EXPERIMENT 3:

PRESSURE CONTROL

3.1 OBJECTIVE OF THE EXPERIMENT

(i) To demonstrate the characteristic of On/Off Control.

(ii) To demonstrate the characteristic of Proportional Only Control.
(iii) To demonstrate the characteristic of Proportional Band and Integral Action on a pressure
loop control.
(iv) To demonstrate the characteristic of Proportional Band, Integral Action and Derivative
Action on a pressure loop control.
(v) To demonstrate the loop tuning procedure on a pressure loop control.
(vi) To calculate the Cv for the control valve

3.2 INTRODUCTION

The Air Pressure Control has been designed on how a pressure loop be controlled using a
microprocessor based controller. The control panel is connected to a Distributed Control System
(DCS), which can remotely control the process plant using supervisory control mode (SCADA) or
direct digital control mode (DDC). A selector with located at the control panel is used to select
between SCADA or DDC mode. In SCADA mode the DCS can monitor and control the process
through the process controller and in DDC mode; the DCS can directly control the plant through
the Field Control Station.

The Pressure Control Module is an air process where 6 bar(g) of compressed air is charged into
the air receiver tank, V-301 and regulated to approximately 4 bar(g) by the air regulator PCV-301.
Air from the V-301 is passed through the process line into the control tank, V-302 which is filled to
read 2 bar(g). In case of overpressure in the receiver and control tanks, both tanks have been
fitted with pressure relief valves PSV-301 and PSV-302 respectively.

3.3 EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT

Various types of instrumentations are installed in the process line. A pressure transmitter PT-302
monitors the tank V-302 pressure and feeds it to the process controller PIC-302. The controller
regulates the control valve PCV-302 opening for airflow to maintain the pressure inside the
control tank. Once the pressure in the tank has reached steady state, hand valve HV316 is
manipulated to simulate load changes for the purpose of observation of the effectiveness of the
controller in use. For the purpose of Cv calculation, measurement for flowrate FT-301, pressure
PT-301 differential pressure PDT-302 and temperature TT-301 are also obtained.

Solenoid valves have been installed for the purpose of fault simulation in various sections of the
process line. Fault simulation switches have been installed to simulate these faults, which will
create errors in the process line.
Table 3.3 Instrument function and capabilities
No Instrument Tag No Description Range
1 PID controller PIC-302 Microprocessor based PID -
controller, heater, temp
2 Pressure PT-301 Pressure transmitter for process 0-100 PSIG
line
Transmitter
3 Recorder PR-302 Continuous 2 pen chart recorder -
4 Pressure PT-302 Pressure transmitter control 0-30 PSIG
tank (V-302)
Transmitter
5 Temperature TT-301 Signal type RTD Pt 100 with 0-1000C
transmitter for process line
Transmitter
6 Control valve PCV-302 1 inch globe type valve with 0-100%
Cv=0.8 equal and I/P
positioner
7 Vortex flowmeter FT-301 Air flowmeter for process line 0-50 SCMH
8 Pressure PI301 Dial gauge pressure indicator 0-7 bar
PI302 for local pressure indication 0-7 bar
Indicator
PI303 0-4 bar
PI304
0-4 bar
9 Temperature TI-301 Dial gauge temperature 0-1000C
indicator for local
Indicator
temperature indication
10 Process Tank V-301 Receiver tank 250 L
V-302 Control tank 100 L

11 Alarm PAL-302 Control tank pressure high

alarm
Annunciator PAH-302 Control tank pressure low alarm
12 Pressure Relief PSV-301 Mechanically activated device,
spring loaded normally
Valve PSC-302 closed valve. Opens and
purges air to atmosphere in
case of over pressure in
tank. Open prior to
pressure greater than its
spring tension.
13 Solenoid Valves HV-301 Solenoid valves for fault -
HV-302 simulation
HV303
14 D/P Transmitter PDT-301 Differential pressure transmitter 0-60 PSIG
for process line
15 Rotameter FI-301 Variable area flowmeter for 0-50 SCMH
FI-302 purpose line
16 Hand valve HV304- Input/Output isolation valves.
HV309 Determine the direction of airflow
and load changes.
Table 3.3 Instrument function and capabilities
No Instrument Tag No Description Range
17 Fault simulation HS-301 Leakage at pressure control -
switches HS-302 tank
HS-303 Loss of instrument air supply
Shut off at the outlet to the
pressure control tank
18 Air regulator PCV-301 Regulates the air supply to the -
process receiver tank (V-
301)
19 Instrument Air - Supplies instrument air to I/P -
converter
20 Control Panel - Mounting/installation of -
controller, alarm
annucaitor,recorder, push
button power supply switch
and changeover switch and
changeover switch between
the DCS and local control

