Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540

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Computers & Geosciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cageo

The application of median indicator kriging and neural network in modeling

mixed population in an iron ore deposit
Mehdi Badel a,n, Saeed Angorani a, Masoud Shariat Panahi b
a
School of Mining Engineering, University College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, University College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents the results of a study comparing median indicator kriging and an artificial neural
Received 14 December 2009 network in the estimation of iron grades in the Jalal-Abad Zarrand iron ore deposit located in the southern
Received in revised form Iran. The data used in this study is from 2017 composite samples with 2 m length from 32 exploration
24 July 2010
boreholes. The iron grade data is sparse, irregularly spaced and has mixed distribution, which can be
Accepted 26 July 2010
problematic for the stationarity assumptions of the widely used ordinary kriging estimation method. The
Available online 11 November 2010
two estimation techniques applied in this study make no assumptions about the distribution of the
Keywords: sample data, and accommodate moderately mixed sample populations.
Indicator kriging & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Neural networks
Mixed distribution

1. Introduction To overcome the limitations of an OK in the presence of non-

The task of grade estimation in a mineral resource can be
complicated, due to the uncertainty associated in interpreting the
processes of mineral deposit formation. Most of the commonly
used grade estimation approaches applied to mineral deposits,
including geostatistics, are based on certain assumptions about the
spatial distribution of ore grade within the deposit.
Ordinary kriging (OK) is the most widely used estimation method
in an ore resource estimation. This method can be used to estimate a
value at an unsampled location in a region of interest using data in
the neighborhood of the estimation location and a variogram model
interpreted from all the data within the region. Ordinary kriging can
also be adapted to estimate block grades. Under the assumption that
the region is second-order stationarity, ordinary block kriging
implicitly evaluates the mean in a moving neighborhood in a manner
that minimizes the estimation error (Wackernagel, 1995).
In the case study of the Jalal Abad iron ore deposit, the data set is
spatially sparse, irregularly spaced and has a mixed distribution. As
such, is problematic because the iron grade can change abruptly in
local neighborhoods, which violate the stationarity assumptions
expected for OK. Specifically, applying a linear estimator (such as
an OK) may be sub-optimal, because the presence of mixed iron
grade populations can lead to local estimates that are not repre-
sentative of any sub-population.
n artificial neural network (ANN). These methods have been applied
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: badel@ut.ac.ir, mehdi.badel@gmail.com (M. Badel),
angorani@ut.ac.ir (S. Angorani), mshariatp@ut.ac.ir (M. Shariat Panahi).
stationarity, prior knowledge of the spatial distribution of grades may
be required in order to make a better estimate of the resource grade.
Indicator kriging (IK), introduced by Journel (1983), is an estimation
technique used in the resource estimation, which has been used for
over fifteen years for non-linear estimation of grades. Many research-
ers have applied the IK algorithm and developed derivatives. The
original aim of Journel, based on the work of Switzer (1977), was the
estimation of local uncertainty by the process of derivation of a local
cumulative distribution function (cdf). The appeal of an IK is that the
method is non-parametric and does not rely upon the assumption of a
particular distribution model for its results. From slow beginnings in
the early 1980s, an IK has grown to become one of the most widely
used algorithms in non-linear grade resource estimation, despite the
relative complexity of an application (Keogh et al., 1995).
In an indicator kriging the k cut-off values zk are usually chosen so
that the corresponding indicator covariances are significantly dif-
ferent from one another. There are cases, however, when the sample
indicator covariances/semivariograms appear proportional to each
other. In these cases, the median threshold of the input distribution
is considered to be representative enough of the indicator vario-
grams at other cut-offs. In these cases, the application of median
indicator kriging (MIK) is less time consuming than IK, because only
the single median semivariogram model can be applied for all cut-
offs, even when the assumptions for median indicator kriging are
only approximately satisfied (Deutsch and Journel, 1992).
An alternative to kriging for estimation are methods based on an
in the resource estimation with some success, for example Wu and
Zhou (1993), Clarici et al. (1993) and Burnett (1995). ANNs require

