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WAVE OVERTOPPING OF RUBBLE MOUND BREAKWATERS WITH CREST

ELEMENTS

Conference Paper · January 2006

DOI: 10.1142/9789812709554_0385

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 WAVE OVERTOPPING OF RUBBLE MOUND
BREAKWATERS WITH CREST ELEMENTS

E.M. Coeveld1, M.M. Busnelli2,

M.R.A. van Gent1 and G. Wolters1

Crown walls or superstructures on top of permeable breakwaters are often used as a

measure in existing structures to counteract insufficient design protection against
overtopping. These crest elements, generally located well above the design water level,
have been found to effectively decrease the mean overtopping discharge over a dike or
rubble mound structure. The current study focusses at investigating the reduction in
overtopping which can be expected from crest elements on a permeable breakwater.

INTRODUCTION
Overtopping of coastal defenses is a typical problem in regions of severe
wave climate. A lot of research effort has been done in the last decade to
quantify the amount of overtopping which can be expected for a certain set of
wave conditions and structural parameters. Furthermore, the danger to
pedestrians, cars, nearby buildings and the structure itself have drawn a lot of
attention. One area which has so far not attracted much attention is the effect of
relatively small crest elements on top of permeable breakwaters. These are often
used as a measure in existing structures to counteract insufficient design
protection against overtopping. The crest elements have been found to
effectively decrease the mean overtopping discharge over a dike or rubble
mound structure. Existing design formulae for these structures seem to be
oversimplified. Thus, an investigation of the effects of crest elements on
overtopping of permeable breakwaters is warranted, which is the topic of this
study.

Technical background
Several studies have been carried out to investigate wave overtopping of
rubble mound structures with crest elements. Some of these studies are shortly
addressed in the following.
Bradbury and Allsop (1988a) performed a series of physical model tests to
investigate the hydraulic effects of breakwater crown walls. In total 14 different
cross-sections were tested for 9 wave conditions. Investigated were varying
crown wall heights for rough and smooth slopes, varying berm widths in front

1
Delft Hydraulics, Rotterdamseweg 185, Delft, 2600 MH, The Netherlands
2
Witteveen + Bos, P.O. Box 2397, 3000 CJ Rotterdam, The Netherlands
of the crown wall, varying armor levels and varying freeboard levels. Simple
vertical crown walls and wave return structures were tested. An outer slope
angle of 1:2 was used in all tests. The derived overtopping formulae do not
include these structural parameters, but are based on a simple exponential
relationship with correction (reduction) factors. It is however stated that the
effects of berm width, armor crest location and crown wall freeboard seem to be
only significant for a limited range of wave and water level conditions, and that
a simplified exponential relationships holds well for larger overtopping
discharges. Furthermore, it is stated that the berm width in front of the crown
wall and the relative freeboard (Rc2/Rc1 and Rc2/B, see Fig.1) are parameters
which should be included in a further analysis of crown wall related parameters.
A more detailed description of the test results and their analysis is given in
Bradbury and Allsop (1988b).
Kortenhaus et al. (2001 and 2003) and Pearson et al. (2004) studied the
influence of parapets and recurves on wave overtopping and wave loading of
complex vertical seawalls and breakwaters. The influence on wave overtopping
was most evident for higher relative crest freeboards (Rc/Hs) and low
overtopping rates. For high overtopping volumes or small freeboards the
influence became negligible. Kortenhaus et al. (2003) judged the effectiveness
of the recurve/parapet in reducing overtopping by using a k-factor defined as the
ratio of overtopping discharge with recurve to the overtopping without recurve.
The analysis of Kortenhaus et al. (2003) shows typical k factors from 0.1
(pulsating conditions with high water level and low clearance) and 0.001 for
impulsive conditions. The relevance of the recurve/parapet was established for
relative freeboard levels of Rc/Hs >1.5. For levels of Rc/Hs <1.2 the effect of the
parapet became negligible. Other investigations (Cornett et al., 1999) give a
wider range of relative freeboard levels for reduced overtopping:
0.67<Rc/Hs<3.33. A calculation procedure for the k-factor in practice can be
found in Kortenhaus et al. (2003). Similarly, the increase in wave loading on the
wall due to the recurve was judged by a factor kF.
In the current Dutch guidelines (TAW, 2002) the effect of a crest element
on wave overtopping is taken into account by an empirically derived reduction
factor in the design formula for the prediction of wave overtopping of dikes or
rubble mound structures. For a vertical wall on the crest of a dike the value of
this reduction factor is 0.65. The range of validity is rather small and with the
conceptual design tool, PC-Overslag, included in the report by TAW (2002), it
is not possible to take the influence of a crest element into account. The Neural
Network (NN), developed by Delft Hydraulics within the CLASH framework
(e.g. Pozueta et al., 2004), can also be used to estimate the overtopping
discharge for rubble mound structures with crest elements. The NN is based on
more than 10,000 results of large- and small-scale physical model tests on
overtopping for all kinds of breakwater geometries from organizations all over
the world. The data set also includes a number of tests with crest elements.
Objective
The objective of this study was to gain insight into the influence of crest
element geometry and crest element location on wave overtopping of rubble
mound breakwaters with crest elements. Crest elements of varying height,
position and shape (with and without parapet or ‘nose’) were applied in 2D
physical model tests. The gained insights were used for the development of new
design recommendations. The design recommendations were set up in such a
way as to allow for a combination with existing prediction formulae for wave
overtopping without crest elements. This was done by introducing a reduction
factor on wave overtopping, i.e. the ratio of overtopping discharge with crest
element to the overtopping discharge without crest element, similar to the
approach of Kortenhaus et al. (2003) for vertical structures. A similar approach
was used for the number of overtopping events and the overtopping event
volume.

