EE203 Semiconductor Devices

L9: Charge Carrier Density - 3

Arun Tej M.
Equilibrium Charge Carrier Concentrations

Calculation is essential for quantitative analysis of the device behavior

Two factors:
1. How many states are available ? (per unit energy and volume)
2. What is the probability of occupying those states ? (a distribution function)
Carrier Concentration → No. of available states X Probability of occupation
For example: In equilibrium, electron concentration in CB will be
𝐸𝐶|𝑇𝑜𝑝
𝑛0 = න 𝑓 𝐸 𝜌𝑐 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝐸𝐶|𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
Equilibrium Charge Carrier Concentrations

• At the conduction band and valence band edges, the actual density of states is zero
• DoS increases as square root with energy in CB (and VB)
𝐸
• But 𝑓(𝐸) ‘exponentially’ decreases with energy in CB (and (1 − 𝑓(𝐸)) in VB)
• ⇒ The product 𝑓(𝐸) X DoS decreases rapidly with energy
• Very few e-s occupy states far above in CB (and h+s far below in VB)
𝐸𝐶 0
• Most of the e-s (h+s) are concentrated over a narrow energy band
near the CB (VB) edge 0
𝐸𝑉
∞
𝑛0 = න 𝑓 𝐸 𝜌𝑐 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
𝐸𝐶

𝜌(𝐸)
 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

Area = 𝑛𝑜

𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑓(𝐸)𝜌𝑐 (E)
𝐸𝐶

𝐸𝐹

𝐸𝑉
𝑝 𝐸 = (1 − 𝑓 𝐸 )𝜌𝑣 (E)
Area = 𝑝𝑜

𝑓 𝐸 1 0.5 𝜌(𝐸) Carrier

Concentration
 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝐸𝐶
𝐸𝐹

𝐸𝑉

𝑓 𝐸 1 0.5 𝜌(𝐸) Carrier

Concentration
 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

𝐸𝐶

𝐸𝐹
𝐸𝑉

𝑓 𝐸 1 0.5 𝜌(𝐸) Carrier

Concentration
 ∗ 3/2
2 𝑚𝑐𝐷𝑜𝑆
𝑓 𝐸 ≈ 𝑒− 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇
𝜌 𝐸 ቚ = 2 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶
𝐶𝐵 𝜋 ℏ2
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 + (𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐹 )
𝑛 𝐸 = 𝑓(𝐸)𝜌(𝐸)
𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝐾 + (𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐹 )

∗ 3/2
2 𝑚 𝑐𝐷𝑜𝑆
𝑛 𝐸𝐾 = 𝑒 −𝐸𝐾 /𝑘𝑇 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇
× 2 𝐸𝐾
𝜋 ℏ2
𝐸𝐾
𝑛 𝐸𝐾 = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝐸𝐾/𝐾𝑇 𝐸𝐾

Peak kinetic energy? Where is the peak position?

𝑛(𝐸) 𝑑𝑛(𝐸𝐾 )
=0
𝑑𝐸𝐾
Equilibrium Charge Carrier Concentrations

∗ 3/2 ∞
1 2 𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆
𝑓 𝐸 = 𝑁 𝐸 = 2 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 1/2 𝑛0 = න 𝑓 𝐸 𝜌 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
1+𝑒 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 Τ𝑘𝑇 𝜋 ℏ2 𝐸𝐶

• Most of the 𝑒 − s (ℎ+ s) are concentrated over a narrow energy band near the CB (VB) edge
• Two mathematical simplifications can be made:
1. ‘Use Fermi-Dirac distribution function at 𝐸𝐶 under Boltzmann approximation’
2. ‘Assume that all the available states in the CB is represented by an effective density of
states 𝑁𝐶 located at the CB edge 𝐸𝐶 ’
(Note: Similar treatment with hole concentration 𝑝0 using 𝑁𝑉 and 𝐸𝑉 )
Equilibrium Charge Carrier Concentrations

1
𝑓 𝐸 = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 Τ𝑘𝑇
≈ 𝑒− 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ≫ 𝑘𝑇(𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 3𝑘𝑇)
1+𝑒

∞ ∗ 3/2 ∞
− 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇
2 𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆 1/2 −𝑥.𝑎 1/2
𝜋
𝑛0 = න 𝑒 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 𝑑𝐸 න 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝐸𝐶 𝜋2 ℏ2 0 2𝑎 𝑎

∗ 3/2 3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆 𝑘𝑇 ∗
2𝜋𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆 𝑘𝑇
𝑛0 = 2 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐶−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 𝑛0 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐶−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝐶 ≡ 2
ℎ2 ℎ2
Equilibrium Charge Carrier Concentrations