3.4 THEORY

A fundamental component of any industrial process control system is the feedback control loop. It
consists of the process, the measurement, the controller and the final control element as shown
in Fig 3.1. If all these elements are interconnected that is if information can be passed
continuously around the loop, this is closed loop control and automatic feedback exists.

Figure 3.1 A closed loop control loop

This information flow provides the means for control, which allows efficient utilization of raw
materials and energy, if a loop is interrupted for any reason, such as when the controller is placed
on manual control, in Figure 3.2, it is considered to be open loop control and automatic control no
longer exists.

Figure 3.2 A Open loop control loop

The concept of automatic feedback control is not new. Automatic feedback control is not used
universally. Open loop control does not feed information from the process back to the controller.
Automatic control requires some sort of signal system to close the loop and provide the means for
information flow. The controller must be able to move the valve, the valve must be able to affect
the measurement and the measurement signal must be reported to the controller.

3.3.1 On/Off

On/Off control generally both the simplest and the least expensive type of process control and
has wide application in industry. A process controlled by an on/off controller almost always has
some error in it, in fact the controller turns on or off only at those times there is no error in the
measurement, when the measurement crosses the set point on its way from one extreme error to
another. The valve goes either fully open or closed depending on the direction of the error.

No attempt is made to balanced the inflow with the outflow. The energy or material supplied to the
process is always either too much or not enough. The measured variable cycles continuously.
When on/off control is applied to the right type of process, the effect of the cycling is small and
acceptable. On/off controller best applied to a large capacity process that has relatively little dead
time and small mass or energy inflow with respect to the capacity of the system.
The cycling is illustrated in Figure 3.3 which shows the relationship between the temperature and
the action of the manipulated variable. A typical application for on/off control is the temperature of
a large tank or bath.

Figure 3.3 System Response to a Process Upset with ON/OFF Control

3.3.2 Proportional Control

When a process has small capacity, it usually responds quickly to upsets. Therefore precise
continuous regulation of the manipulated variable is needed. Proportional control attempts to
stabilize the system and avoid fluctuations by responding to the magnitude as well as the
direction of the error. The relationship between the output and the width of the measurement span
is called the proportional band. In operation, the proportional controller calculates the amount of
error between the measurement and the set point, amplifies it and positions the final control
element to reduce the error. The magnitude of the corrective action is proportional to the error.
The measurement of proportional only controller can completely eliminate offset at only one load
condition.

When there is a process upset, such as when flow is suddenly reduced, the valve must change
position to keep the controlled variable at constant level (maintain the set point). The output from
the controller (which controls the valve position) must assume a new value, different from the
original (the set point) before equilibrium can again be reached.

This new value of the controlled variable is offset from the set point. Figure 3.4, Curve C shows
system response when the proportional band in which the oscillation settle out quickly. If the
proportional band is too wide, the offset will be much larger, reducing the amount of control over
the process. Narrowing the proportional band (increasing the gain) can reduce the amount of
offset but too narrow a band creates cycling. The most important limitations of proportional only
control is that it can accommodate only one fixed relationship between input and output, one
control load where input error is zero and one output signal which positions the control valve in
the position required to make the error zero.

Pure proportional action generally adequate for a process that is stable using a narrow
proportional band and where a small offset is not detrimental to the operation of the system. Non-
critical temperature level control lops with long time constants are good applications for
proportional only control.

Figure 3.4 Proportional only system response to a process upset with different proportional band
(PB) widths

3.3.3 Integral Control

Integral action avoids the offset created in proportional only control by bringing the output back to
the set point. It is an automatic rebalancing of the system, which operates as long an error exists.
Therefore, integral control responds to the duration of the error as well as its magnitude and
direction. Integral control is almost never used alone, rather it is combined with proportional
control.
Proportional plus intregral (PI) control is generally used on processes where no amount of offset
can be tolerated. Other applications include those where such a wide proportional band would be
required for stability that the amount of offset created would be unacceptable.