MODEL SET-UP
In the following sections, the investigated parameters and the set-up of the
model are described

Parameter description
The influence of the crest element on wave overtopping was investigated by
systematically varying specifically chosen structural and hydraulic overtopping
parameters. The amount of wave overtopping was thereby characterized by the
mean wave overtopping discharge qm (l/s/m1), the number of overtopping events
N (-) and the maximum overtopping event volume V (l/m1). Fig.1 gives the
definitions of the various employed parameters.

NL

Rc2 B
Rc TOP
H m0; T m-1,0; N LAYER
Rc1 FILTER LAYER

α
cota CORE MATERIAL
hs

Figure1. Definition sketch (cross-section).

 NL

Rc2 Rc2

Figure 2. Examples of applied crest elements.

The hydraulic conditions are described by:

• significant wave height Hm0 (m),
• spectral wave period Tm-1,0 (s),
• deepwater wave steepness sm-1,0 (-), sm-1,0 = 2·π·Hm0 / (g·Tm-1,0 )2, and
• water depth at the toe of the structure hs (m).

The structure is defined by the following parameters:

• crest width in front of the crest element B (m),
• outer slope angle cotα (-),
• crest height with respect to the still water level Rc1 (m),
• height of the crest element with respect to the crest Rc2 (m),
• total freeboard Rc (m) (= Rc1 + Rc2),
• length of the parapet NL (m) (in this paper the term ‘nose’ will be used), and
• nominal diameter of the rock armor Dn50 (m), for top and underlayer(s).

These parameters were all varied in the hydraulic experiments, except for
the outer slope angle and the nominal rock diameter. Examples of the employed
crest elements are shown in Fig.2. The elements were characterized by their
height (Rc2) and their shape (NL). Changes in armor material, breakwater slopes
and nose shapes were not investigated. Furthermore, only perpendicular wave
attack was studied.

Set-up of physical model

The physical model tests on wave overtopping have been carried out in the
Scheldt flume of Delft Hydraulics. The flume has a width of 1 m and a height of
1.2 m. Waves can be generated in the flume in a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 2
Hz with a maximum significant wave height of 0.25 m. The wave generator in
the Scheldt flume is equipped with online Active Reflection Compensation
(ARC). In this way reflected waves do not disturb the measurements. Wave
board control for random 2nd order waves is operational to compensate for
spurious waves. The set-up of the structure in the wave flume is shown in Fig.3.
 CROSS-SECTION WHM

crest
element WHM
chute for overtopped water

overtopping
bin

TOP VIEW

overtopping WHM
WHM bin
left side

overtopping
bin
right side WHM

WHM

Figure 3. Model set-up in the wave flume (WHM = wave height meter).

At the point in the flume where the breakwater was constructed, the flume
was divided in two using a separation wall of wood, creating two parts with an
equal width of 0.5 m. This allowed simultaneous measurements of 2 crest
element configurations. The crest elements were made of wood and were fixed
to the side walls of the flume. The stability and the internal strength of the crest
elements were not investigated.

Table 1. Characteristics of rock material.

Material M85/M15 (-) Dn85/Dn15 (-)
Top 1.74 1.22
Filter 2.50 1.37
Core 16.7 2.54

The breakwater structure had a typical armor/filter layer design and an outer
slope angle of 1:2. The employed rock material properties are depicted in Table
1. The relative submerged density of all rock material was ∆ = ρ/ρw -1 = 1.71
(where ρ (kg/m3) is the density of the rock material and ρw (kg/m3) is the density
of the water). The height of the structure was 0.8 m. A horizontal foreshore was
used.