𝑝0 = 𝑁𝑉 1 − 𝑓 𝐸𝑉 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇

∗ 3/2
2𝜋𝑚𝑝𝐷𝑜𝑆 𝑘𝑇
𝑁𝑉 = 2
𝑝0 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇
ℎ2

3/2
𝑛0 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇 ∗
2𝜋𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆 𝑘𝑇
𝑁𝐶 = 2
ℎ2

Electron concentration in CB increases as 𝐸𝐹 moves closer to 𝐸𝐶

Hole concentration in VB increases as 𝐸𝐹 moves closer to 𝐸𝑉
Equilibrium Charge Carrier Concentrations

𝑛0 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇 𝑝0 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇 𝑛0 𝑝0 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇

= 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 −𝐸𝐺 /𝑘𝑇

𝑛𝑖 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝑇 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 − 𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇 𝑛𝑖 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 −𝐸𝐺 /𝑘𝑇

Carriers are created as electron-hole pairs in intrinsic semiconductor ∴ 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖

⇒ 𝑛𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 −𝐸𝐺 /2𝑘𝑇 and 𝑛0 𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑛𝑖2 = 𝑝𝑖2 𝑛0 = 𝑛 𝑖 𝑒 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝑇

Law of mass action

𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇
𝑝0 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑒

If 𝑁𝐶 = 𝑁𝑉 then 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑉 ⇒ 𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸𝐺 /2

𝑚𝑛∗ = 𝑚𝑝∗ 𝑚𝑛∗ ≠ 𝑚𝑝∗ ⇒ 𝐸𝑖 not exactly at the center of the band gap
When the condition 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝐹 ≫ 𝑘𝑇 is satisfied, probability of any state in CB being occupied by an
electron will be small (similarly, probability of any state in VB being occupied by a hole will be small).
→ called as Nondegenerate semiconductors

• If there are 𝑁𝐶 states all located at 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶 , the probability of one state being occupied would be
Τ𝑘𝑇
𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶−𝐸𝐹 and the density of electrons in the conduction band would be given by the equation
𝑛𝑜 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 −(𝐸𝐶−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 . (Similar for holes in the valence band).

• Useful form of representation for effective density of states:

∗ 3/2 3/2
𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆 𝑇
𝑁𝐶 = 2.54 × 1019 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑚𝑜 300

∗ 3/2 3/2
𝑚𝑝𝐷𝑜𝑆 𝑇
𝑁𝑉 = 2.54 × 1019 𝑐𝑚−3
𝑚𝑜 300
Class Exercise

Calculate the probability that a quantum state in the CB at 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐶 + 𝑘𝑇/2 is occupied by an electron.
Find the thermal equilibrium electron concentration in Si at room temperature.

Given: Fermi energy is 0.25 eV below the CB and effective DoS is 2.8 × 1019 cm−3 .

Based on the location of Fermi level, we can see that Boltzmann approximation can be used

𝑓 𝐸 ≈ 𝑒− 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 −[ 𝐸𝐶 +𝑘𝑇/2 −𝐸𝐹 ]/𝑘𝑇 = 3.9 × 10−5

𝑛0 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝐹 /𝑘𝑇 = 2.8 × 1019 × 𝑒 − 0.25 /0026 = 1.8 × 1015 cm−3

Even though the probability of occupation is very small, a reasonably high carrier
concentration of electrons can be present because of the large number of states available.
 Semiconductor Si Ge GaAs
𝐸𝐺 eV (𝑎𝑡 300K) 1.11 0.66 1.42
∗
𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆 /𝑚0 1.08 0.55 0.067
∗
𝑚𝑝𝐷𝑜𝑆 /𝑚0 0.56 0.37 0.48
𝑁𝐶 cm−3 (𝑎𝑡 300K) 2.82 × 1019 1.04 × 1019 4. 7 × 1017
𝑁𝑉 cm−3 (𝑎𝑡 300K) 1.04 × 1019 6.0 × 1018 7.0 × 1018
𝑛𝑖 cm−3 (𝑎𝑡 300K) 1.5 × 1010 2.4 × 1013 1.8 × 106

Most references quote values between 1 × 1010 to 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3

Location of Ei Relative to Mid-gap Level
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑒 − 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝑇 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 − 𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇

𝑁𝐶 𝐸𝐶 −𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝑇 − 𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝑉 /𝑘𝑇 𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑉

