Fourteen Years of IS0 9000:

Impact, Criticisms, Costs,

and Benefits
Thomas H, Stevenson and Frank C. Barnes

he IS0 9000 certification process has stand the process, or

T existed for more than a decade. Originat-

ing in 1987 with a bulletin from the Inter-
national Organization for Standardization, its
believe it applies only
to companies doing
business in Europe. As For those who have
purpose was to provide a series of worldwide
standards for quality systems that could be used
a result, the IJ.S. repre-
sents only 9.6 percent
taken a wait-and-see
for external quality assurance purposes. Adminis- of companies regis- approach, now may
tered in the United States by the American Na-
tional Standards Institute (ANSI), IS0 9000 regis-
tered worldwide, and
total North American be the time to take
tration has been sought and obtained by thou- registrations represent another look at the
sands of businesses seeking to demonstrate that only 13.1 percent. In
their procedures meet global quality standards. comparison, European cerfification process,
Now the IS0 9000 standards have undergone registrations represent
revision. New standards were published in De- more than 55 percent
cember 2000, and despite criticism of the process, of the worldwide total, with I6 percent in the Far
there are few signs that interest in certification is East. And the numbers are still rising in these
waning. Indeed, the number of registrations is regions. If U.S. registrations are to increase to the
growing. By the end of 1999, there were 343,643 levels of other regions, thousands more American
certifications in 150 countries-a 26.4 percent companies will at least need to consider whether
increase over the previous year. The greatest they should join the ranks of those already certi-
number of new registrations in 1998 was in the fied. And they will need up-to-date information
United States, where 6,406 certificates were is- to help them make their decision.
sued-a 34.5 percent increase from the previous So it is timely to clarify what IS0 7000 certifi-
year. Moreover, the number of new registrations cation is and is not, what it offers, and what it
had increased annually every year over the previ- costs in terms of dollars and man-hours. In that
ous five years. Thus, by the end of 1998, a total light, we will briefly review the registration pro-
of 24,987 IS0 9000 certificates had been issued in cess and year 2000 changes, review the criticisms
the United States. of the process, identify the costs, and document
Nevertheless, despite continued growth in the payoffs to companies achieving IS0 9000
the number of IS0 9000 certifications in the U.S., certification.
the country trails other regions in total registra-
tions. There are several likely reasons for this, IS0 9000: History, Framework, Revisions
but a major factor is that misunderstandings have
grown up around the certification process. Some The International Standards Organization (ISO)
believe it is merely the latest quality fad. Others was founded in Europe in 1947. Its purpose was
are convinced that no real benefits can be attained to facilitate worldwide trade through the develop-
from it, or that the process generates excessive ment of international quality standards for prod-
costs and paperwork. Still others do not under- ucts and services. Among the activities of this