Measurements and test programme

Wave height measurements were carried out at the toe of the structure with
3 wave gauges and near the wave board, also with 3 wave gauges. By installing
sets of three wave gauges, it was possible to determine the incident wave height
using the method of Mansard and Funke (1980). A measurement frequency of
25 Hz was applied.
Overtopping events were detected with wave gauges at the breakwater crest,
just behind the upright section of the crest elements, see Fig.3. The mean
overtopping discharge was measured by collecting the overtopped water in bins
behind the structure; one for the right and one for the left side of the structure.
The water level rise was measured continuously with two wave gauges in each
bin, see Fig.3.
In this way it was possible to derive the mean overtopping discharge, the
overtopping volume per wave, and the number of overtopping events.

Table 2. Characteristics of test programme.

Parameter description Symbols Range
3 1/2
Dimensionless overtopping rate qm /(gHm0 ) 0 - 0.008
Wave steepness sm-1,0 (-) 0.015 - 0.054
Relative water depth hs /Hm0 (-) 3.8 - 9.1
Relative armor freeboard Rc1 /Hm0 (-) 0.58 - 0.95
Relative element height Rc2 /Hm0 (-) 0.17 - 1.17
Relative freeboard Rc /Hm0 (-) 0.81 - 2.10
Relative nose length NL /Hm0 (-) 0 - 0.26
Relative crest width B /Hm0 (-) 0 - 1.77
Slope angle cot α (-) 2

The characteristics of the test programme are given in Table 2. For each
water depth the wave height and wave period were varied and all tests were
performed with a duration of around 1,000 waves with a JONSWAP wave
spectrum. In total 320 configurations were tested. In Table 2 use is made of the
incident wave parameters measured at the toe of the structure.

RESULTS
In this section the experimental results will be discussed. First a general
description is given of the influence of the various overtopping parameters.
After that, the results are discussed in more detail in respect to the reduction in
overtopping they cause due to the employed crest elements.
The influence of the individual overtopping parameters on mean
overtopping discharge and maximum event volume are displayed in Table 3. In
general the experiments showed that:
• Mean overtopping discharges depend on Hm0, B, Rc (Rc2), N and Tm-1,0.
• Event volumes depend on Hm0, Rc (Rc2), N and Tm-1,0. A dependence on B
was not observed.
• The freeboard parameter Rc (Rc2) is, as expected, the most important
parameter (see Fig.4).
The best overtopping performance (lowest mean overtopping discharge and
lowest number of overtopping events) was achieved for the crest elements with
the largest nose length (NL/Hm0 >0.1), for a medium berm width (B/Hm0 >0.4)
and the largest freeboard (Rc2/Hm0 >0.5).

Table 3. Parameter influence on mean overtopping discharge, event volume and

event number
Parameter Overtopping discharge Event volume Number of events
Freeboard An increase in freeboard For increasing For increasing
Rc (Rc2) results in a decrease in freeboard the freeboard the
mean overtopping maximum event number of events
discharge. volume is observed to is observed to
decrease. decrease.
Wave period An increase in wave An increase in wave An increase in
Tm-1,0 period causes an period mostly results wave period
increase in mean in an increase in mostly results in
overtopping discharge. maximum event an increase in
volume. number of events
Nose length Elements with no nose Individual event Number of
NL have similar or larger volumes for the tested overtopping
mean overtopping crest elements without events is often
discharges, if the other nose are generally found to be larger
parameters are the larger than for the for the crest
same. crest elements with elements with no
nose. nose.
Crest width An increase in crest - -
B width results in a
decrease in mean
overtopping discharge.
Mean - An increase in mean An increase in
overtopping overtopping discharge mean overtopping
discharge results in an increase discharge results
qm in event volume. in an increase in
overtopping
events.

Influence of crest element

The primary goal of this study was to relate the performance of permeable
breakwaters with crest element to those without crest element. Hence, the
following ratios were introduced:
• Mean overtopping discharge: Q ' = qm ( with crest element ) / qm ( no crest element )
• Number of overtopping events: N ' = N ( with crest element ) / N ( no crest element )
• Event volume: V ' = V( with crest element ) / V( no crest element )

In this context, a ratio with a value of Q’ = 1 would indicate that the mean
overtopping discharge for a breakwater with crest element is the same as the
discharge for a breakwater without crest element. A ratio of Q’<1 would
indicate a reduced mean overtopping discharge for the breakwater with crest
element. The interpretation of N’ and V’ is similar.
The observed trends of the investigated parameters are given in Table 4 in
reference to the most significant parameter; the ratio Q’. The behavior of the
ratios N’ and V’ can be directly derived from the ratio Q’.
In Table 4, it can be seen that the ratio Q’ is linked to the combined
influence of NL, B and Rc (Rc2). For higher values of the ratio Q’, the spread of
the data was observed to increase significantly. Due to the difficulty of
determining the correct event volume, the spread of the event volume data was
larger than in the case of the mean overtopping discharge, as reflected in a lower
correlation coefficient.