PI control is applied to almost all processes. When a process upset occurs, the proportional
controller registers an error and responds to it as shown in Figure 1.5. The integral control mode
detects the offset error in the proportional mode and tries to eliminate the error.

In a PI controller, intregral action can be expressed in temrs of minutes per repeat-the amount of
time necessary for the integral controller to repeat the open loop response caused by the
proportional mode for a step change in error. The smaller the time value, the faster the integral
action.

The minutes per repeat chosen for the integral mode of the controller should bring the control
point back to the set point quickly. If the integral time is too long, the system will not perform at
maximum efficiency. If the time is too short, it will overshoot the set point, in fact if the integral
time is too short for the process being controlled a continous cycle may result. These relationship
are shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 Proportional Integral System Response to a Process Upset with Different Integral
Times

One problem with integral control occur when a deviation cannot be eliminated over a period of
time. The controller continues to see an error and tries to correct for it, saturating it and driving
the output to its maximum value. This is called integral windup. When the situation causing the
error is corrected, the controller does not immediately return to normal operation it holds the
output and the valve at the extreme for a period of time after the deviation has reversed sign.

3.3.4 PID

Each of the three basic control modes and the combinations discussed so far, proportional (P),
proportional plus integral (PI) have limitations which may not be significant if the process and
controller are carefully matched. However some processes are so difficult to control or so critical
to maintain at set point that the use of all three modes will be helpful in maintaining desired
control. PID control responds to all aspect of process error-direction, magnitude, duration and
rate of change. The output of a PID controller is a linear combination of P,I and D modes of
control.

PID control can be advantages on many processes. However ,its application should be
considered carefully because it has limitations with some processes. Processes that benefit most
from PID control have rapid and large disturbances and in which derivative action can be respond
to the rapidity of the changes and the integral action can be respond to the duration of
them.Derivative and integral action are complementary. Derivative action permits an increase in
proportional gain, offsetting the decrease necessitated by integral action where integral action
tends to increase the period of cycling of a loop, derivative action tends to reduce it thereby
producing the same speed of response as with proportional action but without offset.

Temperature processes, such as the heat exchanger, typical of those applications which can
benefit from PID control. Figure 3.6 shows the effect of the addition of derivative action to a
properly adjusted PI controller. The period (time to complete a cycle) is shorter than with
proportional plus integral control.
Figure 3.6 Comparison of system response to a process upset with PI control and with PID
control

Figure 3.7 shows the response of a system to a process upset in the primary analogue control
mode, proportional, integral and PID. The uncontrolled response is shown for the sake of
comparison.

Figure 3.7 System response to a process upset with different modes of analogue control

Figure 3.8 shows the response of a system to a change in set point using the same analogue
control modes.
Figure 3.8 System response to a change in set point with different modes of analogue control

3.3.5 Loop tuning

The closed loop control system attempts to achieve a balance between supply and demand by
comparing the controlled variable to the set point and regulating the supply to an amount which
will maintain the desired balance. Tuning the controller adjusts it so it can achieve that balance as
quickly as possible. This is done when instrument is first put in service and later on a periodic
basis as part of preventive maintenance. When tuning remember that each controller is part of a
closed loop. All the parts of the loop are interactive, behaviour of other devices in that loop. The
controller response must be matched to that of the process. There are several procedures for
doing this, some mathematical most using trial and error.

A simple three step method for tuning most three mode controllers follows. Batch contollers and
one through processes are special cases discussed after the three mode and two mode
controllers) . This three steps procedure is based on a simple test to determine the nature period
of oscillation of the process.

Step 1 : Set the integral time of the controller at its maximum and the derivative time at its
minimum, thereby providing proportional only control. Then reduce the proportional band until
oscillation begins. Measure the period of this oscillation (also called the natural period) as the
time between two successive crests or valleys (Figure 3.9).
Figure 3.9 Period of oscillation with proportional only controller after first tuning step

Step 2 : Set the derivative time at 0.15 times the natural period and the integral time at 0.4 times
the natural period. Observe the new period of oscillation there should be a 25 percent
decrease(Figure 3.10). If the new period of oscillation is shorter than this reduce the derivative
time, if period is longer, increase the integral time.

