Adriano Paolella, Roberta Cocci Grifoni

THE USE OF EXPANDED

POLYSTYRENE IN CONSTRUCTION
Critical Reflections on an Environmentally Harmful Material

S.r.l. unipersonale
di proprietà della
Fondazione WWF Italia
Adriano Paolella, Roberta Cocci Grifoni
THE USE OF EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE IN CONSTRUCTION:
Critical Reflections on an Environmentally Harmful Material

Authors: Adriano Paolella, Roberta Cocci Grifoni

The present text was assembled in order to present research undertaken
by WWF Ricerche e Progetti s.r.l.

Working group: Rossella Venezia (coordination), Maurizio Sibilla

(information collection and preliminary development), Massimiliano Varriale
(scientific editing), Rita Minucci (organisation), Zelinda Carloni (text editing),
Sebastiano Maccarone, Antonella Panetta, Giulia Caridi (graphics).

WWF Italia
Fabrizio Bulgarini, Massimiliano Rocco

Translation: Michelle S. Ouellette

Graphics: Paola Venturini
Cover: Marta Magagnini
Table of Contents

Introduction 2

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction 4

What is Expanded Polystyrene? 4
Plastics 6
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction 7
Insulation 11

Expanded Polystyrene Is not an Environmentally Friendly Material 12

It Derives from Petroleum 12
There Are Risks Related to Transporting and Storing Primary Materials 13
Production Processes Are Highly Energy-Consuming, Polluting, and Produce Greenhouse Gases 14
It Uses Environmentally Harmful Additives and Catalysts 14
Petroleum-Derived Substances, the Ozone Hole, the Greenhouse Effect 14
It Is Harmful to Health 15
Its Application is Strongly Limited 20
Indoor Pollution 21
Thermal Balance: Stationary Regime, Dynamic Regime 24
It Is not a Socially Sustainable Material 26
Its Disposal is Difficult 26
It Uses Incomplete Environmental Information 29
LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) 30
More Environmentally Friendly Solutions Are Available 31
Environmental Profile (Ecological balance) 39

Conclusions 42
Bibliography 43
Useful Websites 47
 T
he subject of the present study
Introduction is a material that is widely used
in construction: expanded
polystyrene.
The term refers to a synthetic insulator
with a cellular structure that is used in
building, either in its “sintered” form
(in which case it is called EPS and used
mainly for wall insulation and
covering) or its “extruded” form (in
which case it is called XPS and used
for wall insulation and covering,
especially when it is necessary for the
material to be impact- and
compression-resistant or more
aesthetically pleasing). The aim of the
research is to study this material in
depth and provide greater awareness
regarding its use and application in
construction, in particular with respect
to the relationship that the use of this
product can have with the
environment.
Too often workers do not recognise
the effects, whether direct or indirect,
local or remote, that the use of a
product entails, and the term
“sustainability” is often used to
describe actions, components, and
materials that under closer
examination show a significant
environmental “weight” that can be
minimised by implementing more
ecological solutions.
The inappropriate use of this term in
some cases happens by praising
characteristics of the material that
apparently increase its sustainability
value while overlooking other negative
aspects, such as those entailed by the
production, use, and disposal of the
product or the decommissioning of a
project.
The present brochure does not intend
to blacklist polystyrene, but rather
promote its conscious use through
precise knowledge of both the positive
and negative factors connected to the
use of this material.
By critically studying, analysing, and
presenting the information, we aim to
guide workers to a correct
understanding of the term
“sustainability” and help them avoid
making the mistake of viewing the
2 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
best energy efficiency in building
independent from the environmental
quality of the materials and solutions
used.
In 2007, the expanded polystyrene
market for building in Italy showed
increases from 6% for blocks, sheets,
and the like, to 15% for moulded
pieces, to 20% for loose beads.
This data is related to the increase in
new construction; at the same time, it
is an indication of workers’ preference
for a material that is very cheap, easy-
to-use, and available, and which has
good technical capacities. Innovations
in regulations can also be included,
which find the performance of
polystyrene as a thermal insulator to
be an effective solution for
restorations as well as new
construction. A 4.6% fall in the
production of EPS was registered in
2008-2009 due to a period of
suffering related to the polymer
insulation sector, which consolidated
during the massive global economic
crisis and the strong recession in
building. However, forecasting
scenarios indicate a new increase in
the production and sale of EPS as a
function of preliminary work related to
the 2015 EXPO in Milan (Piana, 2010).
The technical properties of polystyrene
cannot be disregarded, but they do
not render the material “ecological”,
nor are the situations in which it is
used “sustainable”.
If it is true that the insulating
capability of a specific material can
render heating less wasteful from an
energy perspective, it is also important
to note how the interpretation of
“sustainability” in these terms for
construction surely oversimplifies all of
the environmental and social
implications that determine the
effective sustainability of the choice;
this capability alone as an
interpretation of the concept of
sustainability reaches too far from the
need to restore and conserve the
environment.
It should be added that the means by
which technical information is
currently presented does not clarify
the situation. Designers and product
users choose from among a wide array
of materials whose commercial
communication uses technical
information that highlights the
advantages (cost, ease of use,
availability) and ignores qualities that
do not relate to performance. It uses
terms that are more evocative than
informative and does not furnish all of
the fundamental knowledge necessary
for a choice centred on ecological
parameters.
In this way, the design solution, too
often determined solely by reading
informational materials provided by
the producers, is not based on the
awareness of the entire system of
positive and negative relationships
that the design process entails. As
already mentioned, in this study we
aim to show the environmental
“weight” of expanded polystyrene
through the evaluation of objective this product does not necessarily imply
data, proposing a reading that takes a positive environmental effect. It
into account the multiple should therefore be subject to
characteristics of a product to which occasional tests that measure how the
the label “ecological” is to be applied. environmental effectiveness of its use
manages to compensate the negative
The result, which emerges from the effects connected to its production,
data analysis, is the characterisation of distribution, use, and disposal.
a material that has specific technical
capabilities, but which, at the same This implies that it cannot be defined
time, requires significant energy as either an ecological or a sustainable
consumption in the production phase; material.
it foresees the use of additives that
can be toxic; it has toxicity problems;
it is difficult to dispose of. In short, it
is a material with notable
performance, but which implies
negative environmental effects that
must be taken into account.
This means that polystyrene cannot be
considered an environmentally friendly
material, its use is not in line with the
goals of sustainability, and the use of
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
3
 The use of expanded polystyrene in construction
What is Expanded
The Use Polystyrene?
of Expanded
E
xpanded polystyrene is one of
Polystyrene the best-known polymers. The
polymerisation process was
in Construction discovered in 1875 by Blyche and
Hoffmann, and its application on an
industrial scale began in 1936
(Gottfried A., 2008).
Polystyrene is a linear aromatic
compound composed of long
hydrocarbon chains characterised by
the presence of phenyl groups, also
known as benzene rings (on the right in
Fig.1). Polystyrene is created through
the polymerisation of styrene, a single
aromatic hydrocarbon benzene ring (on
the left in Fig.1). In addition to the
presence of the benzene ring, styrene is
characterised by a double C=C bond on
the lateral chain that gives it greater
reactivity (greater bonding capacity).
Polystyrene forms through the reaction
of multiple styrene monomers. As a
function of the reaction conditions, it is
possible to regulate the length of the
polymer chain; it usually consists of
500–2000 styrene monomers.
The increased reactivity of styrene is
associated with a series of
contraindications that require decidedly
delicate means of production. Problems
linked to the purity and stability of the
material were only resolved in the
1930s through economically convenient
procedures, thereby allowing wider
commercialisation (Kruse H., Zucal A.,
1996). Styrene is extracted from
petroleum. Figure 2 summarises the
steps leading from petroleum-derived
substances to the final commercial
product. It is clear that styrene
represents a basic derivative from which
the desired products are obtained via
appropriate industrial processes.
As the cause of different respiratory
illnesses, styrene is characterised by its
CH2 ... CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
...
Figure 1. The sintering process for polystyrene (Villavecchia V., Ubaldini I., Eigenmann G., 1977).
4 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
danger to human health. It is also a
probable carcinogen, classified by the
IARC (International Agency for Research
on Cancer) as a 2B carcinogen in 1994
(see the section related to health).
The characteristics of expanded
polystyrene consistently depend on the
substances and processes that are used
during the production phase, which
condition and control the main
properties of the finished product, as
generally occurs for all plastics.
Industrially, passing from expandable to
expanded polystyrene, three types of
processes are used: “in block” (the
most common one is divided into two
phases: the first occurs at 80°C, which
transforms a small part of styrene into a
polymer; the second, which occurs
between 180 and 200°C, forms the
complete polymerisation); “in
emulsion” (styrene is associated in
water with surfactants and catalysers
that speed up the reactions); “in
suspension” (styrene is held in
suspension in water through
mechanical agitation) (Kruse H., Zucal
A., 1996). The delicacy of these three
processes lies above all in the treatment
of styrene, both in the transport and
storage phases, due to the particular
instability of this compound, which
renders it highly flammable. The result
of these productive processes is solid
beads of expanded polystyrene varying
in size from 0.1 to 2 mm.
Through different processes, two very
similar products differing in density are
obtained: XPS (extruded polystyrene
foam) and EPS (sintered expanded
polystyrene). The two also differ in the
way in which they are expanded: they
use different expanding agents. While
XPS is still expanded using propellants
that contribute to the formation of the
ozone hole, such as Freon (CFC–
chlorofluorocarbons,
HCFC–hydrochlorofluorocarbons),
today EPS is produced with expanding
agents other than Freon. In particular,
the hydrocarbon pentane is used in its
gaseous phase. It is worth mentioning
that pentane, while not contributing to
the expansion of the ozone hole, still
has a significant environmental impact
(see the section on additives and
catalysts).
 XPS, obtained by extrusion, presents
Petroleum better mechanical characteristics, a
lower thermal performance, and a