0098-3004/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cageo.2010.07.009
 M. Badel et al. / Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540
example inputs and outputs to learn this relationship. Input data
normally come in the form of samples at known locations in three-
dimensional (3D) space and the output data is the grade at these
locations. Most of the neural network systems treat the unknown
parameters estimation as a problem of function approximation
in the data coordinate space (Kapageridis and Denby, 1998;
Kapageridis, 2005).
Artificial neural network (ANN) techniques have been applied in
the past to grade and resource estimation with some success, for
example Wu and Zhou (1993), Clarici et al. (1993) and Burnett
(1995). ANNs require example inputs and outputs to learn this
relationship. Input data normally come in the form of samples at
known locations in three-dimensional (3D) space and the output
data is the grade at these locations. Most of the neural network
systems treat the unknown parameters estimation as a problem of
function approximation in the data coordinate space (Kapageridis
and Denby, 1998; Kapageridis, 2005).
In this paper, MIK and ANN methods are used to estimate the
model of spatial distribution of iron grade in the Jalal Abad iron ore
deposit. The estimates by both methods are compared and con-
trasted in the conclusions further below.
2. Non-linear interpolators
In geostatistics, non-linear interpolation involves estimating the
conditional expectation and conditional distribution of grade dis-
tribution of interest at locations in the region of interest, as opposed
to estimating a single average grade. When the grade distributions of
interest have near normal shape, a linear estimator is ideal (Isaaks
and Srivastava, 1989). However, when the grade distribution of
interest is highly skewed or contains a mixture of populations, the
underlying assumption of ordinary estimation methods can be
invalidated. In these cases, a non-linear estimation method that
can deal appropriately with these more complex distributions.
There are many non-linear geostatistical estimation methods
which can be used to make local (panel by panel) estimates of
distributions of interest. In these methods, the proportion of an
SMU-sized (selective mining unit) parcels above a cut-off grade can
be estimated within a large local block or panel. These methods
include disjunctive kriging, IK (including full indicator kriging and
median indicator kriging), probability kriging, multigaussian kri-
ging, uniform conditioning and residual indicator kriging (Vann
and GuibalGeoval, 1998).
2.1. IK
IK is performed on binary indicator transformed values of the
grades for one or more thresholds of interest. The continuity of the
indicators for each threshold is modeled as by an indicator
variogram as the structural function. The indicators are then
estimated using OK to give the probability estimate of exceeding
or not exceeding the thresholds of interest. The IK estimate of
each single indicator lies in the interval [0,1], and can be inter-
preted as the:
1. probability that the grade exceeds the indicator threshold, or
2. proportion of the block or panel above the specified cut-off on
the data (point) support.
Additionally the range of the indicator variogram can be useful
when interpreting the average dimensions of mineralized pods at
different cut-offs. Indicators methods are also useful for character-
izing the spatial variability of categorical variables. Henstridge
(1998) presents examples of such applications for an iron deposit
531
and Gossage (1998) gives a more general overview of such
applications of an IK (Vann and GuibalGeoval, 1998).
2.2. IK and MIK
MIK is an approximation of full indicator kriging, where an
assumption is made whereby the spatial continuity of indicators at
several cut-offs can be approximated by a single structural func-
^ where m
tion, that for zc ¼ m, ^ is the median of the grade distribu-
tion. As such, the indicator variogram at (or close to) the median is
considered to be representative of the indicator variograms at other
cut-offs. This assumption has been checked by computing the other
variograms for different cut-offs for every population and if these
variograms produced same shapes, the median of each population
could be the representative for other cut-offs in every population.
The advantage of an MIK over full IK is one of time (both variogram
modeling and estimation). The critical risk is in the adequacy of the
implied approximation.
‘‘If there are noticeable differences in the shape of indicator
variograms at various cut-offs, one should be cautious about using
median indicator kriging’’ (Isaaks and Srivastava, 1989).
3. ANNs
An ANN is an interconnected network of processing elements
(neurons) operating in parallel, where the element functions are
inspired by biological neural systems. The neurons are arranged in
groups called layers, where neurons of each layer are typically
connected to those of the next layer. Each neuron processes the
data it receives using a transfer function (TF). A combination of
linear and non-linear TFs can be used to enable the ANN to simulate
non-linear and complex functions. This simulation of functions is
achieved by setting the strengths (synaptic weights) of the con-
nections between neurons.
Demuth and Beale (2002) have shown that an ANN can be trained
to approximate any non-linear function through adjustment of the
then ANN synaptic weights. The weight adjustments are carried out
through routine involving successive comparisons of the network-
provided output and desired target values, until the network outputs
match the target values. Many iterations of comparisons are
required to train a network and the training routine often requires
reuse of the available data. ANNs have been trained to perform
complex functions in various fields, including pattern recognition,
identification, classification, and speech, vision, and control systems.
Kapageridis (2005) demonstrated how ANNs can be trained to solve
