10/10/2016

Power Transformers & Per Unit System

Ideal Transformer Model
• For an ideal transformer, the following are
assumed:
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering • There is no leakage flux so, the entire flux φc is
confined to the core and links both windings.
EEE 415 • The windings have zero resistance; therefore, the I2R
Power System Analysis I losses in the windings are zero.
• The core permeability µc is infinite, which
corresponds to zero core reluctance.
• B-H characteristic of the magnetic material is single
Power Transformers & Per Unit System valued, and linear.
• There are no core losses.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Ideal Transformer Model Ideal Transformer Model
• If there is no leakage flux, • Using Ampere’ s Law,
1  N1c H c lc  ienclosed
2  N 2c H clc  i1 N1  i2 N 2
Bc lc
Using Faraday’s Law,  i1 N1  i2 N 2 or  cc  i1 N1  i2 N 2
c
d c d If the core permeability µc is infinite,
v1  N1 v2  N 2 c
dt dt c     c  0
v1 N1
 i1 N1  i2 N 2
v2 N 2
i1 N 2

i2 N1
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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Ideal Transformer Ideal Transformer
• An equivalent circuit of ideal transformer is represeneted as; • The complex power at primary side is as the complex power at secondary side.

v1 N1
  a  turn ratio
v2 N 2
• This means, the ideal transformer has no real and reactive power loss.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Ideal Transformer Ideal Transformer
• Impedances can be reflected from one side of a transformer to the other side of a
transformer.
• As a result, for an ideal transformer;
• Using the impedance reflection, two separate primary and secondary circuits can • The voltages behave according to the turns ratio.
be combined to make calculations easily.
• The currents act inversly to the turn ratio.
Secondary side impedance • The impedances perform according to the square of the turns ratio.
referred to primary side:
2
N 
Z 2'   1  Z1
 N2 
Z 2  a 2 Z1
'

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Practical Transformer Model Practical Transformer Model
• An equivalent circuit for a practical transformer • The resistances of primary and secondary windings are represented in the
differs from the ideal transformer as follows: equivalent circuit model as;
• The windings have resistance.
• The magnetic flux is not entirely confined to
the core, in other words the primary and
seconary windings have leakage flux.
• The core permeability µc is finite.
• There are real and reactive power losses in
the core.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Practical Transformer Model Practical Transformer Model
• The leakage flux flows outside the core (in the air). • If the core permeability µc has a finite value, recall from Ampere’ s Law that;
• The leakage flux linkages of primary and secondary windings are denoted as λl1 H c lc  ienclosed
and λl2 , and are equal to;
l1  L1i1 H clc  i1 N1  i2 N 2
l 2  L2i2 Bc lc
 i1 N1  i2 N 2
• L1 is the leakage inductance of the primary side winding and L2 is the leakage c
inductance of the secondary side winding. L1 and L2 are represented in the
equivalent circuit model as; N  Bl
i1   2  i2  c c  im
N
 1  c N1

is called as magnetizing current, im.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Practical Transformer Model Practical Transformer Model
• From Faraday’ s Law, the voltage is induced in the primary winding is; • is called as a magnetizing inductance, Lm of the transformer and it is
d represented in the equivalent circuit model of transformer as;
v1  N1 c
dt
dH c
v1  N1c Ac
dt
• Hc is eliminated by using Ampere’ s Law and the primaty side induced voltage is
equal to;
N  A di
v1  1 c c m
lc dt

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Practical Transformer Model Practical Transformer Model
• The real losses of the transformer core is caused by the eddy and hysteresis • By refering the secondary side impedance to primary side, the equivalent circuit
losses. The real losses of transformer is represented in the equivalent circuit model of practical transformer are shown as;
model of transformer as;

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Practical Transformer Model Practical Transformer Model
• Typically the core resistance and magnetizing inductance have very large values. Transformer Tests
Thus, the currents flowing through them have very small values and the current
flowing through primary and secondary winding impedances are almost same.
Because of these, the equivalent circuit model of practical transfomer can be
organized as;