Refining process
better aesthetic appearance. “Extrusion,
during which fire retardants, clarifiers,
and expanders are added, occurs in a
dedicated system composed of a slot
die that emits the expanded material,
and a device composed of two plates
that calibrate the product and carry it to
the cooling area. The process finishes
Styrene by trimming the sides and cutting the
material to size. The extruded product

synthesization process
has a density no less than 28–30 kg/m3

Polymerization and
Propellant and a very regular structure with small
(expanding agent)
airtight cells” (Gottfried A., 2008). In
the extrusion process, the granular
polystyrene is melted, injected with
high-pressure gas, conditioned and
moulded into the desired form through
Expandable polystyrene a slot die at the end of the extruder.
Upon exiting, the jump in pressure
determines the foaminess of the
polystyrene. The density reached in this
emulsion and suspension
Industrial process: block

Additives way is 35 kg/m3; a block of expanded

(variable in relation to the final products) polystyrene weighs around 30 times
less than the same volume of water.
Figure 3 lists the principal characteristics
of extruded polystyrene (Wienke U.,
2004).
Final product in
In contrast, EPS is obtained by sintering,
expanded polystyrene a process in which the expansion phase
occurs artificially. The process begins
with small polystyrene granules to
Figure 2. Steps in the process from petroleum to expanded polystyrene. which expanding agents are added.
Sintering creates a product with a low
density, a key characteristic in an
Density 20-50 kg/m³
efficient correlation between weight
Thermal conductivity 0.030-0.040 W/mK and thermal conductivity. The
Vapour diffusion resistance coefficient 80-250 –
expanding agent, properly called
propellant, is composed of a light
Primary energy consumption (PEC) 810 kWh/m3 volatile agent, generally pentane,
Raw materials petroleum, expanding agents whose percentage varies from 2 to 8%,
(pentane and CO2), fire retardants allowing an increase in volume 20–50
times the original size. The polystyrene
Figure 3. Characteristics of XPS (extruded polystyrene foam). granule is first immersed in a
water/pentane mixture. When it is
removed, the polystyrene expands due
Density 15-30 kg/m³
to the pentane (insoluble in water),
Thermal conductivity 0.035-0.040 W/mK which diffuses to the interior.
Vapour diffusion resistance coefficient 40-80 –
In the sintering process, the polystyrene
granule treated with pentane may be
Primary energy consumption (PEC) 600 kWh/m3 stored for several months before
Raw materials petroleum, expanding agents undergoing expansion. To obtain the
(pentane and CO2), fire retardants white lightweight beads, the granules
are placed in a closed chamber
Figure 4. Characteristics of EPS (sintered expanded polystyrene). equipped with a movable wall into

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

5
 The use of expanded polystyrene in construction

PLASTICS

P lastics derive from the chemical transformation of organic, naturally oc-

curring raw materials. Their production began in the middle of the 19th
century (Vv. Aa., 2006).
The bond established between individual molecular elements (monomers)
that forms macromolecules (polymers) via a chemical reaction (synthesis)
is fundamental in the plastic production process.
Polymers are composed of chains of hundreds of monomers linked together
through different types of chemical reactions. Polymers can be natural or
synthetic: wood, for example, is a natural polymer; expanded polystyrene
is a synthetic polymer. The polymers obtained are rarely used as they are to
produce objects. Other substances, often polymers themselves, are usually
added to the polymer base to enhance some property of the final product
or improve its workability. The resulting plastic, e.g., polystyrene, is a material
that is rather more complex than a simple polymer. The plastics industry has
developed production processes from the numerous possible combinations
between different elements; specific materials can be obtained, such as
plastic foams, synthetic fibres or composite materials (Gottfried A., 2008).
Plastics are made of fossil-based raw materials: petroleum and natural gas.
Petroleum, in particular, is composed of hydrocarbon molecules. In the di-
stillation of crude oil, individual substances are obtained, such as gas, ben-
zene, diesel, and heavy oil. From light benzene (naphtha), also obtained
through distillation, further processes that break the molecular chains
produce hydrocarbons with a commercial value much higher than the original
product (Vv. Aa., 2006). Among these products, ethylene and propylene,
both gaseous and with low molecular weight, make up the initial substances
for the production of synthetic plastic materials. Through different production
processes, these substances are used to generate three large families of
plastics: thermoplastics, elastomers, and thermosets, which can in turn be
organised into multiple products deriving from the different processes used
by the production industry. Figure 5 (Hegger Auch-Schwelk, Fuchs, Rosen-
kranz, 2006) shows the division of plastics according their macromolecular
structure and synthesis procedures. The first subdivision is made on the
basis of the molecular structure: thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers.
The subdivisions are related to the synthesis procedures adopted: polymeri-
sation, polycondensation, polyaddition, copolymerisation, and vulcanisation.
The different production steps, even when based on the same raw materials,
allow decidedly different products to be obtained according to their appli-
cation and performance. To obtain these different properties for plastic pro-
ducts, additives become particularly important (Gottfried A., 2008). These
are, in fact, the substances that make it possible to modify the chemical,
physical, mechanical, and technological properties in order to obtain the
final product. More precisely, these are:
loads – deriving from organic and/or inorganic substances in different
forms: fibres or spheres. Applied to thermoset polymers for diluting purposes,
they improve the appearance and mechanical properties, reducing fragili-
ty;
reinforcers – the use of such substances is aimed at improving the resi-
stance, in particular to deformations produced by thermal variations;
colorants – also called pigments, they colour the plastic;
stabilisers – used to counteract damage provoked by exposure to sources
of heat, light, and UV radiation;
plasticisers – there are two types (internal and external), both of which
increase resistance and flexibility characteristics. The difference is in the bond
between the substances: in external plasticisers, the bond is not chemical
and the substance can later be removed (reversible process). In contrast, for
internal plasticisers, where the bond is chemical, the process is irreversible;
anti-flammable additives – these form a protective film in case of fire
in order to slow the oxidation of flammable gases present in the plastic;
propellants – these are used to produce expanded products (Vv. Aa.,
2006).

SYNTHETIC PLASTICS

Loose-knit Reticulated
Thermoplastic polymers Tight-knit thermoset polymers elastomers elastomers

Polymerisation Polycondensation Polycondensation Polyaddition Vulcanisation Copolymerisation

Polyolefin Polyamide (PA) Aminoplasts: Reticulated Elastomers based on: Polyurethane elastomer
Polypropylene (PP) Polycarbonate (PC) urea-formaldehyde (UF) polyurethane (PUR) styrene-butadiene (TPU)
Polyethylene (PE) melamine-formaldehyde Epoxy resin (EP) rubber (SBR) Polyester elastomer
High-density Linear polyester: (MF) polybutadiene rubber (TPC)
polyethylene (HDPE) polyethylene melamine phenolic resin (BR)
Low-density terephthalate (PET) (MP) chloro-butadiene/ Elastomers based on
polyethylene (LDPE) resorcinol resin (RF) and chloroprene rubber (CR) polyolethin:
Polyisobutylene (PIB) Polyaddition blends isobutylene-isoprene copolymer ethylene-
rubber/butyl rubber (IIR) vinyl acetate (EVAC).
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): Linear polyurethane Phenolic polymers: chlorosulfonated
rigid (uPVC) (PUR) phenol resin (PF) polyethylene (CSM)
plastic (pPVC) ethylene propylene
Copolymerisation Unsaturated polyesters diene rubber (EPDM)
Polystyrene (PS) (UP)
Expanded polystyrene Ethylene
(EPS) tetrafluoroethylene Semisynthetic Plastics Silicons (SI)
copolymer (ETFE)
Polysulfone (PSU) Ethylene copolymer
Polyoxymethylene (POM) bitumen (ECB) Thermoplastic Thermoset
polymers Elastomers
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Styrene acrylonitrile polymers
Poly(methyl (SAN)
methacrylate) (PMMA) Acrylonitrile butadiene Nitrocellulose Vulcanised fibre Natural rubber
Polytetrafluoroethylene styrene copolymer (ABS) (CN) (VF) (NR)
(PTFE) Polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) Cellulose
acetate (CA) Figure 5. Classification of plastics.

6 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

which water vapour is admitted. The Other applications
vapour, at about 100°C, determines
how much the plastic softens, and
Construction Packaging
therefore its subsequent inflation due to
the expansion of the pentane trapped
in the polymer. An array of tiny spheres
of polystyrene foam is thus obtained. In
the next phase, another increase in
vapour temperature is necessary to melt 63% 2% 35%
the external surface of the beads. The
mobile wall of the chamber acts as a Figure 6. EPS consumption in 2009 per final application.
press and sinters the EPS spheres into a
single block. These blocks are usually of
EPS Sector 2009 2008 2007
considerable size and are cut into
sheets (with a hot wire or wire saw), Blocks, panels, etc. Building 50,000 53,000 53,000
which are then sold. Figure 4 shows the Packaging 18,000 18,000 18,000
main characteristics of sintered Other applications 1,000 1,000 2,000
expanded polystyrene (Wienke U., 2004). Preforms Building 34,000 26,000 23,000
Packaging 31,000 39,000 39,000
Other applications 1,000 1,000 2,000
The Use of Expanded Loose beads Building 3,500 5,000 6,000
Polystyrene in Construction Packaging 500 1,000 1,000
The plastics market presents a wide Other applications 1,000 1,000 1,000
array of “technopolymers” (Gottfried TOTAL 140,000 145,000 145,000
A., 2008), a term used to highlight the
artificial changes applied to the initial
polymer in order to obtain some desired Figure 7. Annual consumption of EPS (tons) per sector (from AIPE).
technical performance. The industrial
production of technopolymers has
EPS Consumption in Italy
increased rapidly in recent years.
Along with the packaging industry, the 160000
building industry represents the main 140000
market for plastic products, with 63%
120000
of the uptake (Fig. 6), for a total
consumption of 140,000 t of plastic 100000
tonnes