45
 organization-and perhaps the most influential
and far-reaching-was the issuance of the 1987
bulletin that devised “a series of international
standards dealing with quality systems that can
be used for external quality assurance purposes.”
The standards provided companies with a series
of guidelines on how to establish systems for
managing quality products and services. Busi-
nesses were given standards to use to document
practices that affected the quality of their offer-
ings. They could then follow IS0 guidelines to
become certified.
The underlying premise of IS0 9000 certifica-
tion is that the creation of products and services
is the result of a system, the inputs and outputs
of which can be measured at various points as
the system adds value. IS0 9000 registration docu-
ments the procedures in the system and measures
how well they conform to such documentation.
In short, IS0 9000 sets system standards-for
paperwork, not products-by setting guidelines
for establishing corporate systems. (As we will
discuss later, the focus on paperwork is one of
the major criticisms of the registration process.)
Figure1
TheISO9000Series
PREVIOUS STANDARD
Standard Focus
_____-_-----------_
IS0 9000 Quality management and assurance standards
for selection and use
IS0 9001 Quality systems model for quality assurance in
design, development, production. installation,
and servicing
IS0 9002 Quality systems model for quality assurance in
production and installation
IS0 9003 Quality systems model for quality assurance in
final inspection and testing
IS0 9004 Quality management and quality system element
guidelines
I YEAR 2000 REVISIONS
Standard FOCUS
__-__-_------- -_---
IS0 9000 Quality fundamentals and vocabulary
IS0 9001 Quality management systems [consolidates the
previous IS0 9001/9002/9003 standards into a
single document1
IS0 9004 Quality management system guidelines for per-
formance improvement
Sourer: Ear 2000 yeoisions adupted and updaaledfrom Internatiorzul
Oyganizutiotl,for Stundurdization, press release, Y~J 757, 1999-0.3-05.
IS0 9000 actually comprises several stan-
dards, which were simplified in December 2000.
Figure1 outlines the previous series as well as
these recent revisions. Before last December, IS0
9000 was the general standard that served as a
guide to the others. IS0 9001 was the most con-
prehensive, covering research, design, develop-
ment, production, shipping, and installation. IS0
9002 was less comprehensive; omitting design
and development, it was for companies that pro-
duce, install, and service only existing products.
IS0 9003 was for companies that perform even
fewer functions, such as final inspection and
testing. IS0 9004was a document to guide fur-
ther internal quality development.
The standards are updated periodically. New
programs, such as QS-9000 and IS0 14000, have
been added over the years. The former was de-
veloped by the automotive industry because it
needed a more specific and prescriptive system
of standards. Reports Mullin (1998), “QS-9000
includes stipulation for 100 percent on-time deliv-
ery, supplier development programs, and statisti-
cal record keeping far beyond what is required in
IS0 9000.” IS0 14000 was introduced in 1996 to
provide a series of global standards for environ-
mental management that deal with environmenral
audits, labeling, performance evaluations, life-
cycle assessment, and terms and definitions.
Now the IS0 9000 series has undergone a
major revision that results in a simplified version
of the original standards. According to the Inter-
national Organization for Standardization, the
basic thrust of the recent revisions includes stake-
holder orientation, continual improvement, and
greater user-friendliness. These changes are ex-
pected to mollify those who believe the current
standards promote merely consistency rather than
quality. Instead, says Zuckerman (1999). the re-
vised standards are patterned “on national quality
standards such as the Malcolm Baldrige Awards
in the U.S. There is supposed to be more empha-
sis on continuous improvement and process.”
Currently, companies seeking to become IS0
9000 certified must be audited by an independent
“registrar,” a basic process that should not be
materially affected by the proposed revisions.
The process is daunting and lengthy. However,
several books and articles have been written to
facilitate an understanding of it. providing step-
by-step instructions for certification procedures.
Davies (1997) developed a manual in the form of
a workbook to guide the process. Peach (1997)
edited The IS0 9000 Handbook, a collection of
independent papers that cover all aspects of cer-
tification. Johnson (1997) provided thorough
coverage in IS0 9000: Meeting the New Interna-
tional Standards, as did Zuckerman in her 1995
IS0 9000 Made Easy. Ferguson (1996) described
an eight-step implementation procedure using a

