significant digits in an answer to a calculation
depends on significant digits in the data.
• Common mistake: reporting more digits in answer
than justified by digits in data.
• Sprinkler system design: based on testing/measuring
water supplies.
• Pitot tube in stream of water discharging from a fire
hydrant.
• Read velocity pressure from gauge:
– Hold pitot in correct position
– Needle “bounces”
– Wiping water off the face of the gauge (and out of your eyes).
• Resulting data will have a significant margin of
error.
• Unfortunately many take that test data as gospel
(instead of an approximation).
• Calculation of the sprinkler piping network
– Hazen-Williams formula is empirical
– H-W has certain limitations: not applicable to turbulent
water flow.
– There are more accurate fluid flow formulas that account
for turbulence & the variation and viscosities over a range
of temperatures.
– NFPA 13: density & viscosity of water do not significantly
change over the range of temperature where water is used
for fire protection & effect of turbulence is extremely
minor.
• Good news: successful performance of sprinkler
systems designed with H-W
• Bad news: designers utilize calculators/computers &
report required flows and pressures of two (or more)
decimal places!
• Sprinkler Hydraulics, by Wass: Ignor everything to the
right of decimal point.
• Suggestion:
– Round demand pressures/flows up to the next whole
number
– Round supply pressures/flows down to the next whole
number.
• Unknowns concerning sprinkler system hydraulics
including:
– Accuracy of the water supply test data
– Changes (degradation) in the water supply over
time
– Corrosion of internal piping surfaces over time
– Building configuration changes that may be
detrimental to successful application of sprinkler
spray
– Human error
• AHJs often require a safety factor.
• Often a delta between required pressure and
available pressure.
• Minimum fixed difference, or % of total available
pressure, or some combination thereof.
• Arbitrary safety factor irrespective of water supply
curve slope may not actually provide much “safety.”
• Should safety factor: pressure or flow?
• System flow & pressure are interrelated,
safety factor should be the length of the
line between the sprinkler system
demand point & the point where the
demand curve intersects the supply
curve.
• Should safety factor: pressure or flow?
• System flow & pressure are interrelated,
safety factor should be the length of the
line between the sprinkler system
demand point & the point where the
demand curve intersects the supply
curve.
• Typically calculations are performed ignoring
velocity pressures.
• Water traveling thru pipe has kinetic and
potential energy.
Pt = Pn + Pv
– Where :
» Pt = total energy
» Pn = total potential energy component
» Pv = total kinetic energy component
 Pn Pv

Pn = Pv – Pv
Considering impact of velocity
pressures, the final system demand
flow and pressure will be lower
• Flow from 1st sprinkler is know.
• Flow from successive sprinklers must be
estimated.
• Add flow from sprinkler #1 to estimate for #2 to
calculate velocity pressure
Pv = (0.001123) (Q)2
(D)4
– Where :
» Q = Flow (Sprinkler #1 + estimate for #2), gpm
» D = Diameter of pipe supplying second sprinkler, inches
» 0.001123 = conversion factor to yield PSI
• Fire sprinkler systems: Enviable track record since 1874
• “Built in” safety factors including:
– Initial densities are higher
– Calculations started with design density at end sprinkler
– Hydraulically most remote areas are calculated
– Calculations developed on rectangular pattern
– Friction coefficient (wet-pipe) average higher than
calculated C=120
– Hose stream demand: available to sprinklers in the early
stages of fire
average density is 0.21 gpm/sq.ft.
• Calculations account for water used by fire department for
manually suppression (“hose stream allowance”).
• Typically shown on a hydraulic graph as a line equal to the
allowance extending horizontally from the maximum
sprinkler demand.
• Problem: hose streams not flowing at the maximum
pressure demand of the sprinklers.
• In reality fire department is “taking this amount of water
away” from the available supply and the sprinkler system is
“left” with a degraded water supply curve.
• Concept developed & promoted by Mike Thompson, P.E.
(HydroAide)
• Rate of water application per unit area at the floor level.
– Office space would typically be 0.10 gpm/sq.ft.
– Retail space would typically be 0.20 gpm/sq.ft.

• Fire protection professional should not only know what NFPA 13 requires for
various hazards but they should have a “feel” for the numbers if they are to
truly understand how these systems can/will perform.

• Participating in an actual sprinkler discharge demonstration or experiment is

best to truly understand these designs.

• Scenario:
– Ordinary Hazard, Group 2 sprinkler system
– Room that measures 10 feet wide x 10 feet long x 8 feet high
– 0.20 gpm/sq.ft. over the entire room’s floor area
– Assume the room is water tight
– 10 minutes of discharge the room would contain 200 gallon of water. That would be
3.2 inches deep across the entire room and weigh 1,670 pounds.
QUESTIONS?