problems that have proved difficult to solve by conventional
computing algorithms.
3.1. Feed-forward neural networks
ANNs are either static or dynamic. A static ANN has no feedback
elements, contains no delays; and the output is calculated directly
from the input through the feed-forward connections. In a dynamic
ANN, however, the output depends not only on the current input to
the network, but also on the previous inputs, outputs, or states of
the network through feedback (recurrent) connections (Demuth
and Beale, 2002).
Of the most widely used static ANNs are Feed-Forward ANNs,
named so because they only allow a forward flow of information. The
most common learning algorithm for feed-forward networks is
called the back-propagation. As this name implies, training of the
network is performed via propagation of the error calculated at
individual output nodes through network links in a backward
direction, modifying synaptic weights on its way back to the input
532 M. Badel et al. / Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540
nodes. Back-propagation usually involves a gradient descent opti-
mization algorithm, where the vector of the synaptic weights is
successively moved along the negative of the gradient of the function
to be minimized. The usual case is minimization of the mean square
error of the network at output nodes to the training data.
4. Case study
Borehole data from a local iron ore deposit were used to train a
feed-forward ANN, which would be able to predict the ore grade
throughout the deposit. The ANN would take the borehole data
(including the spatial coordinates of each datum) as an input and
produce sample grades as an output. The ANN estimate is com-
pared to an MIK estimate using the same input information.
4.1. Jalal Abad deposit
The Jalal Abad iron ore deposit is situated in South Iran, 90 km
far from Kerman (capital of Kerman province) in the northwest
Iran. Exploration of the deposit, in the period spanning 1979–1993,
identified a mineral resource of approximately 200 Mt of an iron
ore grading 46.2% Fe. The high grade fresh-rock part of the deposit is
estimated to contain 92 Mt grading 53.48% Fe and the high grade
oxide part of the deposit is estimated to contain 21 Mt grading
55.7% Fe. The low grade part of the resource is estimated to contain
88 Mt grading 32.3% Fe (Techno Export, 1976).
The Jalal Abad deposit is hosted by rocks sedimentary and
volcanic origin, which includes siltstones, sandy siltstones, acid
igneous rocks, and limestones. The iron mineralization process has
been interpreted to be related to the intrusion of dykes and igneous
complexes, which have produced the main zones of mineralization
through the hydrothermal alteration. The principal iron mineral in
fresh ore in the high grade zone is magnetite, with magnetite being
oxidized to hematite in the upper part of the deposit. Other
minerals found in the fresh ore are pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyr-
ite, bismotite, with limonite, goethite, malachite, and azurite found
in the oxide zone.
Interpretation of aerial magnetite surveys and exploration
drillhole data reveals that the geometry of Jalal Abad iron deposit
is a stretched lens with a NW–SE trend. The high grade ( 445% Fe)
iron mineralization generally follows the trends of the stratigraphy.
Fig. 1 is a fence diagram of the main geological units with the fence
constructed between the four locations A–D shown on the drillhole
location map of Fig. 2.
Fig. 1. Geological section along the fence line A–B–C–D locations, which are plotted on the boreholes location map in Fig. 2. Units are metres and there is no vertical
exaggeration (Techno Export, 1976).
As shown on the fence diagram, the thickness of the miner-
alization ranges between 10 and 150 m. The orientation of the
stratigraphy varies from east and northeast with near horizontal
dips in the north and south parts, but rose with beds dipping from
451 to 651 in center.
The genesis of iron mineralization of Jalal Abad area has been
interpreted to occur in two phases (Techno Export, 1976):
1. the Jalal Abad I phase was formed by fluid eruptions of volcanic
activities associated with continental rifting or local ore sources;
2. the Jalal Abad II was formed by iron replacement in dolomitized
limestones. As there is no evidence of contact metamorphic
skarn mineralization, the interpreted genesis is that magmatic
complexes intruded in the area and caused hydrothermal
activation of groundwaters. This process remobilized iron from
the Jalal Abad I phase, upward with subsequent replacement in
dolomitized limestones.
4.2. Iron grade distribution
Fig. 3 is the iron grade histogram of 2017 two meter long
drillhole composites from the area. In the Jalal Abad deposit, the
histogram of iron in the drillhole sample data is clearly trimodal.
This mixed distribution is interpreted to be function of the different
phases of mineralization at Jalal Abad.
4.2.1. Dividing the data set by k-mean clustering and results
For the purposes of this study separating the three populations
observed in the histogram by direct geological interpretation was
deemed impractical due to the lack of consistent geological data for
the area of the deposit. In an attempt to identify quasi-stationary
domains, a clustering analysis was applied to the drillhole data.
Three clusters were expected for the clustering analysis of the
borehole data has a trimodal histogram. In the cluster analysis,
there are two methods for classifying data, either by updating
cluster centers iteratively or by classification. In this study, the
k-means option in an SPSS software was used to update cluster
centers iteratively (Coakes, 2005).
After dividing the data into three populations by clustering
(Fig. 4), two statistical tests (Levene statistic and a t-test) were
applied to determine whether there is a statistically significant
difference between the three populations identified in the cluster
analysis. The results of these tests for the three clusters are listed
in Table 1.
 M. Badel et al. / Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540 533