material in Italy in 2009 (www.aipe.it). 80000

Figure 7 highlights the substantial use
of plastics in the building sector,
primarily due to its particular
performance in terms of lightness,
resistance, insulating properties, and
cheapness. The common characteristic
of plastic products is that they possess
enough technical performance to
compete with traditional products, even
when the requirements are very specific
(Vv. Aa., 2006), while being particularly
cheap, available, and simple to use
(Gottfried A., 2008).
After continually increasing in recent
years, the consumption of EPS in Italy
has stabilised at around 140,000 t/year
(Fig. 8, www.epsass.it). In particular, a
4.6% decrease in production was
registered in 2008 and confirmed in
2009.
In the building sector, however, the use
60000
40000
20000
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
EPS
Figure 8. EPS market stability. Consumption from 1998 to 2009.
of polystyrene grew from 84,000 t to in legal order, a deduction of 55% for
87,500 t, as can be seen in the table in actions that increase the energy
Figure 7, registering an increase of 4% efficiency of buildings beyond the
in 2009 (Piana, 2010). required minima of DLgs 192/2005,
The most consistent use of expanded modified by DLgs 311/2006 and
polystyrene in building is as an subsequent amendments. It also
insulating material applied to the defined the “energetic requalification
building envelope. of buildings”, which was added to the
In 2007, the Financial Law (DLgs definitions of building renovation,
296/2006) introduced, for the first time extraordinary maintenance, and

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

7
 The use of expanded polystyrene in construction

Insulating material Density Thermal Max. operating Water vapour Compression Fire class
(kg/m³) conductivity temp. (°C) permeability resistance
(W/m C) (g/mhPa) (kg/m2)
Polystyrene
block 9–30 0.044–0.039 75–85 2.1 10 5 30–150 5
block (special type) 13–25 0.042–0.037 75–85 2.9 10 5 30–150 1
block (continuous) 12–25 0.041–0.035 75–85 3 10 5 60–170 5
thermo-compressed panel 12–35 0.041–0.036 70–85 1.5 10 5 30–80 5
extruded panel 28–40 0.035–0.030 75 7.5 10 6 190–650 4
Polyurethane
block 30–7 0.030–0.035 100 1.5 10 5 140–160 4
panel 35 0.029 100 1.5 10 5 200 4
Polyvinyl chloride
panel 25–50 0.031–0.034 70 3 10 6–3 10 6 200–500 1
Phenolic foam
panel 30–80 0.037–0.042 160 7.5 10 5–2.2 10 5 200–550 1
Expanded polyethylene
panel 35–70 0.036–0.053 160 1.5 10 7–7.5 10 8 25–40 2–4
Urea-formaldehyde foam
foam 9–12 0.031–0.038 150 3.7 10 4 1 2

Figure 9. Principal characteristics of selected insulating materials.

10 11
restoration introduced on their own
with Law 457/1978. After the first year
of experimentation, Financial Law 2008
(Law 244/2007) renewed such
incentives for the 2008–2010 period,
and they were recently extended to
2013 with the Stability Law of 2013.
The request for greater energetic
performance for new buildings and
energy retrofitting for existing buildings
has stimulated the use of thermal
insulating materials like EPS in the
sector.
This incentive policy has favoured an
12 13
increase in building investments in
restoration and expansion, in particular
in the area of thermal insulation. This
means that a part of the construction
market is oriented towards the use of
more sophisticated products, such as
synthetic insulating panels, preformed
sheets to insulate roofs and walls, floor
panels, anti-seismic panel systems, etc.
Expanded polystyrene, characterised by
its low density, is used for thermal
insulation because of its favourable
relationship between cost and
performance, satisfying specific
regulations. Figure 10. Gabled roof: Figure 11. Gabled roof: Figure 12. Flat roof: Figure 13. External
The table in Figure 9 (Gottfried A., insulation above the insulation within the insulation under insulation with light
2008) summarises some properties of framework. framework. weatherproofing. pre-fabricated
1–Main framework; 1–Roofing; 1–Slab; components.
synthetic insulators, among them 2–EPS; 2–Wooden beam; 2–Separation layer; 1–Support;
density and thermal conductivity. 3–Secondary 3–Frame; 3–Vapour barrier; 2–Anchors;
Specifically, two other parameters are framework; 4–EPS; 4–EPS; 3–EPS;
4–Roofing. 5–Covering. 5–Vapour pressure 4–Covering.
pointed out: resistance to compression balance layer;
and the operating temperature. EPS’s 6–Weatherproofing;
7–Gravel.

8 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

very low resistance to compression material are for exterior insulation,
compared to the increased resistance of insulation of structural elements, lining
XPS is evident, along with how, in surfaces subject to compression
general, the range of polystyrene’s (industrial flooring), and insulation for
operating temperature is always very thermal bridges (either geometric or
limited when compared to other material discontinuities in the structure).
products. From the aesthetic point of Its greater compactness makes its
view, EPS is soft to the touch and its usable for visible elements.
pearl-like structure is decidedly evident. As mentioned for expanded
The main applications of this material in polystyrene, XPS is often used within
construction are for thermal insulation the building envelope. For vertical seals,
in gaps and flooring, the reduction of it can be applied internally in gaps or
thermal bridges and any discontinuity in coupled to the plaster and sheets for
the building envelope in general, in external insulation. It is used in systems
addition to insulating against tread of light, pre-fabricated components and
noise. in ventilated façade systems. It is also
XPS, on the other hand, is more used in the preparation of stamps and
compact and it has a nicer surface. The forms for moulding particular concrete
primary building applications of this forms. It is widely applied in roof
coverings in the form of panels and in
14 particular outlines for under roof tiles.
Among the different types of expanded
polystyrene, extruded polystyrene is
more expensive. Because of this, its use
in building envelopes is rather limited to
structural or visible parts. In contrast,
low-density polystyrene, which is less
expensive, has poorer mechanical
characteristics and a more modest
appearance, which lead to its use in
more hidden areas. Several figures are
shown, showing the most common
uses of expanded polystyrene in
building.
In the case of gabled roofs, extruded
15
polystyrene can be situated either over
the main frame, among the beams and
secondary framework (Fig. 10), or
inserted within the framework under
the primary covering (Fig. 11); in the
case of flat roofs, the polystyrene can
be situated either under or above the
soffits, protected by waterproofing
layers (Fig. 12). Used as insulation on
outer walls, however, the EPS should be
protected by some covering, such as
plaster and a topcoat, or by pre-
fabricated elements anchored to the
pre-existing wall (Fig. 13).
Figure 14. Vertical wall 5–Slab; Figure 14 shows the application of EPS
gap insulation with 6–Pillar; to correct thermal bridges,
thermal bridge 7–Anchor. guaranteeing the continuity of the
correction.
1–Internal layer; Figure 15. Hollow block insulating material placed outside
2–EPS; with EPS filling. construction elements with different
3–External layer; thermal properties. Figure 15 shows a
4–Topcoat with
reinforcement possible integration solution between
corresponding to the EPS insulation and wall elements
structure insulation;
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
(blocks). Figure 16 shows an example of
insulation and lightening of the floor
making use of pieces stamped in EPS.
To meet stringent regulations regarding
energetic performance, the building
sector provides different integrated
solutions. One example is the
application of insulation as a single
piece (Fig. 17, www.eurobrick.com).
Special components are also provided,
such as pieces to correct thermal
bridges caused by the presence of
structural elements in the façade (Fig.
18, www.eurobrick.com).
Expanded polystyrene, inserted in the
multi-layer system, is widely used in
building envelopes, elements under
windows, “split face” elements, corner
elements, and seam-covering elements
(Fig. 19). The wide use of expanded
polystyrene in construction is made
possible by its:
• easy availability: according to data
published on the AIPE (Italian
Association of Expanded Polystyrene)
website, there are a wide range of
sintered expanded polystyrene
producers in Italy: Piedmont (3),
Lombardy (13), Friuli-Venezia Giulia
(2), Veneto (8), Trentino-Alto Adige
(1), Emilia-Romagna (6), Tuscany (1),
Lazio (1), Campania (2), Apulia (1),
Calabria (2), Sicily (3), and Sardinia
(2). The material is then
commercialised through a network,
which allows a for availability
throughout the territory;
• low price: this is surely the best asset
for a distribution network. The table
in Figure 20 lists prices for expanded
polystyrene insulation (2010) and
insulation based on minerals. Using
the same unit of measurement in
order to ease comparison, one can
roughly calculate a price of €1.85/m2
for expanded polystyrene with a
thickness of 2 cm and a density of 30
kg/m2 (the most expensive in the list),
70% less than the price of cork;
• high insulation performance;
• low structural weight: the low density
of EPS allows for a lower weight
impact on supporting structures.
Compared to cork insulation (165
kg/m3), EPS (30 kg/m3) has a
decidedly lower weight impact.
• high versatility and easy application:
9
 The use of expanded polystyrene in construction

16 Figure 16. Insulation and lightening of

floors with elements composed
of EPS.
Figure 17. Multi-layer construction
system for perimeter walls in single
block forms: double semi-filled bricks
with inserted EPS panel, connected
mechanically.
Figure 18. Multi-layer construction
system for outer walls in single block
forms: special pieces
to correct thermal bridges.
Figure 19. The wide use of expanded
polystyrene in building envelope
systems (from www.eurobrick.com).