Table 4. Parameter influence on ratios Q’, V’ and N’

Parameter Influence
Freeboard The ratio Q’ was found to depend primarily on the
Rc (Rc2) freeboard. An exponential decrease of the ratio Q’ with
increasing freeboard was found (Fig.4)
Wave period No relationship between the ratio Q’ and the wave
Tm-1,0 period was found.
Nose length A decrease of the ratio Q’ was observed for an increase
NL in nose length.
Crest width A decrease of the ratio Q’ was observed for an increase
B in crest width.
Event number The ratio N’ increases with increasing ratio Q’, see Fig.5.
N’
Event volume The ratio V’ was observed to increase with the ratio Q’,
V’ see Fig.5.

Fig.4 shows that the effect of the crest element is largest for high
freeboards. A significant influence was found for all Rc/Hm0 >1. In accordance
with Cornett et al. (1999), an influence of the nose was found for a rather broad
range of relative freeboard levels; in this case the complete investigated range of
0.81< Rc /Hm0 <2.10. The influence of the nose on the ratio Q’ was thereby
found to increase with smaller relative freeboard levels.
 0.8
B=0.12m,Rc2=0.06m,NL=0.00m
B=0.00m,Rc2=0.06m,NL=0.00m
0.7 B=0.12m,Rc2=0.06m,NL=0.01m
B=0.00m,R =0.06m,N =0.01m
c2 L
B=0.12m,R =0.06m,N =0.02m
c2 L
0.6 B=0.00m,R =0.06m,N =0.02m
c2 L
B=0.12m,Rc2=0.06m,NL=0.02m
B=0.12m,R =0.06m,N =0.00m
c2 L
0.5 B=0.12m,Rc2=0.09m,NL=0.00m
B=0.12m,Rc2=0.09m,NL=0.02m
B=0.06m,Rc2=0.06m,NL=0.02m
Q’ (−)

0.4 B=0.06m,Rc2=0.06m,NL=0.00m
B=0.06m,R =0.09m,N =0.02m
c2 L
B=0.06m,Rc2=0.09m,NL=0.00m
0.3 B=0.06m,Rc2=0.03m,NL=0.02m
B=0.06m,R =0.03m,N =0.00m
c2 L
B=0.12m,Rc2=0.03m,NL=0.02m
0.2 B=0.12m,R =0.03m,N =0.00m
c2 L
B=0.18m,Rc2=0.03m,NL=0.02m
B=0.18m,R =0.03m,N =0.00m
c2 L
0.1

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
R / H (−)
c m0

Figure 4. Influence of relative freeboard Rc / Hm0 on ratio of mean overtopping

discharge Q’.

1 1

0.8 0.8
Q’ (−) − MEASURED

Q’ (−) − MEASURED

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
N’ (−) − MEASURED V’ (−) − MEASURED
Figure 5. Ratios of number of overtopping events N’ (left), and maximum event
volume V’ (right) versus ratio of mean overtopping discharge Q’.

Prediction formulae
From the results it is clear that the parameters Rc2, B and NL have a large
effect on the influence of crest elements on overtopping discharge. Therefore,
these parameters were used to derive prediction formulae for the conceptual
design of coastal structures, see Table 5. The formulae relate the wave
overtopping discharge, the number of overtopping events and the event volume
at a structure with crest element to a structure with no crest element. The three
formulae consist of the same parameters, except for the ratio of the maximum
overtopping event volume which does not contain the width (B). The
contributions of the parameters are different in the three formulae. For example
the nose length has a smaller contribution in the ratio for mean overtopping
discharge compared to the ratio for the number of overtopping events. An
explanation for this would be that for very small events with very thin layers of
water, the small volume does not really affect the average volume, but it still
counts as 1 overtopping event. The element height (Rc2) is used instead of the
total freeboard (Rc) in the formulae due to its better fit. The squared correlation
coefficients for the ratios of mean overtopping discharge, number of
overtopping events and maximum event volume are R2 = 0.79, R2 = 0.72 and R2
= 0.66 respectively. The formulae are valid in the range of the experiments, see
Table 2.