46
computerized system designed by Wilson (1994).
Common to most such guides is a stepwise pro-
cedure similar to that shown in Figure 2, which
demonstrates that achieving certification is com-
plex as well as expensive, both in terms of dol-
lars and man-hours. As a result, certification itself
is the main source of criticism of IS0 9000, though
other issues have surfaced over the 14 years since
its inception.
Criticisms of IS0 9000 Certification
One recurring criticism of IS0 9000 registration
concerns the formal certification process. The
process that has developed was not envisioned
when IS0 9000 was established. Many experts
believe certification is too costly and consists of a
pursuit of quality certificates rather than a pursuit
of quality. As Richard Brown (1994) stated,
While rooted in good intentions, once
dissected, it is painfully obvious that IS0
certifications are merely more expensive
and elaborate schemes that promise high
quality and a competitive edge.. .[Clertifi-
cation costs are astronomical and grow-
ing, and an IS0 certification means little
in Europe. When the smoke clears, the
only organizations guaranteed to profit
from this experience will be those deemed
to be qualified to do the audits and issue
the certificates.
In retrospect, this was probably an oversim-
plification. Some recent studies have indicated
that many companies have experienced benefits
in terms of profitability, communications, opera-
tions, and market expansion (to be discussed
later). Nevertheless, many businesses have taken
a wait-and-see approach because some of the
companies that have achieved IS0 9000 certifica-
tion have found that actual results did not equal
those anticipated. Further, there is no question
that IS0 9000 registration requires a mountain of
paperwork and adds so much structure that some
believe it interferes with new and better ways of
operating. The International Organization for
Standardization has been sensitive to this criti-
cism; its 2000 revisions are patterned on well-
known national quality standards.
Beyond the discussion of the overall purpose
and value of IS0 9000 certification, other criti-
cisms have been raised as well. For example, the
regulation and implementation of the standards
was left up to the participating countries’ indi-
vidual standards organizations, which select the
agencies qualified to issue IS0 9000 certifications.
Once registrars become accredited, there is no
single set of guidelines for them to follow, and
the amount of work a company is required to do
Fourreen Years of IS0 9000: Impact, Criticisms,Costs, and Benefits
Figure 2
IS0 9000 Certification Process
1, IS0 90000 Assessment. The initial assessment is a detailed review of the
company’s quality systems and procedures compared to IS0 9000 require-
ments. This process defines the scope of the IS0 9000 project.
2. Truining. All employees must be trained in two areas. First, they must
have an overall understanding of IS0 9000 vocabulary requirements, the
role of the quality manual, and the benefits that will be derived from the
system. Second, they must understand the actual day-to-day process of
upgrading and improving procedures.
3. Documentation of Work Instructions. All procedures must be described
and documented so that they can be understood prior to approval. Once
completed, this documentation should outline every process a company
undertakes that affects the quality of its finished products.
4. Quality Assurance Manual. While IS0 9000 standards do not require
a quality assurance and policy manual, they do require that a company
document everything it does and every system that affects the quality of
the finished product. The manual is often used to assemble all documen-
tation in one place.
5. Registration Audit. The final step in certification is an audit by an orga-
nization chosen as external registrar to see that the system is working as
described in the quality manual and that it meets IS0 9000 requirements.
L
for certification can vary according to the regis-
trar. In the past, not all companies or countries
would acknowledge certification from all regis-
trars because the standards had been interpreted
somewhat variably in different countries. One
result of this was that companies such as Hewlett-
Packard, Motorola, Novell, Microsoft, and others
led a self-certification movement, which provided
greater flexibility in meeting objectives, reduced
costs, and heightened customer understanding of
the quality management systems. Similarly, the
National Tooling & Machinery Association asked
its 3,000 members to conform to IS0 9000 stan-
dards rather than pursue actual certification. Thus,
some companies view self-paced compliance as a
viable option to IS0 9000.
Another issue that has emerged over the past
14 years is that IS0 9000 is not industry-specific.
Some critics claim it is too general and fails to
address the unique problems and issues inherent
in some industries. Worldwide, IS0 9000 registra-
tion is strongest in the transportation, chemical,
oil, electronics, and computer industries. Facing
tough international competition, the chemical
processing industry has embraced the standards.
In fact, Du Pont created its own IS0 9000 service
for use both inside and outside the industry. On
the other hand, tool manufactures, automakers,
steelmakers, and some woodworking machine
manufacturers are among those who say that IS0
9000 registration primarily benefits consultants.
One result of this attitude could be seen in
the auto industry in the late 198Os, when IS0
47

