Rolling of Metals

Rolled strips
Rolling operation
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness (or changing cross
sections) of a long work-piece by compressive forces applied
through a set of rolls. The process is similar to the rolling of dough
with a rolling pin to reduce its thickness. Rolling which accounts
for about 90% of all metals produces by metal working processes,
was first developed in the late 1500s. The basic operation is flat
rolling, or simply rolling, where the rolled products are flat plate
and sheets.
Plates, which are generally regarded as having a thickness greater
than 6 mm are used for structural applications such as machines
structures, boilers, bridges, ship hulls and nuclear vessels. Plates
can be as much as 0.3 m thick for the supports for large boilers,
150mm for reactor vessels and 100-125 mm for battleships and
tanks.
Sheets are generally less than 6 mm thick; they are provided to
manufacturing facilities as flat pieces or as strip in coils for further
processing into various products. They are used for automobile
and aircraft bodies, appliances, food and beverage containers and
kitchen and office equipment. Commercial aircraft fuselages-
minimum of 1mm thick of Aluminum alloy sheet. Aluminum foil
used for wraping-0.008 mm thickness.
The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between work part
and rolls.

Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross section.

Rolling Mill Configurations

Figure: (a) Two-high, (b) three-high, (c) four-high,

(d) Cluster mill-Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll diameters,
(e) tandem rolling mill-A series of rolling stands in sequence
Rolling Mill Configurations
 Two-high of three-high rolling mills are used
for hot rolling in initial breakdown passes on
cast ingots or in continuous casting, with roll
diameters ranging from 0.6 m to 1.4 m.
 In three-high or reversing mill, the direction
of material movement is reversed after each
pass; the plate being rolled is repeatedly raised
to the upper roll gap, rolled, and then lowered
to the lower roll gap by elevators and various
manipulators
Rolling Mill Configurations
 Four-high mills and cluster mills (Sendzimir or Z
mill) are based on the principle that small-diameter
rolls lower roll forces and power requirements and
reduce spreading. Moreover, when worn or broken,
small rolls can be replaced at less cost than can large
ones. However, small rolls deflect more under roll
forces and have to be supported by other rolls.
 In tandem rolling, the strip is rolled continuously,
through a number of stands, to smaller gages with each
pass. Each stand consists of a set of rolls with its own
housing and controls. A group of stands is called a train.
Types of Rolling
 Based on workpiece geometry :

Flat rolling-used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross

section
Shape rolling-square cross section is formed into a shape.
 Based on work temperature :

Hot Rolling-Hot rolling is a rolling operation carried out at a

temperature just below the metal melting point, permitting large
amount of deformation.
Cold rolling-produces finished sheet and plate stock. Cold rolling
is a rolling operation carried out at room temperature. Cold rolling
is commonly conducted after hot rolling when good surface quality
and low thickness tolerance are needed. Cold rolling causes
material strengthening.
Flat-Rolling
and Shape-Rolling Processes

Figure: Schematic outline of various flat-rolling and shape-rolling processes. Source:

After the American Iron and Steel Institute.
 Flat-Rolling Process

Figure: (a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on strip
surfaces. (c) Roll force, F, and the torque, T, acting on the rolls. The width of the strip, w,
usually increases during rolling

A metal strip of thickness h0 enters the roll gap and is reduced to thickness hf by
a pair of rotating rolls—each roll being powered individually by electric motors.
Flat-Rolling Process
The surface speed of the rolls is Vr the velocity of the strip increases
from its entry value, V0, as it moves through the roll gap, in the same
way fluid must flow faster as it moves through a converging channel.
The velocity of the strip is highest as the exit from the roll gap;
denoted as Vf. Because the surface speed of the roll is constant,
there is relative sliding between the roll and the strip along the arc
of contact in the roll gap, L.
At one point along the contact length, called the neutral point or no
slip point, the velocity of the strip is the same as that of the roll. To
the left of this point, the roll moves faster than the strip; to the right
of this point, the strip moves faster than the roll. Hence the
frictional forces, which oppose motion, act on the strip shown in the
figure (b).
Flat Rolling
Frictional Forces : The rolls pull the material into the roll gap
through a net frictional force of the material. The draft,
defined as the difference between the initial and final
thickness which is the function of the coefficient of friction
and the roll radius R.

