Truth is an accepted statement. It agrees with facts and reality.

truth needs to be supported by

factual evidence.

FACT: statement of actuality or occurrence. A fact is based on direct evidence, actual

experience, or observation

OPINION: statement of belief or feeling. It shows one’s feelings about a subject. Solid opinions,
while based on facts, are someone’s views on a subject and not facts themselves.
Opinions are comprised of statements which not only give facts but also provide conclusions or
perspectives regarding certain situations.

Knowledge is simple data that comes from the outside that pass to our senses. It must be
truthful to gain validity and acceptance.
Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value.

Propositions are statements about the world or reality which may or may not carry truth.

CLAIMS are statements/proposition that are not evidently or immediately known to be true.

It is said that there are instances when we have to unlearn something so that we may learn
anew.

Doubt has a very important purpose in philosophy as it drives our desire to discover truth.
Nothing is taken as true unless there is sufficient reason and evidence to prove that it is indeed
true.

Something is true if…

1. It can be justified or proven through the use of one’s senses.
2. It is based on facts.
3. It is a product of agreement or consensus.
4. It can be applied in real life (tested and verified)

Method – is a general or established way or order of doing anything

Methods of Philosophizing
1. conceptual analysis
2. logical analysis
3. method of systematic doubt
4. phenomenological method
5. philosophical dialogue

Logical Fallacies
The purpose of logical analysis is not to win in an argumentation but to use the argument as a
means of deciding which belief option is the most and closest to the truth.
A Formal Fallacy is a breakdown in how you say something. The ideas are somehow sequenced
incorrectly. Their form is wrong, rendering the argument as noise and nonsense.

An Informal Fallacy denotes an error in what you are saying, that is, the content of your
argument. The ideas might be arranged correctly, but something you said isn’t quite right. The
content is wrong or off-kilter.

Fallacies

1. Ad Hominem Fallacy
Verbally attacking people proves nothing about the truth or falsity of their claims
2. Strawman Argument
someone attacks a position the opponent doesn’t really hold. Instead of contending with the
actual argument, he or she attacks the equivalent of a lifeless bundle of straw.
3. Appeal to Ignorance (argumentum ad ignorantiam)
An appeal to ignorance isn’t proof of anything except that you don’t know something.
Ignorance of knowledge.
4. Appeal to Authority (argumentum ad verecundiam)
fallacy happens when we misuse an authority
5. False Dilemma/False Dichotomy
This line of reasoning fails by limiting the options to two when there are in fact more options to
choose from
6. Slippery Slope Fallacy
works by moving from a seemingly benign premise or starting point and working through a
number of small steps to an improbable extreme.
7. Circular Argument (petitio principii)
When a person’s argument is just repeating what they already assumed beforehand, it’s not
arriving at any new conclusion.
8. Equivocation (ambiguity)
happens when a word, phrase, or sentence is used deliberately to confuse, deceive, or mislead
by sounding like it’s saying one thing but actually saying something else. Equivocation comes
from the roots “equal” and “voice” and refers to two-voices; a single word can “say” two
different things. Another word for this is ambiguity.
9. Hasty Generalization
generalization is a general statement without sufficient evidence to support it.
10. Red Herring Fallacy (ignoratio elenchi)
is a distraction from the argument typically with some sentiment that seems to be relevant but
isn’t really on-topic.
11. Tu Quoque Fallacy
typically deflects criticism away from yourself by accusing the other person of the same
problem or something comparable.
12. Causal Fallacy
false cause ("not the-cause for a cause") fallacy, which is when you conclude about a cause
without enough evidence to do so.