Fig. 2. Locations of the 32 boreholes locations in Jalal Abad ore deposit. (The dashed line A–B–C–D is the section depicted in Fig. 1.)

Fig. 3. Histogram of borehole iron grade data. Three interpreted population medians are annotated at 17.01% Fe, 35.86% Fe, and 54.72% Fe.

The Levene test is a measure of the equality of variances
between groups. If the result of the Levene test is less than some
critical p-value of the F-distribution, say 0.05, then it can be inferred
that the difference in variance of two distributions is significant. As
shown in Table 1, the Levene significance value of the statistic
between first and second populations is 0.077. Because this value
exceeds 0.05, which represents the 95% confidence level, the
interpretation of these results is that the first and second groups
have equal variances, but we do not ignore the second test which
assumed that the groups have different means. The Levene test
result for the second and third populations is 0.034. As this value is
lower than 0.05, the two populations are considered to have
significantly different variances.
Therefore, the t-test used for both equal and not equal vari-
ance estimations to determine whether means population diff-
erences exist. The two-tail significance (last column of Table 1)
indicates that p o0.05 and thus is significant. So these three groups
should not come from same population, because significant mean
differences exist.
4.3. MIK estimate
Due to the mixtures of populations in the Jalal Abad data, an MIK
was selected as an appropriate non-linear estimation method for
estimation of an iron grade.
534 M. Badel et al. / Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540

Fig. 4. The histograms of the three clusters.

Table 1
Levene test and t-test results for comparisons of three population clusters.

Levene’s test for equality of variances t-Test for Equality of means

F Significance level t Significance level

(95% confidence, 2-tailed) (95% confidence, 2-tailed)

Equal variances assumed

First and second populations 3.139 0.077 62.906 0.00
First and third populations 0.066 0.797 138.348 0.00
Second and third populations 4.506 0.034 63.623 0.00