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Practical Transformer Model Practical Transformer Model
• For medium power transformers, the shunt branch can be omitted, which • For large power transformers rated more than 500 kVA , the winding resistances,
corresponds to neglecting the exciting current. Since the exciting current is which are small compared to the leakage reactances, can often be neglected;
usually less than 5% of rated current, neglecting it in power system studies is
often valid unless transformer efficiency or exciting current phenomena are of
particular concern.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Practical Transformer Model Per Unit System
• The following are not represented by the steady-state equivalent circuit of • Motivations for Per Unit System
practical transformer: • Transformer introduces various voltage levels.
• Saturation • So far we can only reflect the load from one side of the transformer to
• Inrush current another. Still we need to consider different voltage level at each side of the
• Nonsinusoidal exciting current transformer when we try to find voltage and current.
• Surge phenomena • It is difficult to calculate voltage and current of the system at various points.
• It is even more difficult for the system operator to observe the current
situation of the system.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Per Unit System Per Unit System
• In per unit system, the voltage and current are normalized at each location of the Base Value Selection
power system. • Only single base value is selected for the power quantities in the whole power
• The per unit quantity of voltage, current, power and impedance is found from system. The base values of real power, reactive power, and apparent power are
dividing the actual quantity by a base value of that quantity. all the same real number.
For Single Phase Circuits; For Three Phase Circuits;
Sbase,  Pbase ,  Qbase, Sbase,3  Pbase ,3  Qbase ,3

• The base value has the same units as the actual quantity, this making the per-unit
quantity unitless. Per unit value is denoted by ‘p.u.’
• The base value is always a real number. Therefore, the angle of the per-unit
quantity is the same as the angle of the actual quantity.
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• Generally, voltage base values are selected as transformer voltage ratings.
• For single phase calculations, the base voltage VbaseLN is selected for either a single-phase
circuit or for one phase of a three phase circuit.
• For three phase calculations, the base voltage, VbaseLL is selected as line to line voltage of
three phase circuit.
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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Per Unit System Per Unit System
Base Value Selection Per Unit Equivalent Circuit of Single Phase Transformer
• Current base values are calculated from the base power and the base voltage. For the ideal transformer,
For Single Phase Circuits; For Three Phase Circuits;
S Sbase ,
I base ,  base , I base, 
Vbase ,l  n 3Vbase ,l l
• Impedance base values (same value for impedance, resistance, or reactance) are
calculated from voltage and current.
For Single PhaseCircuits; For Three Phase Circuits;

V  V 
2 2
base , base ,l l
Z base  Rbase  X base  Z base  Rbase  X base 
Sbase,l n Sbase ,3
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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Per Unit System Per Unit System
Conversion of Per Unit Values from Old to New Base Values Steps for Per-Unit Analysis
• Manufacturers usually specify equipment impedances in per unit values together 1) Choose a base power value for the entire system.
with voltage ratings (V) and apparent power rating (VA). 2) Select base voltage values for different zones (usually follows transformer
• The actual impedance base values can be found from the ratings of the voltage ratings).
equipment. 3) Calculate for different zones.
• Different equipments have different ratings and the selected voltage and power 4) Express all quantities in p.u.
base values for the power system may differ from the ratings of equipments.
Thus, we may need to calculate per unit values on the new basis. 5) Draw impedance diagram and solve for p.u. quantities.
• To convert a per-unit impedance from ‘‘old’’ to ‘‘new’’ base values, use; 6) Convert back to actual quantities if needed.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Per Unit System Example 1
Advantages Three zones of a single-phase circuit are identified in Figure. The zones are
• Per unit system simplifies the calculations by eliminating the turn ratios of connected by transformers T1 and T2, whose ratings are also shown. Using base
transformers. values of 30 kVA and 240 volts in zone 1, draw the per-unit circuit and determine
the per-unit impedances and the per-unit source voltage. Then calculate the load
• If the equipment ratings are used as base values, per-unit quantities in power current both in per-unit and in amperes. Transformer winding resistances and
system usually lie within a narrow numerical range by means of this, per unit shunt admittance branches are neglected.
system;
• helps to spot errors in data.
• helps to detect abnormality in the system.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Example 2
A balanced Y-connected voltage source with Eab=480∟0° volts is applied to a
balanced-Δ load with ZΔ=3∟40°Ω. The line impedance between the source and load
is ZL=1∟85°Ω for each phase. Calculate the per-unit and actual current in phase a of
the line using Sbase3φ=10 kVA and VbaseLL=480 volts.
Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Phase Transformers
• The three phase transformers can be constructed either as a 3-phase bank of
independent identical transformers (can be replaced independently) or as a
single transformer wound on a single 3-legged core (lighter, smaller, cheaper and
slightly more efficient).