In figure (b) the frictional force is shown.

Roll Force : Because the rolls apply pressure on the material

in order to reduce its thickness, a force perpendicular to the
arc of contact is needed. In figure (c) the roll force is shown.
Flat Rolling
Reducing Roll Force: Roll forces can cause deflection and flattening of
the rolls, which adversely affect the rolling operation.

Roll forces can be reduced by any of the following means:

1. Reducing friction
2. Using smaller-diameter rolls, to reduce the contact area
3. Taking smaller reduction per pass, to reduce the contact area
4. Rolling at elevated temperatures, to lower the strength of the material
5. Another effective method of reducing roll forces is to apply longitudinal
tension to the strip during rolling. Because they require high roll forces,
tensions are important particularly in rolling high-strength metals.
Tensions can be applied to the strip either at the entry zone (back
tension), at the exit zone (front tension), or both.
Flat Rolling

Figure: Schematic illustration of a four-high rolling-mill stand, showing its various

features.The stiffness of the housing, the rolls, and the roll bearings are all important in
controlling and maintaining the thickness of the rolled strip.
Flat Rolling
Geometric considerations: Just as a straight beam deflects
under a transverse load, roll forces tend to bend the rolls
elastically during rolling. As expected, the higher the elastic
modulus of the roll material, the smaller the roll deflection.
Flat Rolling
Bending of Rolls:

Figure: (a) Bending of

straight cylindrical rolls
caused by roll forces. (b)
Bending of rolls ground
with camber, producing a
strip with uniform
thickness through the strip
width. Deflections have
been exaggerated for
clarity.
Flat Rolling
Spreading: In rolling plates and sheets with high width-to-thickness
ratios, the width of the strip remains effectively constant during rolling.
However, with smaller ratios (such as a strip with a square cross-section),
its width increases significantly as it passes through the rolls (an effect
commonly observed in the rolling of dough with a rolling pin).
This increase in width is called spreading.
It can be shown that spreading increases with (a) decreasing width-to-
thickness ratio of the entering strip (because of reduction in the width
constraint), (b) increasing friction, and (c) decreasing ratio of the roll
radius to the strip thickness.
Spreading can be prevented by the use of vertical rolls in contact with the
edges of the rolled product.
Spreading in Flat Rolling

Figure: Increase in strip width (spreading) in flat rolling. Note that similar
spreading can be observed when dough is rolled with a rolling pin.
Flat-Rolling Practice: Hot rolling
The initial rolling steps (breaking down) of the material typically is done by
hot rolling.
Hot rolling converts the cast structure to a wrought structure with
finer grains and enhanced ductility, both of which result from the breaking
up of brittle grain boundaries and the closing up of internal defects
(especially porosity).

The product of the first hot-rolling

operation is called a bloom, billets or
slab.
A bloom usually has a square cross-
section, at least 150 mm on the side; a
slab usually is rectangular in cross-section.
Billets usually are square (with a cross-
sectional area smaller than blooms) and later
are rolled into various shapes, such as
round rods and bars, using shaped rolls. Fig: Hot rolling
Effects of Hot Rolling:

Figure: Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals

during hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals
for improved strength and ductility. Cast structures of ingots or continuous
castings are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.
Flat-Rolling Practice
After casting, ingots are rolled into one of three intermediate shapes called
blooms, billets, and slabs. In the hot rolling of blooms, billets, and slabs, the
surface of the material usually is conditioned (prepared for a subsequent
operation) prior to rolling them.