𝑛𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖 ⇒ =𝑒 𝑒 =𝑒 𝐸𝐶 +𝐸𝑉 −2𝐸𝑖 /𝑘𝑇 ⇒ 𝐸𝑖 = + 𝑙𝑛
𝑁𝑉 2 2 𝑁𝐶
∗ 3/2
2𝜋𝑘𝑇𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆
𝑁𝐶 = 2
ℎ2 3/2 ∗
𝑁𝑉 ∗
𝑚𝑝𝐷𝑜𝑆 𝐸𝐶 + 𝐸𝑉 3𝑘𝑇 𝑚𝑝𝐷𝑜𝑆
⇒ = ⇒ 𝐸𝑖 = + 𝑙𝑛 ∗
∗ 3/2 𝑁𝐶 ∗
𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆 2 4 𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆
2𝜋𝑘𝑇𝑚𝑝𝐷𝑜𝑆
𝑁𝑉 = 2
ℎ2
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑎𝑝
∗ 3 0.56
3𝑘𝑇 𝑚𝑝𝐷𝑜𝑆 = × 0.026 × 𝑙𝑛 = −12.8 meV for Si
𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑎𝑝 = 𝑙𝑛 ∗ 4 1.09
4 𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆

Intrinsic level is 12.8 meV below mid-gap level (which is ~560 meV). This is a small number
and is neglected at times.
Invariance of Fermi Level at Equilibrium

𝜌1 𝐸 , 𝑓1 𝐸 𝜌2 𝐸 , 𝑓2 𝐸

Thermal equilibrium ⇒ No net current, No net charge transfer, No net energy transfer
⇒ at any energy level, rates of transfer of e-s from both sides must balance each other
Rate of transfer of e-s from material 1 to material 2 is proportional to
(No. of filled states in material 1 X No. of empty states in material 2)

𝜌1 𝐸 𝑓1 𝐸 × 𝜌2 𝐸 1 − 𝑓2 𝐸 = 𝜌2 (𝐸)𝑓2 (𝐸) × 𝜌1 (𝐸) 1 − 𝑓1 (𝐸)

1 1
⇒ 𝑓1 𝐸 = 𝑓2 𝐸 ⇒ = ⇒ 𝐸𝐹1 = 𝐸𝐹2 𝑑𝐸𝐹
1+ 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹1)/𝑘𝑇 1+ 𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹2)/𝑘𝑇 =0
𝑑𝑥
Temperature Dependence of Carrier Density
3/2
2𝜋𝑘𝑇𝑚𝑒∗
𝑁𝐶 = 2 1
ℎ2 4 3

3/2
3/2 2𝜋𝑘𝑇
2𝜋𝑘𝑇𝑚ℎ∗ ⇒ 𝑛𝑖 𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/4 𝑒 −𝐸𝐺 /2𝑘𝑇
𝑁𝑉 = 2 ℎ2
ℎ2
2
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑉 𝑒 −𝐸𝐺 /2𝑘𝑇

How many temperature dependent terms?

1. 3/2 power
2. Exponential
3. Band gap depends on temperature - Exponential
4. Effective mass also depends on temperature
 𝛼𝑇 2
𝐸𝐺 𝑇 = 𝐸𝐺𝑜 − An empirical model Units for α and β ?
𝛽+𝑇
Energy gap at 0K E

ro
Material 𝐸𝐺𝑜 (eV) 𝛼 (eV/K) 𝛽 (K) T ↑
r
Ge 0.74 4.77 x 10-4 235
Si 1.17 4.73 x 10-4 636
GaAs 1.52 5.41 x 10-4 204 ro Useful to roughly predict
a few material properties

Bond formation
Distance between atoms
 𝛼𝑇 2 2𝜋𝑘𝑇
3/2
𝐸𝐺 𝑇 = 𝐸𝐺𝑜 − 𝑛𝑖 𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑚ℎ∗ 3/4
𝑒 −𝐸𝐺 /2𝑘𝑇
𝛽+𝑇 ℎ2

For silicon
4.73 × 10−4 × 𝑇 2
𝐸𝐺 𝑇 = 1.17 − 𝑒𝑉
636 + 𝑇

1.22
1.20 − 𝐸𝐺 Τ2𝑘
1.18
Band Gap (eV)

1.16
1.14
1.12
1.10
1.08
1.06
1.04
0 100 200 300 400 500
T (K)
 3/2
2𝜋𝑘𝑇 ∗ ∗ 3/4
𝑛𝑖 𝑇 = 2 𝑚𝑛𝐷𝑜𝑆 𝑚𝑝𝐷𝑜𝑆 𝑒 −𝐸𝐺 /2𝑘𝑇
ℎ2

• For any given temperature, intrinsic carrier concentration exponentially decreases with EG
• These carriers are always present and, hence, can produce current if field is applied
• This current, termed ‘leakage current’, is detrimental – Power dissipation / Heat
• From EG values: Ge has higher ni and, thus, higher leakage current than Si
⇒ One of the reasons why Si is preferred to Ge