Figure 3.10 Period of oscillation for correctly tuned PID controller after second tuning step
Step 3 : Finally the proportional band to achieve the desired degree of damping (the amount of
correction to a process upset which when too much or too little shows up as either overshoot or
sluggishness respectively)

When adjusting a two mode PI controller a slightly different method should be used since integral
mode introduces phase lag that is not counteracted by derivative. The procedure follows:

Step 1 : Set the integral time of the two mode controller at its maximum and the derivative time at
its minimum, providing proportional only control just as with the three mode controller. Then
reduce the proportional band until oscillation begins and measure this period.

Step 2 : Set the integral time to the natural period. The period of oscillation should increase about
40 percent (ideally 43%). If the period is longer than this, increase the integral time (Figure 3.11)

Figure 3.11 Period of oscillation for correctly tuned PI controller after second tuning step

Step 3 : Finally adjust the desired degree of damping is achieved. Adding integral will always
increase the proportional band required for stable control.

Some consideration must be given to processes with variable dynamic characteristics. Once
through processes such as tubular heat exchangers exhibit a natural period that varies inversely
with flow. In such situations. One combination of controller settings cannot be ideal for all flow
rates. Integral time should be set according to the lowest anticipated flow rate and the derivative
of time accordingly to the highest.

Some batch controllers because of their mechanical arrangement will become unstable if equal
values of integral and derivative time are used. Always keep their integral time at least twice the
derivative time.
3.5 PROCEDURE

Table 3.12 Start up procedure

STEP ACTION REMARKS

Start compressor and wait for sufficient air pressure to build

up in receiver tank, V-102, recommended air supply pressure
1 at 4 bar

2 Switch on the instrument power supply

3 Check recorder is working and pens have ink

4 Set controller Manual Mode with 0% output

Check and make sure hand valves positions are as follows:-

Close HV 315
Close HV318
Open HV 311
Hand valves to be
5 Open HV 312
Open/Closed Fully.
Open HV 313
Open HV 314
Open HV 317
Leave alone HV 316
Table 3.13 On/Off Control

STEP ACTION REMARKS

Allow pressure to build in V-102 to 4 bar(g) then set FI-302 to

1 10 m3/nr by regulating hand valve HV 316

Set control loop to Manual Mode and adjust the output to

2
about 50%.

Enter the following values:

PB = 2
3
I = 1000
D=0

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure in the tank V-

4
302 matches the setpoint.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Simulate a load changes by opening HV 316 so that FI 301

6
reads for 50m3/hr for approximately 10 seconds

Restore HV 316 to its original position and observe the

7
measurement for about 2 minutes

8 Change the setpoint to 75% and observe the response of the

system for another 2 minutes.
Table 3.14 Closed Loop Proportional Control

STEP ACTION REMARKS

Allow pressure to build in V-301 to 4 bar(g) then set FI-302 to

1 10 m3/nr by regulating hand valve HV 316

2 Set control loop to Manual Mode with setpoint 50%

Enter the following values:

The values will set the
PB = 250
3 controller to Proportional
I = 1000
Only Control mode
D=0

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure on the tank

4
matches the setpoint.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Simulate a load changes by opening HV 316 so that FI 301

6
reads for 50m3/hr for approximately 10 seconds

Restore HV 316 to its original position and wait until the

7
measurement PT 302 exhibits a uniform pattern.

8 Change the setpoint to 75% and observe the response of the

system.
Repeat steps 2 through 8 for the following PB values. Retain
the previous I and D values.

9
PB = 25 and PB = 10

Take note the offset values for each of the PB values.

Table 3.15 Closed Loop Proportional and Integral Control

STEP ACTION REMARKS

Allow pressure to build in V-302 then set FI-302 to 10 m3/nr

1 by regulating hand valve HV 316

2 Set PIC-302 to Manual Mode with setpoint 50%

Enter the following values:

The values will set the
PB = 100
3 controller to Proportional
I = 50
& Integral Control mode
D=0

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure on the tank

4
matches the setpoint.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Simulate a load changes by opening HV 316 so that FI 301

6
reads for 50m3/hr for approximately 10 seconds

Restore HV 316 to its original position and wait until the

7
measurement exhibits a uniform pattern.

