EE203 Semiconductor Devices

L14: Excess Carriers - Generation

Arun Tej M.
To calculate the current at any particular location: Carrier densities

Sources of carriers?
Doping

Voltage applied – injection process

Generation by external sources

Carriers can recombine

• Generation: Process by which 𝑒 − s and ℎ+ s are created
• Recombination: Process by which 𝑒 − s and ℎ+ s are annihilated
• At thermal equilibrium: Generation Rate 𝐺 = Recombination Rate 𝑅 (units: 𝑐𝑚−3 𝑠 −1 )
 Equilibrium concentrations (say 𝑛𝑜 and 𝑝𝑜 ) are maintained
 Generation in pairs ⇒ 𝐺𝑛𝑜 = 𝐺𝑝𝑜 = 𝑅𝑛𝑜 = 𝑅𝑝𝑜
𝐸𝐶

Excess energy - lost by collisions with lattice 𝐺 𝑅

(i.e., dissipated as heat)
𝐸𝑉

• Applied Light, Field, or Thermal processes: Excess carrier concentrations

 Increased conductivity
Excess Carriers from Photon Absorption

∆𝑥
Loss in intensity
𝐼𝑜 ∆𝐼 𝐼𝑡 (𝑑) 𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥
⇒ absorption of photons
⇒ EHP generation
𝑑
∴ generation rate in a thin slice ∆𝑥 will
𝐼𝑜 = Intensity (W.cm-2) be obtained by calculating ∆𝐼 across it

At 𝑥 = 0+ i.e., just inside the semiconductor (not

∆𝐼 = −𝛼𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 ∆𝑥 𝐺 𝑥
considering reflection)
𝛼 = Absorption Coefficient (cm-1) ∆𝐼 = −𝛼𝐼 𝑥 ∆𝑥
Material and wavelength dependent
𝛼𝐼(𝑥)
Penetration depth ≡ 1/𝛼 𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐼𝑜 /𝑒 𝐺 𝑥 =
ℎ𝜈 𝑥
Class Exercise

A 0.5 μm thick sample of InP (𝐸𝐺 = 1.34 eV) is illuminated with monochromatic light of energy
ℎ𝜈 = 1.5 eV. The absorption coefficient at this energy is 104 cm−1 . The power incident on the
sample is 15 mW.
a. Find the total energy absorbed by the sample per second (in J/sec).
b. Find the rate of excess thermal energy given up by the charge carriers to the lattice before
recombination (in J/sec).
c. Find the number of photons per second given off from recombination events, assuming
perfect quantum efficiency.
Solution:
4 ×0.5×10−4
a. The transmitted intensity is 𝐼 𝑑 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 −𝛼𝑑 = 15 × 𝑒 −10 mW = 9.1 mW
So, the absorbed power is 15 − 9.1 mW = 5.9 mW = 5.9 × 10−3 J/sec
A 0.5 μm thick sample of InP (𝐸𝐺 = 1.34 eV) is illuminated with monochromatic light of energy
ℎ𝜈 = 1.5 eV. The absorption coefficient at this energy is 104 cm−1 . The power incident on the
sample is 15 mW.
a. Find the total energy absorbed by the sample per second (in J/sec).
b. Find the rate of excess thermal energy given up by the charge carriers to the lattice before
recombination (in J/sec).
c. Find the number of photons per second given off from recombination events, assuming
perfect quantum efficiency.
Solution:
b. Fraction of excess energy converted into heat = (1.5 − 1.34)/1.5 = 0.107

𝐸𝐶 Amount of energy converted to heat per second

1.34 eV = 0.107 × 5.9 × 10−3 = 0.63 J/sec
1.5 eV
𝐸𝑉
A 0.5 μm thick sample of InP (𝐸𝐺 = 1.34 eV) is illuminated with monochromatic light of energy
ℎ𝜈 = 1.5 eV. The absorption coefficient at this energy is 104 cm−1 . The power incident on the
sample is 15 mW.
a. Find the total energy absorbed by the sample per second (in J/sec).
b. Find the rate of excess thermal energy given up by the charge carriers to the lattice before
recombination (in J/sec).
c. Find the number of photons per second given off from recombination events, assuming
perfect quantum efficiency.
Solution:
c. One photon emitted for each photon absorbed. No. of photons absorbed per second