Figure 3
Certification Time Requirements
i’he Frame Condition of Organization to Start
3 to 6 months Company is in full compliance with
a military or nuclear standard.
6 to 10 months Company has fdirly current
procedures, job descriptions, and
a working quality organization.
10 to 16 months Company is very large, or has
sketchy procedures and haphazard
records. The quality function is
responsible for final inspection.
16 to 24 months Company has no commitment
from senior management.
9000 was deemed inadequate for the industry’s
needs. Suppliers voiced concern about the dupli-
cation of efforts in the documentation required
by the Big Three automakers. So the industry
developed QS-9000 and, with the permission of
the International Organization for Standardiza-
tion. included IS0 9001 verbatim. Although this
did not eliminate concerns about competing stan-
dards, there were some interesting results. In
1994, Chrysler and GM mandated that their first-
tier suppliers be certified by the end of 1997.
However, by the summer of 1997 the Auto Indus-
try Action Group reported only 2,791 locations
certified, leaving roughly 7,000 uncertified. So
Chrysler and GM issued an ultimatum that suppli-
ers become certified or cease doing business with
them. Fifteen months later, say Zuckerman and
Daniels (19981, 8,645 suppliers were registered.
Beyond the issues of complexity, irrelevance
to quality, and generality, the most overarching
concerns and criticisms are the costs of achieving
IS0 9000 certification and the somewhat dubious
benefits of certification. These issues will be dis-
cussed more fully in the sections that follow.
Costs of IS0 Certification
Four major factors generate costs in achieving
IS0 certification: time, training, consultants, and
the registration itself. The amount of time needed
to become certified ranges from less than a year
to more than two years, but usually takes from
about a year to 18 months. It depends on many
factors, including a company’s size and complex-
ity, current level of work quality, extent of current
documentation, and degree of management com-
mitment (see Figure 31.Typically, a 6- to 12-
month training and preparation period is fol-
lowed by an intensive yearlong effort to adapt
company procedures to the IS0 standard. In the
48
early 199Os, about 35 percent of companies failed
to achieve certification on the first attempt, but
more recently the failure rate has dropped below
30 percent. About half the failures are due to a
lack of documentation. Once a company has been
certified, it faces follow-up visits by auditors ev-
ery six months to make sure it is following its
own procedures. After three years, it must un-
dergo another full assessment.
Training, a second major cost factor, usually
costs $4,000 to $5,000 for a single site. A core
group of employees, usually consisting of the IS0
coordinator, senior managers, and team leaders,
receives a formal overview in a one-day introduc-
tory class that typically costs about $500 per per-
son. The coordinator also takes another two-day
advanced seminar generally costing about $1,000.
Additional expense factors are the internal cost of
preparing documents, document control, and
retraining of employees.
Hiring consultants to facilitate the process
also contributes to costs. Consultants can be re-
tained to assist with any part of the certification
procedure, or they can be employed to take a
company from start to finish, virtually assuring
passage of the IS0 audit. Their fees generally
range from $800 to $1,600 per day.
The actual registration fees themselves are
also high. To illustrate, the National IS0 Support
Group asked a sample of registrars to submit a
quote for a 250-employee automotive supplier
with a single manufacturing site. The average
cost for registration fees was $11,300, ranging
from $4,000 to $20,000. Half of the registrars said
they had special pricing packages for businesses
with fewer than 75 employees. For a large busi-
ness site, the fee could reach $40,000. Surveil-
lance costs over the three-year period could run
another $3,000 to $4,000, plus travel.
It is apparent, then, that when the costs of
time, training, consultants, and registration are
totaled, certification can represent a major expen-
diture. According to Weston (19951, the Quali[y
$ystems Update reported that the average total
certification cost, including training and imple-
mentation, was $245,000. Factors influencing final
total costs. beyond those already identified, are
company size, number and type of products, and
the existing state of the company’s quality control
system. A survey of equipment manufacturers
showed large corporations spending more than
$1 million for certification, and smaller firms
(with annual sales of about $25 million) spending
an average of $250,000, plus annual maintenance
costs of more than $70,000. These costs, reports
Zuckerman (19941, included registration fees of
about $35,000 for a three-year cycle, employee
time, and, in some cases, additional employees.
Nevertheless, such cost claims should be
taken with some skepticism. A Colorado study,
Business Horizons / May-June 2001
reports Weston (19951,revealed that 70 percent
of companies did not keep track of time expendi-
tures. Weston also found that 58 percent of IS0
9000registered companies indicated they did not
keep track of costs because the decision to seek
registration was strategic, customer-driven, or in
the long-term interests of the company. Fully 93
percent reported that they did not attempt to
justify the costs of the registration procedure
because “registration was strategic and.. .tracking
costs had no purpose since [the companies1 were
obligated for business reasons to pursue registra-
tion.” In short, some companies have spent quite
a bit of money on IS0 9000 registration, while
others have chosen to proceed with no attention
to costs. This suggests that there are payoffs asso-
ciated with IS0 9000 certification.
Payoffs of IS0 9000 Certification
Companies seek to become IS0 9000 certified in
anticipation of significant benefits that will offset,
or at least mitigate, the high costs. Among the
reasons researchers have identified for pursuing
registration is gaining greater market share, meet-
ing customer requirements, and improving pro-
cess efficiency. Others mention lower operating
costs or achieving external benefits of higher
quality and competitive advantage, as well as
internal benefits of improved documentation and
quality awareness. An overview of the top ten
anticipated benefits is shown in Table 1.These
findings suggest four primary benefits associated
with IS0 9000: cost savings and/or higher profit-
ability, better communication, improved opera-
tions, and market expansion.
With regard to cost savings and profitability,
research findings have generally been positive. A
survey by Lloyd’s Register Quality Assurance
(“Study Finds.. .” 1994) indicated that IS0 9000
registration increased net profits. Simmons and
White (1999) found that, after controlling for size,
IS0 9000-registered companies were more profit-
able than non-registered companies. A joint study
by Deloitte-Touche and Quality Systems Update
(Johns 1994) reported that companies claimed
average annual savings of $179,000 from registra-
tion. Wolak (1994) reported that the costs of reg-
istration were recovered in three years. According
to the British Standards Institution, says Stanley
Brown (1994), firms that achieve IS0 9000 certifi-
cation reduce their annual operating costs by an
average of 10 percent.
Improved communication has also been cited