17

False ceiling composed of drywall sheets and panel insulation

€/m2
expanded polystyrene foam panel
32.16
density 33/35 kg/m³, thickness 2 cm

expanded polyurethane panel

29.38
density 35 kg/m3, thickness 2 cm

fibreglass panel
36.57
density 85 kg/m3, thickness 2 cm

Thermal insulation for floor soffits composed of rigid insulation panels

18 mineral wool panels, thickness 3.5 cm 43.65

rigid cellular glass panels 39.63
3
density 105 kg/m , thickness 4 cm

expanded polystyrene panels

23.24
density 33–35 kg/m3, thickness 3 cm

External thermal insulation for flat roofs

fibreglass panel 19.47
3
density 150 kg/m , thickness 6 cm
for each additional cm 1.88

mineral wool panels 30.40

3
density 155 kg/m c, thickness 6 cm
for each additional cm 3.98

extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) panel 16.85

3
density 33–35 kg/m , thickness 3 cm
for each additional cm 3.69

External insulation

fibreglass insulation element

37.60
density 100 kg/m3, thickness 4 cm

mineral wool insulation element

56.40
thickness 4 cm

extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) insulation element

43.33
density 33 kg/m3

Figure 20. Prices of expanded polystyrene and mineral wool insulation (data
from “Tariffa dei prezzi”, Lazio Region, 2010, Rome). Principal characteristics of
19 selected insulating materials.

10 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

 Expanded
Fibreglass polyurethane (PU)

Expanded
polyurethane (EPS)
Mineral wool

Extruded
polystryne
Polymeric foam (XPS)
insulation

71% 22% 7% 50% 40% 10%

Figure 21. Consumption in Italy of insulating materials in construction (left) and types of polymeric insulation (right).

expanded polystyrene products find
wide use in any part of housing
covering, given that it can be
stamped in any shape and form.
Neither the cut, which is done with
sharpened blades or electrical
resistance saws, nor the mounting
and coupling to other materials
requires any type of manipulation or
special attention.
The particular points mentioned above
have led to the increase in
consumption of this type of insulation.
Figure 21 (adapted from Piana, 2010)
highlights the large difference that
exists between the consumption of
styrene-based materials and other
insulation products.

INSULATORS

“I nsulators are defined as materials that have a notable resistance to

the transmission of heat and sound” (Gottfried A., 2008). Insulating
materials can be classified starting from the nature of the raw material
lation constitutes the key element for improving the energetic behaviour
of the building.
From the thermal and thermohygrometric points of view, the adoption of
used (Fig. 24). insulating materials carries with it numerous benefits, such as the reduction
Materials with a structure composed of tiny cells, which enclose stationary of thermal fluxes through the building envelope (exiting in winter and
air within them, can be characterised based on thermal conductivity, an entering in the summer), control of internal surface temperatures (aimed
index of the material’s ability to obstruct the flow of heat. As specified in at satisfying thermal comfort needs), control of surface condensation,
UNI 10351 and UNI 12524, the coefficient of thermal conductivity repre- and the reduction of temperature fluctuations in non-air-conditioned en-
sents the energy that is transmitted by conduction across a unit thickness vironments. Until recently, insulating materials were evaluated on the
of a material per unit time per degree difference in temperature. basis of their benefits, especially in the winter, while today attention is
A material with a low conductivity is considered a good insulator. “From also focused on their performance in the summer; this has brought at-
the heat point of view, insulators are materials that have a thermal con- tention to the thermophysical properties (density, thermal conductivity,
ductivity less than 0.14 W/mK” (Gottfried A., 2008). Such a condition is and specific heat) that characterise the performance of insulators under
found in materials, either natural or artificial, in which the structure is cel- different conditions (Fassi A., Maina L., 2006). Much attention is also
lular or fibrous. Insulating materials should also exhibit determined cha- placed on the sustainability of materials, through evaluations and com-
racteristics and properties for their applicability in construction, precisely parisons according to LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) methodology.
(Gottfried A., 2008):
inalterability of the characteristics in time; INSULATING MATERIALS
resistance to temperature changes;
low water vapour permeability;
Inorganic materials Organic materials Combined materials New technology
rot-proof; materials
low water absorption;
biologically inert; Foams
chemically inert; Expanded polystyrene
incombustible or self-extinguishing; Polystyrene foam
Foams
low reaction to fire;
Glass foam Expanded foams
good mechanical resistance; Cork Calcium silicate Transparent materials
compatibility with other materials; Fibrous Melamine foam Plaster foam Dynamic materials
washable; Fibreglass Phenolic foam Wood wool
recyclable; Stone wool
sound insulation; Fibrous
humidity protection. Sheep wool
Hydrophile cotton
Each individual requirement is controllable,
Coconut fibres
both before application by reading the pro- Cellulose
duction sheet, and during use with the aid of
specific measurement devices. Thermal insu- Figure 22. Classification of insulators (adapted from Papadopoulos, 2005).

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

11
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

T
he profound environmental
Expanded changes on the planet, and
polystyrene construction’s large impact in
determining such conditions, call
is not an for a serious review of building
materials, starting with their
environmentally manufacturing techniques.
Workers must pay greater attention to
friendly material the solutions available and verify their
environmental quality, not only
regarding the technical characteristics of
the individual product, but also the
effects that its use has on local and
global environmental and social systems.
This activity is demanding, but necessary
in order to adopt appropriate solutions
to the problems encountered and the
operational contexts; it is the only
guarantee of common well-being. Both
producers—taking charge of actions
required to reduce negative effects in
the production and distribution phase,
and providing detailed, critical technical
communication—and designers—
whose task it is to choose energetically,
environmentally, and socially appropriate
solutions—are called to pay more
attention. Many studies dealing with the
thermal and acoustic performance of
insulating materials and their
environmental impact can be found in
the literature. Among articles that
present the state of the art in insulating
materials used for construction,
interesting work was undertaken by
Papadopoulos (2005), who reviewed the
physical/technical and environmental
characteristics of major products. The
tables reported in Figures 23 and 24
compare, respectively, the main physical
characteristics of the materials and the
classical parameters used to describe
their impacts on the environment and
on health. In light of this preliminary
study, while limited to public data,
polystyrene is not considered an
environmentally friendly material for the
reasons summarised in the points that
follow, which indicate how a reduction
in its use in construction should be
hoped for and pursued.
It Derives from Petroleum
The EU Directive 2002/91/CE, adopted
in Italy with the decree on containing
energy usage (187/2005 and 192/2005
and subsequent modifications), is in line
with the Kyoto Protocol, which, among
other objectives, calls for a reduction in
dependence on petroleum-derived
products. In July 2010, the new
directive, 2010/31/UE, on energy
performance in construction came into
force. It updates the preceding
directive, 2002/91/CE, not only with

Material Fibreglass Mineral wool Extruded Expanded Polyurethane

polystyrene polystyrene foam
Density [kg/m3] min 13 30 20 18 30
max 100 180 80 50 80
Thermal conductivity λ [W/mK] min 0.030 0.033 0.025 0.029 0.020
max 0.045 0.045 0.035 0.041 0.027
Operating temperature range [°C] min -100 -100 -60 -80 -50
Principal physical characteristics

max 500 750 75 80 120

Vapour diffusion resistance coefficient min <1 <1 80 25 50
max 1 1 200 200 >100
Humidity absorption [%] min <0.1 <0.1 <1* 5* 5*
(at 23°C / 80%RH) max 1 1.5
Fire class min A1 A1 B1 B1 B1
max A2 A2 B2 B2 B2
Tensile strength [N/mm2] min 0.00500 0.00012 0.09000
max 0.01500 0.00750 0.22000
Sound absorption (at 125Hz) min 0.10 0.05
max 0.79 0.19
Sound absorption (at 1000 Hz) min 0.71 0.92
max 0.97 0.99

Figure 23. The main characteristics of insulating materials (*average value).

12 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

Material
Biopersistence
Fire toxicity
Maximum exposure limits
Use of CFCs, HCFCs, CO2
Waste disposal
Reusability and recyclability
Raw materials
Additives to protect against biological impact
Primary energy consumption [kWh/m3]
Figure 24. Environmental characteristics of major insulating materials used in building. *Since 2001, the fibre wools most commonly used as insulators, such as
fibreglass, mineral wool, and slag wool, are no longer classified as human carcinogens (Group 3) by the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer).
**Conforms to national standards.
language regarding modification
interventions that have been developed
over time, but also and especially with
measures deriving from new energy
savings objectives introduced by
European institutions with the so-called
20-20-20 rule (20% reduction in energy
consumption and CO2 emissions with
respect to 1990 levels, and a
commitment to producing 20% of the
total energy consumption with
renewable energy sources by 2020).
The main components in expanded
polystyrene are substances derived from
petroleum, and this constitutes one of
the primary factors that render the
product environmentally harmful, given
its limit as a resource. As a result, it
should always be applied carefully.
The aim of limiting the use of
petroleum is dictated by different
motives, one of which is reducing CO2
emissions linked to its use, which
contribute substantially to climate
change. Additional objectives for
reducing the use of petroleum as a raw
material are those aimed at limiting the
“tensions” that arise when confronted
with a limited resource and its areas of
extraction—centres of great
strategic/military interest today—and
preparing for a time in which the use of
petroleum is limited to applications for
which there is no substitute.
Forecasts related to the European
Fibreglass Mineral wool
Non-classified*
Not applicable
3-10 mg/m **3
No
No particular obligations or limitations
Practically not reusable or recyclable Reusable and recyclable or useable for low-quality
Do not use hydrocarbons or other rare resource
No
min 90 110
max 430 660
construction industry indicate that, if
reductions and alternative solutions not
implemented, the annual consumption
of petroleum in the sector, equal to
17% of total consumption today, will
increase to 30% before 2030
(www.europarl.europa.eu); it is evident
how important it is to act to reduce
dependence on such a resource in a
sector where its use continues to grow.
Even though the amount of petroleum
used for polystyrene is very low
compared to overall consumption, it
seems fundamental to verify the
appropriateness and indispensability of
the product. As well, the diffusion of
goods composed of substances derived
from petroleum renders our society
almost mono-material. This penalises
the technical capacities of the territory,
which are articulated precisely in
knowing how to use different materials,
and diminishes the culture of an area
and, as a consequence, the identity of
the local population.
Transporting and Storing
primary material
Materials used for the production of
polystyrene are not uniformly
distributed throughout the territory.
This implies that a significant part of the
impact related to this specific material is
composed of its transport (on roads and
Extruded Expanded Polyurethane
polystyrene polystyrene foam
Not applicable
Depends on propellant and additives–Yes Yes
___ ___
Some producers still use HCFCs
(ex. 142b/22, 134a, 152°, etc.) others use CO2
Long biopersistence in the environment:
should not be treated as demolition waste
Not reusable
building or packaging materials or recyclabe
Use of hydrocarbons
No Yes
85 151 15.8
114 269 36.1
railways) and storage. For example, so
that it is not exposed to light or heat,
styrene should be transported in low-
temperature containers and stored in
warehouses and underground tanks in
well-ventilated rooms according to very
strict regulations aimed at reducing fires
and potential environmental pollution.
Styrene’s dangerous characteristics
increase risks for the population and
natural habitats, above all during
movement and storage.
The principal substances that are
released in a fire may be:
• acrylonitrile, a “… colourless,
flammable liquid that is extremely
toxic if ingested, inhaled, or absorbed
through the skin, with very specific,
evident symptoms of intoxication:
weakness, headache, tiredness,
irritability, dyspepsia, hypotension,
and cardiac trouble” (Sartorelli E.,
1981); it is also “… capable of
releasing hydrogen cyanide” (Crepet
M., 1984). Experimental research,
while still not supported by enough
official data or epidemiological
evidence to trigger appropriate
prevention, considers acrylonitrile to
be a potent carcinogen;
• butadiene, a colourless, flammable
gas with a perceptible odour; it is an
irritant and depressant for the central
nervous system (Kruse H., Zucal A.,
1996).
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
13
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