8 Change the setpoint to 75% and observe the response of the

system.
Repeat steps 2 through 8 for the following I values. Retain
the previous PB and D values.

9
I = 30 s, I = 10 s and I =1 s

Table 3.16 Proportional plus Integral and Derivative (PID) Control

STEP ACTION REMARKS

Allow pressure to build in V-301 to 4 bar(g) then set FI-302 to

1 10 m3/nr by regulating hand valve HV 316

2 Set PIV-302 to Manual Mode with setpoint 50%

Enter the following values:

The values will set the
PB = 1000
3 controller to Proportional
I = 30
Only Control mode
D=0

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure on the tank

4
matches the setpoint of 50%.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Simulate a load changes by opening HV 316 so that FI 301

6
reads for 50m3/hr for approximately 10 seconds

Restore HV 316 to its original position and wait until the

7
measurement exhibits a uniform pattern.

8 Change the setpoint to 75% and observe the response of the

system.
Repeat steps 2 through 8 for the following D values. Retain
the previous PB and I values.

9
D = 30, D = 10 and D = 1
Table 3.17 PID Loop Tuning

STEP ACTION REMARKS

Allow pressure to build in V-301 to 4 bar(g) then set FI-302 to

1 10 m3/nr by regulating hand valve HV 316

2 Set PIC-302-1 to Manual Mode with setpoint at 50%

Enter the following values:

The values will set the
PB = 250
3 controller to Proportional
I = 1000
Only Control mode
D=0

Gradually adjust the output so that the pressure of the tank

4
reaches the setpoint.

5 Put the control loop into Auto Mode

Retain the I and D values. Slowly decrease PB until the

6
measurement oscillate about the setpoint.

Repeat steps 3 through 4 for the following PB values.

7
PB = 25 ,PB = 10 and PB = 2

Determine the natural period using the following method

D
Natural period , T   60 min
8 Trend Speed
where
D = distance in mm between successive crests or valleys
Set the integral time to natural period, T that was calculated
and repeat step 3 to 6. The period of oscillation should
9
decrease by 40 %. If the period is longer than this increase
the integral time.
Finally adjust the PB until the desired degree of damping is
10
achieved.
3.6 CALCULATION OF CONTROL VALVE (CV)

The term Cv is generally used by industry for comparing and calculating relative flow capacity in
valves. Consideration should be given that calculated results are comparative only.

Definition: Cv equates to the number of cubic feet per minute of air, having a specific gravity of 1.0
that will pass through the valve with a pressure drop at the valve of 1Psi.

Cv = valve flow coefficient

P1 = upstream pressure, Psia
P2 = downstream pressure, Psia
P = pressure drop or differential, Psi
S.G. = specific gravity relative to air or water
SCFH = standard cubic feet per hour

When calculating gas or vapour flow, if the calculated P exceeds one half the upstream
pressure, use one half the upstream Psia for sizing P.

For gases:

Cv 
SCFH  460  0

F S .G.
1360 P1 (P )
Q TfG
Cv 
1360 P ( P1 )

Example

Qmax = 45.5 SCMH = 1606.8 SCFH

Tf = flowing temp in Rankine (460+0F) = 250C
G = S.G. = 1.0 for air
P1 = 4 barg = 72.7 Psia
P2 = 43.7 Psia
P = 29 psi

Then

Cv = 0.77
During the experiment, various faults can be simulated by the unit, to create errors similar to
those that can be experienced in the industry. This can be done with switches that have been
installed for this purpose. It is required to detect the errors, its location and solve the error.

Switch HS-301 : Leakage at the pressure control tank (V-302)

Switch HS-302 : Loss of instrument air supply
Switch HS-303 : Shut off the outlet pressure control tank (V-302)

1.4 REFERENCES

Seborg D.E., T.F. Edgar and D.A. Melliechamp, ‘Process Dynamics and Control’, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1989, pp 116-118.