as a benefit. In a survey of IS0 9000 certified
manufacturing companies in New Zealand, Lee
and Palmer (1999) reported that both large (more
than 100 employees) and small companies expe-
rienced better communication after IS0 imple-
mentation. Zuckerman and Hurwitz (1996) listed
Fourteen Years of IS0 9000: Impact, Criticisms,
six ways in which communication would be en-
hanced via IS0 9000 registration:
l it builds interpersonal communication be-
tween employees and managers;
l it helps resolve political conflicts, work
procedure inconsistencies, and conflict between
formal and informal communication flows;
l it trains management and employees in
communication skills, such as interviewing, writ-
ing, and editing;
it creates a documentation system and a
l
system for disseminating information company-
wide and to all customers;
it provides the basis for a networked com-
l
munication system; and
it lays a foundation for using employees as
l
sophisticated information gatherers and sorters.
Perhaps as a result of improved internal com-
munications, some companies achieving IS0
9000 certification also report improvements in
their operations. This was the case with Clark-
Reliance Corporation. A manufacturer of liquid
processing equipment, Clark-Reliance scheduled
joint meetings between its sales and production
departments during the IS0 implementation. The
result was an improvement of its on-time delivery
from 30 to 90 percent.
Nevertheless, company operations do not
always improve to the level anticipated prior to
IS0 9000 certification (see Table 1). When Sim-
mons and White (1999) studied U.S. and Cana-
dian firms in the electronic/electrical equipment
and components industry and compared certified
and non-certified firms, they found no difference
in operational performance between the two
groups. Despite this finding, Simmons and White
were reluctant to conclude that registration does
not affect business performance, recommending
instead that longitudinal analyses be conducted
on a larger sample of companies across a broader
spectrum of industries. Similarly, Lee and Palmer
Table 1
Top Ten Anticipated Benefits of IS0 Certification
PERCENT AGREEING
BENEFIT Anticipated Achieved
1. Improvement in documentation 73.8 84.j
2. Improvement in operating standards 68.4 74.5
3. Improvement in quality awareness 71.6 77.4
4. Ability to sustain market share 67.3 57.4
5. Improvement in perception of 65.1 64.7
product quality
6. Ability to increase market share 62.9 45.1
7. Reduction in cases of nonconformity 60.7 54.6
8. Improvement in customer satisfaction 58.6 52.8
9. Improvement in competitive advantage 57.8 44.8
10. Reduction in quality audits 50.2 48.0
Source: Skrabec et al. (1997)
Costs, and Benefits 49
(1999) called for more studies of IS0 9000 certifi-
cation-related performance improvements, espe-
cially with regard to firm size. However, their
study of registered companies concluded that
corporate performance improves significantly
after the company becomes certified.
Market expansion is also thought to be facili-
tated by IS0 9000 certification, but, as in the case
of several of the other anticipated benefits, not to
the level expected prior to certification (again,
see Table 1). Yet even though IS0 9000 certifica-
tion does not always yield the expected impetus
to market growth, and even though it is not gov-
ernmentally mandated, large certified corpora-
tions are requiring certification of their suppliers.
(IS0 9000 requires that certified firms qualify
their vendors, and many meet this requirement
by mandating that their suppliers be certified as
well.) Thus, businesses seeking to expand or
maintain their markets by serving as suppliers to
IS0 9000-registered companies must seek regis-
tration themselves. Indeed, maintains Ferguson
(1996>,it has been asserted that “industrial buyers
often use the list of IS0 registered suppliers as
their only source for identifying potential suppli-
ers.” This can place non-certified companies at a
competitive disadvantage in relation to certified
competitors. Juran (1995) posited this as the ma-
jor reason for seeking certification. Struebing’s
(1996) study of 48 certified firms in the New York
area supported this assertion. She found that one
of the top two reasons for seeking registration
was that customers required it.
It appears, then, that certification gives sellers
credibility. Buyers know that a certified company
has had to demonstrate and document adherence
to worldwide standards for quality systems, and
are assured that a potential supplier can provide
products of a consistent quality. A further benefit
to buyers is that they can reduce the number of
supplier audits. If the supplier base, including
first-, second-, and third-tier suppliers, is IS0 9000
certified, then the final products, which may con-
sist of thousands of parts and components from
registered suppliers, should have superior quality,
performance, and reliability. This in turn could
support buyers’ market expansion aspirations.
F
ourteen years after the debut of the IS0
9000 standards, it is apparent that they
have had a major impact on worldwide
commerce. Despite criticisms of the costs and
complexity of the process, and in the face of
doubts about the benefits of becoming certified,
the rate of increase in registrations remains high
as more and more companies seek to certify their
quality systems. In the United States, where the
adoption rate of companies seeking IS0 9000
certification once lagged behind that of other
regions of the world, the total number of new
domestic registrations now exceeds that of most
other countries. Thus, for those in the U.S. who
have adopted a wait-and-see approach, this may
be the time for another look at the process.
The IS0 9000 registration process has under-
gone changes that promise to simplify the system
and tie it more closely to quality initiatives. Evi-
dence is building that real benefits can result
from achieving certification. However, these do
not come cheap, either in dollars or man-hours.
IS0 9000 is not for everyone. Some industries
have adopted other quality standards that serve
them well. Others serve limited markets in which
the payoff would be too little to justify the cost.
Still others lack the basic infrastructure to support
such a system. In these cases, where formal certi-
fication is unrealistic, the IS0 model could still be
used as a benchmark to assess the adequacy of
quality programs. Those responsible for the qual-
ity function should become familiar with IS0
9000 and align their systems with that model.
Such an alignment should contribute to the sys-
tematic improvement of overall quality and profit
throughout the business world.
On the other hand, where IS0 9000 registra-
tion is feasible, careful consideration is needed
before seeking certification. An important early
step is to determine the role IS0 9000 plays in
one’s industry and markets. If it becomes appar-
ent that certification is necessary to support com-
petitive and marketing initiatives, then the con-
pany should begin the process. But it should
proceed with the knowledge that, in the short
run, becoming certified will be costly, time-con-
suming, and disruptive. Benefits can be realized.
but a long-term view is required. 0
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T.Y. Lee, “The Experience of Implementing IS0 9000 in A. Zuckerman and A. Hurwitz, “How Companies Miss
Hong Kong,” Asia Pacific Journal of Quality Manage- the Boat on IS0 9000,” Quali[y Progress, July 1996, pp.
ment, 4, 4 (1995): 6-16. 23-25.