Production processes
Processes in the production of
expanded polystyrene are polluting:
they use fossil-based raw materials and
combustion products. For illustration,
Figure 25 shows the CO2 emissions per
unit of material produced; the
equivalent mass of carbon dioxide
emitted in the production of a 1-m2
insulating panel is also given. For
equivalent performance, synthetic
petroleum-derived insulators have a
larger impact. In addition, benzene,
ethylene, and styrene, the main
components of polystyrene, are
responsible for the formation of ozone
at low altitudes (Kruse H., Zucal A.,
1996). The use of additives and
catalysts used in creating the material
can also be added to the effects that
these materials have on the
environment (see the next section).
Regarding pentane, the expanding
agent used to increase the volume of
polystyrene, scientific studies have
discovered how it contributes to the
increase of photochemical smog (Kruse
H., Zucal A., 1996), a factor that
increases the tropospheric presence of
ozone, which is harmful to health. As
for energy consumption, the amount of
energy absorbed in its production is
among the highest when compared to
other materials with equivalent
insulating capacities. Energy consumed
in its transport and storage, in both
handling and cooling the styrene, must
also be included. The sum of all of this
consumption renders the production
process per unit of polystyrene one of
the most energy-hungry and one of
those most responsible for the
production of greenhouse gas.
It Uses Environmentally
Harmful Additives and
Catalysts
Expanded polystyrene, as in general
with all plastics, achieves determined
performance through the use of
catalysts and additives during the
production process. Figure 26 shows
some additives and catalysts used in the
production of EPS.
It is difficult to know the exact
substances used for these functions due
to both the rate at which they are
substituted in order to obtain greater
effectiveness and reduce risks, and the
incompleteness of technical information
supplied by producers. The ongoing
debate surrounding the use of specific
additives or catalysts has led to the
recognition of their danger and the
consequent substitution of CFCs and
HCFCs with pentane, an organic
substance deemed to be less toxic.
However, pentane has a very high fire
risk, meaning it cannot be accepted as
an environmentally friendly solution
since it must always be treated as a very
“delicate” substance from the points of
view of safety and the environmental
quality of related processes.
Today polystyrene does not contain
substances like CFCs or HCFCs, but
they were widely used up to a short
time ago.
Catalysts used in the production phase,
considered “heavy metals” due to their
specific weight greater than 4 kg/dm3,
lead to the release of substances that
contaminate the air and water even if
they are only present in small quantities.
Heavy metals, in addition, are
considered mutagenic agents (Frigerio
A., Tagliabue M.C., 1978). Regulations
have therefore become more restrictive
over time, but there are no agreed-
upon limits today regarding tolerability
for human and environmental health,
and restrictive regulations are
unfortunately applied only in response
to the ever-growing number of illnesses
revealed or accidents that occur.
Among the catalysts used in expanded
polystyrene production, very reactive,
unstable organic substances are
present, such as dicumyl peroxide and
benzoyl peroxide (Kruse H., Zucal A.,
1996). Such substances have a large
tendency to decompose and are highly
subject to explosion in contact with
heat sources or acidic substances; a
normal air temperature of 25–30°C is
already very dangerous.
It Is Harmful to Health
The risks of expanded polystyrene to

PLETROLEUM-DERIVED SUBSTANCES, THE OZONE HOLE, THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

P roducts deriving from petroleum, such as expanded polystyrene, have

a negative impact on two environmental aspects: ozone and the gre-
enhouse effect. About 90% of terrestrial ozone is located in the strato-
sphere (10–40 km above the Earth’s surface), protecting the biosphere
from ultraviolet radiation. The famous ozone “hole” represents a rarefaction
of this layer, an issue that is very much affected by chemical substances
defined as ODS (ozone-depleting substances).
With the aim of protecting the ozone layer, one of the major steps taken
in the last 30 years has been to completely eliminate the use of substances
based on Freon, such as CFCs, HCFCs, and ODS in general. Research is
currently underway to identify nontoxic alternatives to ODS.
A small quantity of ozone is also found in the troposphere, the innermost
layer of the atmosphere where meteorological phenomena occur. Tropo-
spheric ozone is mainly produced through photochemical reactions due
to other polluting gases, especially above large cities. In these circum-
stances, ozone can be considered a pollutant, and it can be dangerous
at ground level since it is very reactive and irritates the eyes.The greenhouse
effect is a natural condition established when an excess concentration of
several gases prevents the terrestrial “thermostat” from functioning pro-
perly. Briefly, the planet heats up too much because it cannot manage to
“digest” excess heat.
The following can be listed among the major greenhouse gases: carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone, in addition to naturally oc-
curring water vapour.
The most worrying cause of the greenhouse effect is linked to the excessive
concentration of carbon dioxide, which destined to grow since it is the
main product in the combustion of fossil fuels. Various organisations have
stressed the consequences of the increasing greenhouse effect, principally
the internationally recognised IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change), which periodically presents data on the overheating of the Earth.

14 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

human health pertain to the production
phase and its use as insulation for
construction, as well as particularly fatal
events such as explosions or fires.
In the production phase, the risks are
recognised and strongly regulated, in
particular for those pertaining to the
treatment of polystyrene’s component
substances (Environmental Protection
Agency, 1990).
Abundant records exist relating to
accidents and illnesses connected with
the use of these substances. For
example, styrene is a very reactive
component and, even when stabilised
with other components, it continues to
be highly reactive, volatile, and solvent,
qualities that are dangerous for the air,
land, and water. “The amount of these
substances emitted into the atmosphere
during production are between 0.001
and 0.007 kg/t and between about 0.03
and 0.3 kg/t during the polymerisation
process” (Vv. Aa., 1990). Considering
that contact with just a few milligrams
per cubic meter of styrene can manifest
the first symptoms of toxicity (skin
irritation, dermatitis, nausea, headache),
the risks to human health are evident.
Specific studies have demonstrated the
presence of elevated concentrations of
styrene “in urban and industrial areas,
also due to vehicle traffic; in central
Europe values equal to 0.1–64 mg/m3
have been registered in the
atmosphere” (Kruse H., Zucal A., 1996)
and “concentrations up to 130 mg/m3
have been revealed in nursery schools in
Germany, probably due solely to
adhesive products used in the
infrastructure” (Vv. Aa., 1990).
As previously mentioned, styrene is
classified by the IARC in the 2B group,
composed of substances to be handled
carefully due to their possible
carcinogenic effects on humans. Even
though evidence regarding its
carcinogenicity is inadequate and
experiments are limited, there are other
relevant biological data to keep in mind.
The IARC includes styrene in the 2B
group for this reason, i.e., based on its
metabolization to styrene 7,8-oxide and
its covalent bond with DNA, which
clearly makes it genotoxic and
carcinogenic in experiments on
laboratory animals. The presence of
CO2 emissions Type of insulator Transmittance
10 kg 1 m² of polyurethane foam thermal insulation (U = 0.40 w/m²°C)
8 kg 1 m² expanded polystyrene thermal insulation (U = 0.40 w/m²°C)
2.6 kg 1 m² hemp thermal insulation (U = 0.40 w/m²°C)
Figure 25. Armount of CO2 emissions in the production of some insulating materials currently used in building,
for equal quantities and thermal insulation; values expressed as equivalent mass of CO2.
Additive or catalyst Function
Phenol Antioxidant
Benzotriazole Photo-stabiliser
Zinc stearate Lubricant
Octabromodiphenyl ether Anti-flammable agent
Curarine and azodicarbonamide, pentane Whiteners and expanders
Figure 26. Some additives and catalysts used in the production of EPS (Von Berger J., 1987).
styrene oxide has been detected in the This has led to styrene being considered
blood of workers exposed to styrene an endocrine disruptor, and some
and its presence is associated with authors stress the possibility that the
reports of chromosomal damage even installed material can still emit styrene in
at low concentrations. Styrene oxide decreasing percentages over time (Sasso
(styrene 7,8-oxide) is reasonably U., 2003).
anticipated to be a human carcinogen The organobromine compound
according to the 10th Report on hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), used
Carcinogens of National Toxicology as an additive to impede combustion
Program (NIEHS, 2002). and/or as a flame retardant in expanded
All of this points to the need for careful polystyrene panels, can also be
attention during manufacture (for which considered a possible endocrine
specific safety measures are in place) disruptor (van der Ven L.T. et al., 2009;
and additional precautions during Morf L.S. et al., 2007). It has been
installation: hot-wire cutting occurs demonstrated that endocrine disruptors
outdoors, since it could release styrene affect the fertility of numerous animals,
and other decomposition products from fish to mammals, and careful
(Province of South Tyrol, 2007). Hot-wire studies have suggested that HBCD
cutting of expanded polystyrene may contamination can also be a widespread
release thermal decomposition products, phenomenon (Allchin and Morris,
the type and concentration of which 2003). It has significant toxic effects on
can depend on different factors, such as human and environmental health due to
the temperature of the wire, the speed it persistence, bioaccumulation, and
of the cut, the size of the block, and the capability of being transported large
density of the polystyrene. Cutting distances in the air. HBCD is normally
should occur in very well-ventilated used as a flame retardant in expanded
areas. polystyrene, since EPS, composed of
Some biological monitoring studies have carbon and hydrogen, is naturally
shown the effect of styrene on the combustible. Its use is deemed
thyroids of exposed subjects. A necessary because fire is the main safety
significant correlation has been seen risk associated with EPS. EPS is highly
between the dose of styrene flammable, and if a flame retardant is
metabolites and the change in levels of used during its production, it is
thyroid hormones (Mutti et al., 1984). accorded Euroclass E status in
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
15
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