Equal variances not assumed

Second and third populations 63.124 0.00

4.3.1. MIK variography
For each of the three populations of iron grade identified by the
clustering analysis and for the purposes of an MIK estimation,
experimental semivariograms were generated in 24 directions in
three-dimensional spaces. These variogram were then used to
interpret dimensions and orientation of the ellipsoid of grade
continuity anisotropy for the three thresholds interpreted to the
medians of each cluster. These median thresholds were set at 17%
Fe, 34% Fe, and 54%. Fig. 5 contains the indicator variograms which
were calculated for each median and also the omni-directional
variograms.
As shown, the interpreted indicator nugget effects are 60–70% of
the variance, which indicates that the iron grade is highly variable
over short ranges. The indicator variograms suggest maximum
ranges of grade continuity from 135 m (for the third population) to
165 m (for second population) depending on the population
considered.
4.3.2. Grid dimensions
The estimation space has been restricted, horizontally, by the
range of omni-directional semi-variograms in north–south and
east–west directions. Different parameters influenced on the
dimension of the estimation blocks such as disperse of the ore
all over the deposit, the conditions of mine planning, and the
benches according to the available equipments and tools. In the
Jalal Abad deposit, the horizontal dimension of blocks determined
25 m  25 m as a result of the drillholes dispersion. The block
thicknesses were determined by considering the populations of ore
and waste vertical thickness. In Jalal Abad the block thickness has
been considered to be 10 m, according to the ore and waste vertical
thickness distributions. Finally, the block dimensions were set to
25 m  25 m  10 m.
4.3.3. Grade estimation
The individual characteristics of deposit were reviewed before
deciding the best approach to estimate an ore grade for further
purposes, including ore grade, tonnage, depth, techniques of
mining and processing the ore, and where the mined product
can be sold. Various methods have been introduced to estimate and
evaluate an ore reserve; every one of them has its own advantages
and disadvantages. The Jalal Abad ore reserve was estimated using
non-parametric methods (MIK in this section), because of the
nature of iron data set, which has a trimodal distribution. The
search parameters for performing MIK are listed in Table 2.
 M. Badel et al. / Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540 535

Fig. 5. (a, b, c). Experimental indicator omni-directional semi-variograms and models for (a) 1st median (17%); (b) 2nd median (35%); and (c) 3rd median (54%).

Table 2
Search parameters for the MIK estimates.

Population Major axis (m) Bearing (deg.) Semi-major Bearing (deg.) Minor axis (m) Bearing (deg.) Max/Min samples Octants controls
axis (m)

First 145 22.5 135 112.5 130 112.5 20/5 Not used
Second 165 22.5 115 112.5 110 112.5 20/5 Not used
Third 135  10 100 80 100 80 20/5 Not used

In Fig. 6, the low grade iron grade mineralization trends north to
south through the study area and high grade zone is located at the
center of the study area and displays much shorter continuity than
the low grade.
Fig. 7 is a cross sectional view on the same section plane as Fig. 1
and Fig. 8 is the histogram of the MIK estimates. The downhole
histogram traces selected drillholes are also shown in red on
this plot.
As mentioned before, based on the magnetic survey, the Jalal
Abad deposit generally looks like a stretched lens directed from
northwest to southeast of the area. Comparing with the geological
section in Fig. 1, produced by some log correlations and having its
own uncertainties, the section resulting from an MIK follows
visually, the main part of the deposit, which has an inclination
to north-northeast, quite well.
In some parts of the estimates the main structures produced by
an MIK are much dispersed and pod form. This is due to the weak
structure of the spatial variable with high nugget effect. So
whenever this kind of structure has been discovered, kriging is a
good choice to estimate the ore grade.
536 M. Badel et al. / Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540

Fig. 6. Three-dimensional view showing an MIK iron ore grade estimates.

Fig. 7. The illustrated section in Fig. 1 showing the spatial distribution of median indicator kriging iron ore grade estimates.