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Phase Transformers Three Phase Transformers
Y-Y Connection
• There are four basic three phase transformer connections as;
• Y-Y
• Y-Δ
• Δ-Y
• Δ-Δ

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Phase Transformers Three Phase Transformers
• The per unit equivalent circuit of Y-Y connected transformer
• Per phase analysis of Y-Y connections
is exactly the same as analysis of a
single phase transformer.
• Y-Y connections are common in
transmission systems.
• Key advantages are the ability to
ground each side and there is no
phase shift is introduced.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Phase Transformers Three Phase Transformers
Y-Δ Connection • Y-Δ connection is generally used in
stepping down from a high voltage to a
medium.
• The secondary voltage is shifted by -30°
with respect to the primary voltage. This
can cause problems when paralleling 3-
phase transformers since transformers
secondary voltages must be in-phase to
be paralleled. Therefore, we must pay
attention to these shifts.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Phase Transformers Three Phase Transformers
• The per unit equivalent circuit of Y-Δ connected transformer Δ-Y Connection

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Phase Transformers Three Phase Transformers
• The per unit equivalent circuit of Δ-Y connected transformer
• Δ-Y connection is generally used for the
generator step-up transformers and the
distribution from a high voltage to a low
voltage levels.
• The secondary voltage is shifted by 30°
with respect to the primary voltage.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Phase Transformers Three Phase Transformers
Δ- Δ Connection • The Δ-Δ connection has no phase
shift. Per phase analysis similar to Y-Y
except impedances are decreased by
a factor of 3.
• Key disadvantage of Δ-Δ connection
is that can not be grounded; not
commonly used.

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Phase Transformers Example 3
• The per unit equivalent circuit of Δ-Δ connected transformer

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Example 4 Example 5

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Winding Transformers Three Winding Transformers
• The shunt admittance branch, a core loss resistor in parallel
with a magnetizing inductor, can be evaluated from an open-
circuit test.
• When one winding is left open, the three-winding transformer
behaves as a two-winding transformer, and standard short-
circuit tests can be used to evaluate per-unit leakage
impedances, which are defined as follows:
• Z12 = per-unit leakage impedance measured from winding
1 ; with winding 2 shorted and winding 3 open
• Z13 = per-unit leakage impedance measured from winding
1 ; with winding 3 shorted and winding 2 open
• Z23 = per-unit leakage impedance measured from winding
2 ; with winding 3 shorted and winding 1 open

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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Three Winding Transformers Autotransformers
• Autotransformers are transformers in which the primary and secondary windings
are coupled magnetically and electrically.
• This results in lower cost, and smaller size and weight.
• The key disadvantage is the loss of electrical isolation between voltage levels.
Hence auto-transformers are not used when the turn ratio is large. For example
in stepping down 36kV/400V, we do not ever want 36kV on the low voltage side!

• Note that each of the windings on a three-winding transformer may have a

different kVA rating. If the leakage impedances from short-circuit tests are
expressed in per-unit based on winding ratings, they must first be converted to
per-unit on a common Sbasebefore the calculations.
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Power Transformers & Per Unit System Power Transformers & Per Unit System
Phase Shifting Transformers Example 6
• Phase shifting transformers are used to control the phase angle across the
transformer
• Also called phase angle regulators (PARs) or quadrature booster transformers
• Since power flow through the transformer depends upon phase angle, this allows
the transformer to regulate the power flow through the transformer
• Phase shifters can be used to prevent inadvertent "loop flow" and to prevent line
overloads.

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