S. Lorge and A. Cohen, “Can IS0 Certification Boost A. Zuckermdn, IS0 9000 Made Easy: A Cost-Saving
Sales?” Sales and Marketing Management, April 1998, Guide to Documentation and Registration (New York:
p. 19. AMACOM, 1995).

R. Mullin, “Rewrite Aims for ‘Elegant Simplicity,“’ Chemi- A. Zuckerman, “IS0 9000 Revision Might Miss Year-
cal Week, April 8, 1998, pp. 42-43. 2000 Deadline,” Purchasing, April 8, 1999, p. 35.

R.W. Peach, 7;be IS0 9000 Handbook (Chicago: Irwin

Professional Publishing, 1997).

J.T. Rabbit and P.A. Bergh,17beIS0 9000 Book: A Glo-

bal Competitor’s Guide to Compliance and Certafication
(New York: Quality Resources, 1993).

B.L. Simmons and M.A. White, “The Relationship Be-

tween IS0 9000 and Business Performance: Does Thomas H. Stevenson is the Charles E.
Registration Really Matter?” Journal @Managerial Cullen Professor of Marketing at the
Issues, Fall 1999, pp. 330-343.
University of North Carolina at Char-
lotte, where Frank C. Barnes is a pro-
Q.R. Skrabec, T.S. Ragu-Nathan, S.S. Rao, and B.T.
fessor of operations management.
Bhatt, “IS0 9000: Do the Benefits Outweigh the Costs?”
Industrial Management, November-December 1997,
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Fourteen Years of IS0 9000: Impact, Criticisms, Costs, and Benefits