4.4. ANN estimates
4.4.1. Data division
An effective ANN requires generalization capability. This means
that the network would be able to make accurate estimates for
input data not used in the training of the net. While ANNs can be
flexible in recognizing the complexity of the data, excessive
flexibility can result in over-fitting to the input data, which leads
to reduced generalization capability of the model.
The common method to maximize the generalization capability
of a network, while preventing it from being over-fit is to train the
net with a sub-set of the training data and then examine its
performance using the unused data as test and validation data.
The problem of how to divide the available data (here the
exploratory borehole data) into the above three groups is only a
matter of experience. It has been nonetheless suggested that a
random division of the data would be justifiable in large and
homogeneous data sets, with more data dedicated to training than
 M. Badel et al. / Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540
Fig. 8. Histogram of iron data estimated by median indicator kriging with mixed populations.
Fig. 9. The proposed network with three hidden layers. The input layer has three
nodes, the next three hidden layers (intermediate layers) have 9, 6, and 3 nodes, and
the output layer is a single node.
those saved for validation and test (Samanta and Bandopadhyay,
2009). In this study, extensive trials showed that the best results
would be obtained when 1082 input vectors are used for training,
360 for validation and 360 for testing the network.
4.4.2. ANN architecture
Before the ANN could be trained, the number of neurons needs
to be specified along with the neuron activation functions and a
training algorithm to find the optimum synaptic weights. The more
complex and nonlinear the mappings between the input and
output spaces, the more hidden layers are needed. In this study,
a network architecture was constructed with three hidden layers of
nine, six, and three neurons was experimentally found to yield the
most accurate results (Fig. 9). Fewer hidden layers proved to
perform equally well at the training phase, but partially failed to
produce comparable results at the test phase.
Finally, a training algorithm was needed to minimize the overall
deviation of the ANN-provided outputs from their desired values.
537
The mean square error (MSE) of the output neurons over the entire
training set is commonly taken as the objective to be minimized.
Experiments in this study using a number of popular optimization
algorithms identifed that the conjugate gradients method (CGM)
had the best convergence rate, especially when augmented with
Powell-Beale restarts as described further below.
While many of the traditional training algorithms adjust the vector
of the synaptic weights by moving them in the steepest descent
direction (negative of the gradient of the objective function, here the
MSE of the output nodes) in each iteration k, CGM moves in a different
direction, one that is a linear combination of the steepest descent
direction at the current step (dk) and the search direction in the
previous iteration (dk 1). The rationale behind this strategy is that,
although moving in the negative gradient direction at each point
decreases the function most rapidly, it does not necessarily produce
the fastest convergence. Moving in a direction that combines the
current steepest descent direction with the direction of the previous
step (which are conjugate to each other) proves to produce a
smoother and shorter path to the global minimum. Also, the training
rate of the network improves if the CGM is combined with restarts,
whereby a training step is made in the negative gradient direction
after certain number of training steps are made in the conjugate
gradient directions. Powell (1977) indicated that the best restart time
is when the current and previous gradients are nearly the same.
4.4.3. Grade estimation
In Fig. 10, three dimension view of an ANN estimates observed
from the same viewpoint as that used in for the MIK estimates in
Fig. 6. This image reveals that the ANN estimate of the high grade
main zone iron mineralization of the Jalal Abad deposit is more
continuous particularly in the north of the area and its inclination
northeast. Fig. 11 is a cross section view of the ANN estimate using
the same criteria as Figs. 1 and 7. The location and geometry of the
high grade part of the deposit compares favorably with the
geological interpretation of the high grade zone shown in Fig. 1.
Visually the ANN estimates agree with the geological expecta-
tions of continuity and the histogram of ANN estimates (Fig. 12)
compares more favorably with the histogram of the input data than
does the histogram of MIK estimates in Fig. 8.
538 M. Badel et al. / Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540

Fig. 10. Three-dimensional view showing neural network iron ore grade estimates.

Fig. 11. The illustrated section in Fig. 1 showing the spatial distribution of neural network iron ore grade estimates.

5. Discussion and conclusions
In this study MIK and ANN estimates were made using iron
grade data from drillholes used to estimate the iron resources in the
Jalal-Abad Zarrand iron ore deposit. By visual inspection and
statistical character, the estimates differ.
The ANN estimate has greater continuity between drillholes and
higher grade mineralization than the MIK estimate. In MIK results,
some low grade parts appear suddenly next to the high grade ones,
but this behavior could not be recognized in an ANN estimates. In
an ANN, the iron ore grade varied regularly from high to low grade
parts and it is not highly variable.
Fig. 13 contains scatter plots, where cross validation values of
the data (x-axis) are compared with the respective MIK and ANN
estimates (y-axis). A linear regression line shown in bold has been
fitted to each plot and the equation of the regression line R
parameter, is included on the higher left of each plot. These plots
reveal that the MIK estimates have a better local precision than the
ANN estimates as quantified by a higher regression slope and R
value associated with the MIK scatter plot. By comparison of both
 M. Badel et al. / Computers & Geosciences 37 (2011) 530–540 539

Fig. 12. Histogram of neural network iron ore grade estimates showing mixed populations.

Fig. 13. The regression between boreholes data and estimated values from both techniques.

ANN and MIK results around the drillholes, it has been recognized
that the MIK estimates are more similar to the raw data in drillholes
and this procedure has been more affected by variability of the
grades rather than the ANN estimates.
It should be mentioned that an MIK estimate is suited to
purposes, where the estimation goal is to minimize the local
estimation error, while the ANN estimate is suited to purposes where
the estimation goal to reproduce the character of the point histogram
in the deposits.
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