bromine could be safer if demonstrated

Euroclass
to be less persistent and less
A Non-combustible material bioaccumulating in living beings when
No contribution to fire compared to the brominated
Fireproof
compounds (HBCD) currently in use.
B Very limited contribution to fire With this aim, several agencies have
Flammability unlikely
been investigating the relative merits of
C Limited contribution to fire alternatives to brominated compounds
Flammability unlikely
for some years (Greenpeace, “Safer
D Acceptable contribution to fire Chemicals within REACH”, the
Normal flammability
European regulation based on an
E Acceptable reaction to fire integrated system of Registration,
Easily flammable
Evaluation, and Authorisation of
F Not classified because product not tested Chemical substances, 2005). It follows
that since the analysis and
Figure 27a. Fire reaction levels in the European classification system. consciousness of problems raised by
such substances is so important, a series
of long-term monitoring and research
compliance with “harmonised European scientific strategies to assess the risks projects is indispensable. In addition,
standards” (Fig. 27a, Piana M., 2010). and dangers for humans and animals considering the magnitude of the
HBCD can be considered the most linked to environmental exposure to potential risks of endocrine substances,
common anti-flammable for expanded endocrine disruptors (SNSF, 2007). scientific uncertainty cannot serve to
styrene resins in the building sector: it is Subsequent work lasting one year (May argue for postponing the adoption of
used in approximately 90% of insulating 2006 to June 2007) led to the drafting proportional risk reduction measures
materials (EPS, XPS; van der Ven L.T. et of the approved platform “Brominated (SNSF, 2007). In fact, as part of its
al., 2009). Brominated flame retardants flame retardants” (BFR). Primary responsibility, industry has the obligation
(e.g., HBCD) generally have high examples of this group of substances to verify whether in some applications
molecular weight, with structures and were identified as diphenyl HBCD additives can be substituted with
properties that, on the one hand, confer polybrominated ethers penta-BDE, octa- other flame retardants with a more
anti-flammable power on materials to BDE, and deca-BDE as well as favourable risk profile.
which they are added, and on the other, hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) itself It is therefore necessary to develop
characterise the materials with high and tetrabromobisophenol A (TBBPA). research into additives different from
environmental persistence and the The platform continued that while the environmentally persistent flame
possibility of generating toxic molecules. effectiveness of brominated flame retardants, remembering that endocrine
In fact, their combustion and/or pyrolysis retardants in protecting materials from disruptors are included under European
products can contain hydrobromic acid, fire was undeniable, possible legislation in matters of REACH
but also highly toxic substances like alternatives should be investigated, products, as well as other regulations. In
bromobenzene, bromophenol, bromo obviously ensuring at the same time Germany, the Federal Environment
dibenzodioxin, and bromo that the alternatives demonstrate safety Agency (UBA) examined the human and
dibenzofuran. for health and compatibility with the environmental toxicity of 13 flame
Major manufacturers declare that environment. It also highlighted how retardants with the aim of assessing the
polystyrene insulating panels contain various applications such as non-polar feasibility of substituting them with less
less than 1% HBCD (Morose G., 2006, plastics (e.g., EPS), for example, still lack dangerous compounds. Red
2001; Sirap Insulation, 2010). The alternative flame retardants. There is phosphorus, ammonium
conclusions of a careful study presented currently no alternative solution to the polyphosphate, and aluminium
at the 8th UNECE CLRTAP Task Force use of brominated flame retardants for hydroxide have been selected as less
meeting in Montreal in 2010 (Säll L., insulating materials like expanded environmentally harmful alternatives
2010) set a maximum amount 10 times polystyrene (EPS), despite continuous (UBA, 2003). Red phosphorus can
less (less than 0.1%) in order to attention and intense research to technically be used in a variety of
adequately treat waste materials and identify other anti-flammable additives. polymers in line with the strictest fire
guarantee the protection of the For this reason, the bromine industry safety standards, even if it does not
environment. continues to maintain that alternative work for all applications (Danish
Already in 2000, the Federal Council of non-brominated chemical flame- Environmental Protection Agency,
Switzerland commissioned the Swiss retardant compounds could be very 1999).
National Science Foundation (SNSF) to dangerous and that a ban on The use of alternative flame retardants is
create the research program “Endocrine brominated flame retardants may not be just one of the ways to make a safe
Disruptors” in order to elaborate safe. It is likely that alternatives without replacement. There are, in fact, also

16 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

material and functional steps that can
be made, such as preventative actions to
ensure a true need for flame retardants.
For example, in Germany an analysis of
possible substitutions for brominated
flame retardants (BFR) in the computer
and automobile industries was made to
discuss the type and availability of
alternatives (UBA, 1996). A similar
attitude in the construction industry
would be desirable as well; options
might be simply substituting flammable
materials with other non-flammable
ones, preventing fire risks, improving fire
conditions, and finally, in the most
critical cases, substituting toxic flame
retardants with those that have less
impact on the environment and human
health.
The situation appears to be very delicate
and at the same time complex and
controversial. Because of this, starting
from the diversity of opinions on fire
safety standards (European and
American), the International Consortium
for Fire Safety, Health, and the
Environment (Green Flame) deemed it
necessary to establish a program, led in
part by the Swedish Rescue Services
Agency, the Swedish National Chemicals
Inspectorate, the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency, the
US National Association of State Fire
Marshals, and related American
environmental agencies. The aim of
Green Flame is to promote the design of
products and systems that are fire
resistant, but also safe for the
environment (SNTRI, 2002).
On the national level, Sweden has long
proposed the gradual elimination of
brominated flame retardants from all
applications (KEMI, 1999), while the
Norwegian government has adopted an
action plan to confront problems linked
to these compounds, including
proposals to ban penta-, octo-, and
deca-BDE and carefully monitor HBCD
and TBBPA (Schlabach M. et al., 2002).
In November 2008, Norway prepared a
dossier to study the characteristics and
related dangers of HBCD (Säll L., 2010).
In June 2009, the POPS Task Force
reached the conclusion that HBCD
flame retardants could be considered
persistent organic contaminants (POPs).
Analysis and comparisons of their
diffusion are still being closely
examined. Since 2004, the Danish
Ministry of the Environment has
included HBCD flame retardants in their
List of Undesirable Substances
(Denmark, 2004). In 2008, the German
Federal Environment Agency classified
HBCDs as toxic, persistent, and highly
bioaccumulating substances for aquatic
environments, calling for their gradual
elimination according to an established
schedule (German Federal Environment
Agency, 2008).
In Ukraine, HBCDs have been registered
on the “Hazard Chemical List” as
dangerous substances due to their
serious health effects, while Japan has
identified them as substances subject to
control (Chemical Substances Control
Law, CSCL) due to their high
bioaccumulation and persistence (Säll L.,
2010). Finally, the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) launched a
review of HBCDs that ended in 2012
(BSEF, 2009). In August 2012, they
proposed adding such additives to the
Toxics Release Inventory’s (TRI) “Concern
List” of chemical substances that
present “unreasonable risk of injury to
health or the environment”.
In recent years, there have been
important monitoring studies and trend
analyses of HBCD concentrations in the
environment that have highlighted their
constant increase in Asian countries. In
particular, such a trend emerged from a
review that considered more than 100
studies published between 2005 and
2007 (Law R.J., 2008). In addition, it is
clear that even though the primary
source of exposure to such polluting
agents was believed for many years to
be food, it is likely that other sources are
important, such as dust and direct
contact with products treated with
flame retardants. The presence of flame
retardants, HBCD included, has been
detected in the air in closed
environments and/or in dust in the
workplace or schools, where
concentration values of HBCD vastly
exceeded those detected in previous
studies within homes and offices in the
United Kingdom (Sjödin et al., 2001;
Harrad S. et al., 2010; Abdallah et al.,
2008; Stapleton et al., 2008; Law et al.,
2008; Takigami et al., 2009 a and b).
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
Another critical aspect is the cross-
border dispersal of HBCD, which was
deduced from sample analysis in
northern Scandinavia (EU RAR, 2002)
and from studies in Canada of sediment
samples taken at different depths
(EC&HC, 2000). It was found that
HBCDs could undergo long-range
transportation phenomena with a
lifetime estimated at 60–840 days. This
aspect has allowed awareness to grow
over the years that the isolated action of
a single country is incredibly ineffective
when faced with a question of such
urgency and magnitude. Therefore, to
be able to overcome a problem whose
effects go beyond national borders, an
international regulatory instrument
capable of confronting each individual
aspect as a function of environmental
needs is inescapable. The Stockholm
Convention (G.U., 2006), in 30 articles
and 7 letters, defines the general
regulation framework, based on
principles of precaution, environmental
protection, and human health. Twelve
important POPs were analysed and
controlled, including 8 pesticides, 2
industrial chemical substances, and 2
manufacturing by-products. It is
extremely important to point out that
over the course of the 4th meeting of
the Conference of the Parties (COP),
held in May 2009, several amendments
were approved that allowed an
additional 9 POPs to be introduced; it is
currently examining the possibility of
including another 3 chemical substances
in the Convention, among them HBCD.
At the same time, there has been a
request on behalf of the ECHA
(European Chemicals Agency) to include
15 substances in their analysis
“Candidate List” to come into line with
REACH regulations. The substances
included in the list are those that
authorities believe to be dangerous or of
very high concern according to criteria
established by Article 57 of Regulation
CE/1907/2006–REACH, and listed in
Annex IV of Regulation CD/1272/2008–
CLP on the classification of labels for
chemical substances. Seven of these
substances have been subjected to
“priority” procedures in order to include
them in Annex XIV of REACH, the so-
called Authorisation List. At the
17
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