Blooms have square cross section 6” x 6” or larger. They are rolled

into structural shapes.
Billets have square cross section 1.5” x 1.5” or larger. they are rolled
into bars and rods.
Slabs have rectangular cross section 10” x 1.5” or larger. They are
rolled into plates, sheets and strips.
Flat-Rolling Practice: Cold Rolling
Cold rolling is carried out at room temperature and, compared with hot
rolling, produces sheets and strips with a much better surface finish
(because of lack of scale), dimensional tolerances, and mechanical properties
(because of strain hardening).
Pack rolling is a flat-rolling operation in which two or more layers of
metal are rolled together; the process improves productivity. Aluminum foil,
for example, is pack rolled in two layers.

Fig: Cold rolling

Defects in rolled plates and sheets
 Defects may be present on the surfaces of rolled plates and
sheets, or there may be internal structural defects.
 Defects are undesirable not only because they degrade
surface appearance but also because they may adversely affect
the strength, formability, and other manufacturing
characteristics.
 A number of surface defects, such as scale, rust, scratches,
gouges, pits and cracks have been identified for sheet metals.
These defects ma be caused by inclusions and impurities in
the original cast material or by various other conditions
related to material preparation and to the rolling operation.
Defects in Flat Rolling

Figure: Schematic
illustration of typical
defects in flat rolling:
(a) wavy edges; (b)
zipper cracks in the
center of the strip; (c)
edge cracks; (d)
alligatoring, and (e)
center split.

(e)
Defects in Flat Rolling

Figure.

Figure.
 Defects in Flat Rolling

Figure.

Because the quality of the edges of the sheet is important in sheet metal forming
operations, edge defects in rolled sheets are often removed by shearing and
slitting operations.
Various rolling processes and mills
Shape rolling
 Straight and long structural shapes (such as channels, I-
beams, railroad rails, and solid bars) are formed at
elevated temperatures by shape rolling (profile rolling), in
which the stock goes through a set of specially designed
rolls.
 Cold shape rolling also can be done with the starting
materials in the shape of wire with various cross-
sections.
 Following figure shows the Steps in the shape rolling of
an I-beam part. Various other structural sections, such as
channels and rails, also are rolled by this kind of process.
Shape Rolling of an H-section part

Figure: Stages in the

shape rolling of an H-
section part. Various
other structural sections,
such as channels and I-
beams, are also rolled by
this kind of process.
Ring-Rolling

Figure: (a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Thickness reduction results in an increase
in the part diameter. (b-d) Examples of cross-sections that can be formed by ring-rolling.
Thread Rolling
 Thread rolling is a cold-forming process by which straight
or tapered threads are formed on round rods or wire by
passing them between dies.
 Threads are formed on the rod or wire with each stroke
of a pair of flat reciprocating dies.
 Figure shows Thread rolling processes: (a) and (b)
reciprocating flat dies; (c) two-roller dies; (d) A collection
of thread-rolled parts made economically at high
production rates.
Thread-Rolling Processes

Figure: Thread-rolling processes: (a) and (b) reciprocating flat dies; (c) two-roller dies. Threaded
fasteners, such as bolts, are made economically by these processes at high rates of production.
Source: Courtesy of Central Rolled Thread Die Co.
Machined and Rolled Threads

Figure: (a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. Grain flow in (b) machined and (c) rolled
threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling of threads
imparts improved strength because of cold working and favorable grain flow.
Roll/Tube Piercing
(The Mannesmann Process)
Rotary tube piercing is a hot-working process for making long, thick-wall
seamless pipe and tubing. It is based on the principle that when a round bar
is subjected to radial compressive forces, tensile stresses develop at the center
of the bar. When it is subsequently subjected to cyclic compressive stresses, a
cavity begins to form at the center of the bar.

Figure: Cavity formation in a solid, round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube-piercing
process for making seamless pipe and tubing.
(The Mannesmann mill was developed in the 1880s.)
 Tube Rolling
The diameter and thickness of pipes and tubing can be reduced by tube rolling,
which utilizes shaped rolls.

Figure: Schematic illustration of various tube-rolling processes: (a) with fixed mandrel; (b) with
moving mandrel; (c) without mandrel; and (d) pilger rolling over a mandrel and a pair of
shaped rolls. Tube diameters and thicknesses can also be changed by other processes, such as
drawing, extrusion, and spinning.