5.9 × 10−3 J/sec

= = 2.46 × 1016 photons/sec
𝐸𝐶 1.6 × 10−19 JΤeV × 1.5 eV/photon

1.5 eV 1.34 eV (5.9 − 0.63) × 10−3 J/sec

Alternatively, no. of photons
=
𝐸𝑉 emitted per second 1.6 × 10−19 JΤeV × 1.34 eV/photon
 𝐸

CB
𝛼 𝑐𝑚−1
(Log scale)

𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝑐/𝜆
𝜆𝑐 𝜆 (𝜇𝑚)
1.24
𝜆𝑐 ≈ 𝜇𝑚
𝐸𝐺 ℎ𝜈 (𝑒𝑉) VB

𝑁(𝐸)
Actual shape depends on the available DoS

• DoS increases from band edges and usually exhibits peaks and troughs. Complex shapes.
• Generally, 𝛼 increases with the photon energy greater than 𝐸𝐺 because higher energy photons can
excite e-s from populated regions of the VB to numerous available (empty) states deep in the CB.
 Forbidden gap → No states available
Photon Energy ≥ 1.42 eV → Direct transition
3 GaAs Efficient light absorption (and emission)
2 e- - h+ pairs will be produced ⇒ Excess
𝐸 − 𝐸𝑉 (eV)

carriers above equilibrium number

1 ℎ𝜈 1.42 eV 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜 + ∆𝑛
0 ∆𝑛 = ∆𝑝
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜 + ∆𝑝

-1 Excess carriers – Diffuse / Drift / Recombine

over time
-2 As long as there are excess carriers, the
𝐿 Γ 𝑋 material is not in equilibrium
Wave Vector
 Forbidden gap → No states available
Photon Energy ≥ 3.4 eV → Direct transition
6 Consider e- transition from 𝐸𝑉 to 𝐸𝐶
Si
4 • Photon cannot supply the adequate 𝐾
𝐸 − 𝐸𝑉 (eV)

• Requires phonon absorption as well

2
3.4 eV
• Three-particle process – Statistically unlikely
0 1.12 eV
⇒ Lower light absorption efficiency near
primary gap (1.12 eV)
-2
(Similarly, for other indirect band gap
-4 semiconductors)
𝐿 Γ 𝑋 • But still, Si is widely used for solar cell
Wave Vector
applications – Due to lower cost
M. A. Green, SOLMAT, 92, 2008
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝛼 (𝑐𝑚−1 ) 107

106

105

104

103

102

101

𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜆 (𝑛𝑚)
Solar Spectrum

~38% of the photons from solar spectrum are not absorbed by Si

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝛼 (𝑐𝑚−1 ) 107

106
Thickness of Si required to absorb
90% of light of wavelength ~1000nm
105

104
2.3 2.3
𝑑= = = 230 𝜇𝑚
103 𝛼 102

102 Low absorption coefficients

⇒ Thickness ↑ ⇒ Cost ↑
101

𝑊𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜆 (𝑛𝑚)
Cost (per watt)
Let the cost of manufacturing a solar module be Rs. Si Solar Module
𝑥 with the breakup as shown. Cell
25% Wafer
Let its efficiency be 15%. 40%

Cell cost = 0.25𝑥 35%

Module cost = 0.35𝑥 Module
Wafer cost = 0.40𝑥

If the efficiency is increased to 18% and the cell processing cost increases by 40%, what will be the
total cost?

Cell cost = 0.25𝑥 × 1.4 = 0.35𝑥

Module cost = 0.35𝑥 Total cost = 1.03𝑥
15
Wafer cost = 0.40𝑥 × = 0.33𝑥
18
Cost (per watt)
Let the cost of manufacturing a solar module be Rs. 𝑥. New Material Solar Module
Cell
Let its efficiency be 15%. 25% Wafer
40%
Cell cost = 0.25𝑥
35%
Module cost = 0.35𝑥
Module
Wafer cost = 0.40𝑥

If the efficiency is only 5% with some new material, but the cell processing cost becomes 10 times
cheaper and the material cost also becomes 10 time cheaper, what will be the total cost?
1
Cell cost = 0.25𝑥 × = 0.025𝑥
10
Module cost = 0.35𝑥 Total cost = 0.495𝑥
1 15
Wafer cost = 0.40𝑥 × × = 0.12𝑥
10 5