Substance EC Number Priority Reason for inclusion Uses

for Annex XIV

Bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) 204-211-0 Yes CMR (art. 57c) Plasticiser for resins and polymers, especially
PVC. Production of medical devices

Dibutyl phthalate (DDP) 201-557-4 Yes CMR (art. 57c) Plasticiser for resins and polymers, especially
PVC. Printing inks, adhesives (ex. paper and
packaging), sealants, paint, film coating, fibreglass

Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) 201-662-7 Yes CMR (art. 57c) Plasticisers (especially PVC)
Sealants, adhesives, inks, varnishes, packaging
4,4'- Diaminodiphenylmethane (MDA) 202-974-4 Yes CMR (art. 57a) Hardener in epoxy resins and sealants
Raw material for PUR polymer production

5-tert-butyl-2,4,6-trinitro-m-xylene (musk xylene) 201-329-4 Yes vPvB (art. 57e) Cosmetics

Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) and all major 247-148-4 Yes PBT (art. 57d) Textile flame retardant (especially for PS) used
diastereoisomers identified: α,β and γ-HBCDD) 221-695-9 in construction and electrical and electronic
products, PVC
Alkanes, C10-13, chloro (SCCP) 287-476-5 Yes PBT, vPvB (art. 57d, 57e) Metal- and leatherworking. Flame retardant for
textiles, rubber, paints, sealants, adhesives
Triethyl arsenate 427-700-2 No CMR (art. 57a) Biocide for wood (phased out), glass, electrical,
and electronic products, PVC

Anthracene 204-371-1 No PBT (art. 57d) Raw material for synthesis

Cobalt dichloride 231-589-4 No CMR (art. 57a) Gas adsorbent, humidity indicator, B12 vitamin
production, glass mordant, catalyst, invisible ink,
non-ferrous metal production, rubber additive
Diarsenic pentaoxide 215-116-9 No CMR (art. 57a) Colorants, metallurgy (Cu, Pb, Au), special glass,
biocide for wood
Diarsenic trioxide 215-481-4 No CMR (art. 57a) Bleach for glass and enamels, glass, and lead
glass. Biocide for wood. Production of chemical
substances
Sodium dichromate 234-190-3 No CMR (art. 57a, 57b, 57c) Production of chrome derivatives, pigments,
varnishes, and colorants for plastic. Corrosion
protection. Vitamin K production. Coloured glass
or ceramics. Woodworking. Essential oils and
perfumes

Bis(tributyltin)oxide (TBTO) 200-268-0 No PBT (art. 57d) Biocide in anti-fouling varnishes

Lead hydrogen arsenate 232-064-2 No CMR (art. 57a, 57c) Biocide in wood treatment (phased out), glass,
electric and electronic products, PVC

Figure 27b. Candidate List and priority substances for inclusion in Annex XIV of REACH Regulations.

beginning of 2010, the ECHA submitted
its own recommendations to the
European Commission, which makes
the final decision regarding inclusion in
the list. HBCD appears among the seven
in the list (Fig. 27b). On behalf of the
Ministry of Health in collaboration with
Federchimica, Italy is also developing
steps aimed at monitoring and carefully
analysing several chemical substances
used as additives for plastics, among
them HBCD (Federchimica, 2010).
Another aspect of considerable
importance is the constant increase in
additives due to the massive production
of insulating products in expanded
polystyrene. The politics of saving
energy, aimed at promoting effective
insulation in building envelopes, leads to
an increase in sales of insulating
materials guaranteeing excellent
performance (Morf L. et al., 2007).
Figure 28 illustrates the steady increase
in the use of synthetic materials (in
particular EPS and XPS) over time (a) in
the Swiss construction sector and (b)
compared to trends estimated for
Europe, as well as (c) the increase in
HBCD consumption compared to
European and Japanese trends.
The last graph (c) compares the trends
of flame retardant (HBCD) consumption
for the individual sectors (textiles,
building, and transport). The important
contribution due to construction is
evident, as well as its agreement with

18 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

European and Japanese trends. 35,000
It is again highlighted that the function EPS (Schneeberger)
of such an additive is primarily as a 30,000
XPS (Schneeberger)
flame retardant for EPS-based PS (Plastics Europe max.)
PS (Plastics Europe min.)
insulation. In a research program of
25,000
national interest (PRIN, 2004) made by
various Italian universities and

[tons/year]
20,000
coordinated by the Politecnico di
Milano, it was estimated that in 2000,
15,000
38% of worldwide bromine production
was destined for the production of
10,000
brominated anti-flammables. Among
these, TBBPA and HBCD consume nearly
5,000
all of the worldwide market, valued at
around 310,000 t/yr in 2000, compared
0
to 145,000 t/yr in 1990 (Alaee M.,
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
2003). In 2001 in particular, the use of
HBCD in the EU was estimated at 9200 t,
of which about 85% was for rigid Figure 28a. Use of styrene-based insulating materials (EPS, XPS) in the Swiss construction industry.
polystyrene insulation panels (Oslo and
Paris Commission [OSPAR], 2001). In
addition, the OSPAR convention, aimed
at marine environmental protection in 250
the Northeast Atlantic, signed by the
Ministerial Conference of the OSPAR
200
Commission in 1992, and in effect as of
1998, considers short-chain chlorinated
150
[tons/years]

paraffins, organic tin compounds,

phthalates such as DBP and DEHP,
alkylphenols, and brominated flame 100
retardants (HBCD) among identified Consumption estimate
toxic substances. 50 Consumption (contents early 1990s)
Consumption (contents late 1990s)
The constant growth in the use of such
additives, their high environmental 0
persistence, and the possible formation 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
of very dangerous substances in their
accidental combustion or disposal at the Figure 28b. Consumption of HBCD in the Swiss construction sector (in expanded and extruded
end of their useful life have raised polystyrene).
important questions regarding the
sustainability of their use, enough to
lead to their ban by the European 400
Community, as previously mentioned. E&E
Transport
An additional worry relates to the long- Textile/furniture
Construction
term effects of substances present in 300 Industrial demand: EU 15+2 CH
Industrial demand: Europe CH
expanded polystyrene, above all in the Consumption Japan CH
[tons/years]

construction sector, where the material

“lives” for the most part hidden within 200
the building envelope. For this reason,
the considerations made by Sternbeck
(2001) regarding diffuse emissions of 100
HBCD by EPS/XPS insulation panels
exposed to rain or direct solar radiation
(Säll L., 2010) are especially worrying, 0
since one of the major uses of EPS is in 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
external walls (thermal envelope) to
significantly reduce thermal diffusion Figure 28c. Consumption of flame retardants (HBCD) in the Swiss building industry and as compared
through the building envelope. to consumption in the European Union and Japan.