Table 5. Prediction formulae for rubble mound breakwaters with crest

elements
Ratio for mean overtopping −4
Rc 2
− 0.4
B N
−2 L
discharge
Q ' = 1.55 ⋅ e Hm0 Hm0 Hm0

Ratio for number of −3.7

Rc 2
− 0.6
B N
−3.6 L
overtopping events
N ' = 2.25 ⋅ e Hm0 Hm0 Hm0

Ratio for overtopping event −3.6

Rc 2 N
− 0.5 L
volume
V ' = 2.7 ⋅ e Hm0 Hm0

In Fig.6 and Fig.7 the measurements can be seen as well as the predictions
with the formulae above. The effects of crest elements on the mean overtopping
discharge are reproduced rather good. The larger scatter for the effect of the
number of overtopping events and the event volume, see Fig.7, is reflected in
the lower correlation coefficient.

1 1
Measured
Predicted
0.8 0.8
Q’ (−) − PREDICTED

0.6 0.6
Q’ (−)

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Q’ (−) − MEASURED (4*R + 0.4*B + 2*N ) / H (−)
c2 L m0

Figure 6. Comparison of measurements and prediction formula for ratio of mean

overtopping discharge Q’.
 1 1

0.8 0.8
N’ (−) − PREDICTED

V’ (−) − PREDICTED
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
N’ (−) − MEASURED V’ (−) − MEASURED

Figure 7. Comparison of measurements and prediction formulae of ratio of no. of

overtopping events (left) and of maximum overtopping event volume (right).

Comparison to published results

The developed overtopping design formulae were compared to current
Dutch guidelines (TAW, 2002). The TAW formula for rubble mound
breakwaters includes an empirical factor for crest walls γv which typically varies
between 0.65 and 1. The TAW formula was found to overpredict the mean
overtopping discharge by factors of up to one order of magnitude for the
investigated range of crest elements on rubble mound breakwaters (correlation
coefficient: R2 = 0.53). Even larger differences were found for dimensionless
mean overtopping discharges (qm /(gHm03)1/2) smaller than 10-3.
A much better approximation is achieved with the Neural Network (NN),
developed by Delft Hydraulics within the CLASH framework (e.g. Pozueta et
al., 2004), see Fig.8. The (squared) correlation coefficient found with the NN
was R2 = 0.81. A roughness reduction factor of γf = 0.5 was applied in the NN
computations.
This correlation coefficient is similar to the achieved correlation for the first
equation in Table 5. It can therefore be concluded that this Neural Network is a
good alternative for predicting overtopping discharges for crest elements on top
of rubble mound breakwaters. Overtopping discharges can be computed with
the NN, but it does not provide a formulation for the effects of crest elements on
overtopping discharges. It should be noted that the current investigation has a
broader range of crest element geometries than the NN has at this moment.
Furthermore, the NN does not provide information on overtopping events or
overtopping volumes.
 1

0.9

0.8

0.7
Q’ (−) − PREDICTED with NN

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Q’ (−) − MEASURED
Figure 8. Comparison of measurements Q’ and NN prediction.

CONCLUSIONS
The objective of this study was to gain insight into the influence of crest
elements (crown walls or superstructures well above the design water level) on
wave overtopping of rubble mound structures. Small-scale 2D physical model
tests were carried out for a breakwater with a slope of 1:2 using crest elements
of varying height, position and shape. The gained insights were used for the
development of new prediction formulae for crest elements at breakwaters. A
reduction factor for the influence of crest elements on wave overtopping was
introduced.
The investigations showed that crest element height, crest element shape
and the position of the element have a significant influence on wave
overtopping. Among those, the element height is the most significant.
The investigation revealed that existing analytical- and semi-empirical
prediction methods for wave overtopping are only accurate within one order of
magnitude. The design recommendations presented in this paper provide
therefore a more accurate alternative for the investigated case of a rubble mound
breakwater with a crest element.
Although a wide range of conditions was tested, the conducted
investigations are still limited, because they did not include different slope
angles, varying armor material sizes or nose shapes. Furthermore, only
 perpendicular wave attack was studied. The given recommendation should
therefore be applied with care.

REFERENCES
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Bradbury A.P., N.W.H. Allsop, and R.V. Stephens. 1988b. Hydraulic
performance of breakwater crown walls, Report SR 146, Hydraulics
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Cornett A., Y. Li, and A. Budvietas. 1999. Wave overtopping at chamfered and
overhanging vertical structures, Proc. Int. Workshop on Natural Disasters
by Storm Waves and Their Reproduction in Experimental Basins, Kyoto,
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