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

19
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material
Product Heat of combustion
(kcal/kg)
Wood 4000–4500
Polyester fibreglass 4500
Polymethacrylate 6300
Polystyrene 9600
PVC 4500
Figure 29. The behaviour of different materials in a fire (www.antincendioweb.it).
Minimum temperature values
for “flame drop”formation
Rigid PVC
Elastic PVC
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polyamide
Cellulose acetate
Figure 30. Minimum temperature for the formation
of flame drops (www.antincendioweb.it).
Estimates of the release of such
polluting substances from EPS/XPS
insulation panels (with a lifetime of 30
years) are based on the results of studies
that have monitored HBCD losses (IOM,
2008).
The emission of toxic substances other
than HBCD contained in EPS and XPS
occur with an increase in temperature,
with limiting situations in the case of
fire. From research made regarding
gases and vapours inhaled due to a fire,
the following points have emerged:
• vapours emitted in combustion with a
flame revealed higher toxicity
compared to combustion without a
flame;
• other components detected during
the decomposition of polystyrene are
acetaldehyde, acetophenone,
benzene, ethylbenzene, and toluene;
• the molecule emitted into the air is
benzene.
The concentration of such substances
emitted was found to lie anywhere
20 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
Heat of combustion Spark temperature due to
(BTU/lb) external source (°C) spontaneous combustion (°C)
7200–8100 – –
8100 – –
11300 300
17100 360
7700 390
between 0.6 and 100% of the volatile
mass at various temperatures increasing
from 200 to 1200°C (Brauman S.K. et
150°C
al., 1983). The quantity and quality of
150°C products emitted during combustion
depends on the chemical composition
135°C
(see section on additives), often not
135°C clearly specified by the producer and not
easily inferred until an accident occurs
140°C
and the consequences are discovered.
180°C In the presence of a flame, studies have
shown that death is caused by exposure
160°C
to carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. Carbon monoxide is considered
the more lethal component due to its
marked narcotic effect, which causes
people to lose consciousness. Both of
these gases are trapped within
polystyrene.
In the case of combustion without a
flame, styrene, which polymerisation
turns into polystyrene, is the most
dangerous gas for humans (Kirchner N.,
1998).
In a fire, the reaction between chlorine,
organic substances, and oxygen can
lead to the production of dioxins and
furans at certain temperatures.
Quantities and types depend on the
presence of possible (metallic) catalysts
and the susceptibility of the organic
substances involved. Since dioxins and
furans are cyclic aromatic compounds,
the greater the presence of aromatic
ring structures, the higher probability
that such compounds will form (Baker,
2002). In a fire, polystyrene is dangerous
because it emits a large amount of
smoke, which poses grave risks for
human health. All plastics emit
noticeably more smoke than traditional
combustibles, and, due to the presence
of toxic substances and compounds,
they are particularly dangerous to
Temperature of Decomposition
temperature (°C)
–
–
450 170–300
495 –
455 220
human health, as well as being corrosive
to other types of material.
The table in Figure 29 lists some
parameters that characterise the
behaviour of materials in a fire. The heat
of combustion, usually expressed in
MJ/kg, is the amount of energy that a
unit mass of solid, liquid, or gaseous
combustible is able to furnish by
burning completely. The table compares
the heat of combustion of different
materials with the production of smoke
in a fire.
In addition, some plastics melt and lead
to the formation of “flame drops” and
toxic gases even at low temperatures.
Flame drops are real burning embers
that signify rapid propagation and a
serious danger for people trying to get
away.
The table in Figure 30 illustrates some
parameters that define the behaviour of
materials in a fire and the temperature
at which flame drops form. It is evident
that even among plastic materials,
polystyrene is one of the most
dangerous products.
Its Application Is Strongly
Limited
Expanded polystyrene weakens under
direct solar radiation; it is not resistant
to UV radiation or solvents, and it
cannot be used at temperatures higher
than 75–85°C due to the presence of
styrene (Vv. Aa., 2006; Gottfried A.,
2008). The material is, in fact, not very
resistant to heat and it is stable only up
70°C; but even temperatures above
55°C accelerate the aging of the
material (Wienke U., 2004).
There are also other factors that make
its use dangerous.
INDOOR POLLUTION

C losed living spaces, as noted, are receptors and sources of pollution.

The use of electronic devices and products common in daily use (deo-
dorants, insecticides, detergents, etc.) can be dangerous for human health,
especially in conditions where air exchange is limited and individuals are
in close contact to sources of this type of indoor pollution.
The walls of houses themselves are often sources of pollution if there are
uncontrolled materials within them. The main problems are related to:
• emission of particular toxic substances that vary from material to ma-
terial and as a function of the volatility of compounds and air turbulence
over the material;
• the possibility of materials to absorb toxic products present in the air
(in the production phase, for example) and later release them;
• synergistic effects determined by more toxic substances released into
the environment, even if each quantity meets safety and health limits;
• the spread of insects, mould, and bacteria.
Because of this, it is important to measure the possible presence and
emissivity of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present in the materials
and be familiar with the relative emission mechanisms in order to adopt
the most appropriate measures for reducing their danger.
German regulations regarding VOCs are the most cautious, in that they
establish precise regulations to fix the maximum quantities detectable in
an internal environment, equal to 0.3 mg/m3, while making exceptions
for some substances that are deemed dubious or of particular toxicity, for
example, styrene.
In Figure 31 (Vv. Aa. Materials Atlas, UTET edizioni scientifiche, Milan,
2006), it is highlighted how the most frequent substances associated
with styrene are present in the list of emissions, along with synthetic sub-
stances connected to insulators in general. As with many synthetic insu-
lators, the emission of VOCs leads to a wide array of consequences.
Based on investigations conducted in test chambers on the emission of
VOCs by some building materials, a new expanded polystyrene panel re-
leases around 200 mg/m3 an hour. If the same product is left to age for
around 70 days, the emission is about 10 times lower. In addition, altering
the packaging materials can sometimes favour a reduction in the release
of toxic substances into the internal air (Oberti I., 2008).
These compounds are present in the domestic environment within adhesive
solvents, detergents, varnishes, synthetic flooring and coverings, stuffing,
and insulation, and are composed of a wide group of molecules containing
carbon and hydrogen from synthetic products and incomplete combustion
(Baglioni A., Piardi S., 1991).
From an estimate made by the WHO (World Health Organization), a large
number of buildings present in industrialised countries possess a high
level of toxicity in internal environments. One of the causes of the rise of
some illnesses (allergies, intoxication, migraines, cancer, etc.) lies in the
degree of pollution present in spaces in which people usually spend part
of the day.
Beyond the technical/economical/performance needs, it would be appro-
priate to choose materials based on the absolute certainty that emissions
are not toxic when evaluated over the entire life cycle of the products
examined.

TYPE OF VOC MOST FREQUENT SOURCES OF EMISSION

aliphatic all products containing solvents such as varnishes and glues; gasoline solvents and thinners; detergents,

carpet, isoaliphatic compounds in natural resin varnishes

aromatic products containing solvents such as nitrocellulose and resin bonding varnishes; thinners, carpet

styrene insulation, unsaturated polyester resin coating, carpet, varnishes

heterocyclic resin bond varnishes, solvents, carpet

halogenated hydrocarbon paint removers, foaming agents in insulation

terpene wood, wood derivatives, natural resin bonding paint, alkyd resins, fired glazes

aldehyde drying oils, alkyd resins, linoleum floor covering

formaldehyde wood derivatives, varnishes, urea-formaldehyde expanded products, insulation, mastics, textiles

ketone water-based and solvent-based products such as varnishes, adhesives, and paint removers

alcohol and monovalent alcohol esters water-based and solvent-based products such as varnishes, adhesives, and paint removers, PUR expanded
products, mastics for repairs

glycols water-based products such as acrylic varnishes, adhesives, joint sealing materials; fired glazes, paint
removers for wood, latex paints, elasticising additives in different plastics

pyrolidine derivatives paint removers, varnishes, latex paints

isobutelyne carpet (backed in expanded polystyrene, all rubber products

phthalates plasticisers in latex-based paints, paints, adhesives, varnishes, flooring, carpet, plastics

biocides wood preservers, natural coverings, leather, carpet

anti-flammables carpet, textiles, fireproof varnishes

Figure 31. The most frequent sources of indoor emission.

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

21
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material
Substance
PVC
Polyamides
Polyesters
Phenolic resins
Polyacrylics
Polystyrene
Wood and derivatives
Wool
Figure 32. Examples of Combustion products (www.antincendioweb.it).
Its low density means it is not an
appropriate insulator for all climate
conditions
Polystyrene, even if effective at reducing
winter energy consumption, does not
respond well regarding the thermal
energy accumulation necessary for good
summer insulation. Low-density
materials do not allow energy to be
accumulated, basically because they are
very light, with limited heat capacity and
consequently low thermal inertia. This
last characteristic determines the length
of time between the absorption of
energy and its release; it is directly
proportional to the density of the
material. In fact, very recent studies
have demonstrated that in most Italian
climate zones—temperate regions
characterised by a large day/night
thermal swing—more energy is
consumed in summer air-conditioning
than in winter heating. In particular, for
a building that is not correctly designed
according to the principles of
environmentally friendly construction,
the ratio between summer and winter
energy consumption is 6:1 in Palermo,
3:1 in Ancona, and 1:1 in Cuneo. With
good building envelope design, the ratio
decreases to 3:1 in Palermo and 1.5:1 in
Ancona (Stazi F. et al., 2008). The
importance of correct design therefore
also emerges as a function of reducing
summer energy consumption for
cooling. The summer energy problem
currently calls for particular attention
when designing a building and its
systems, in order to confront: climate
change, characterised by an increase in
temperature and extensive hot periods;
22 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
Toxic products
CO-CO2-HCI- Benzene -Toluene
CO-CO2-HCN
CO-CO2-HCN-HCI (for chlorinated materials)
CO-CO2-Phenol and derivatives
CO-CO2-Methyl methacrylate
CO-CO2-Toluene-Styrene-Benzene Aromatic hydrocarbons
CO-CO2
CO-CO2-HCN
and high energy consumption
connected to the most common means
of cooling buildings in summer, based
on the use of air conditioners which are
often characterised by large energy
input. Unfortunately in Italy, both the
question of energy savings in summer,
which is very important in such a
climate, and the requests for living
comfort, which often contrast with
energy savings, have been ignored for
too long (Cavallo D., 2009). Such norms
have favoured the realisation of lighter
buildings and the adoption of super-
insulating models characterised by
extremely low thermal transmittance,
but these do not perform well in
summer. Many studies present in the
scientific literature have pointed out
how hyper-insulating at certain latitudes
can generate an increase in
environmental impact (due to the
greater production of insulating
materials) without a meaningful benefit
in terms of energy savings (Di Giuseppe
E., 2009). Such an attitude has distorted
the relationship between buildings and
climate, leading to the
internationalisation of thermal
envelopes and the loss of local character
(Paolella A., 2001). In temperate
climates with large day/night swings, it
is not enough to think only in terms of
winter heating. It is necessary to design
an energy-conserving house that is
comfortable throughout the year,
capable of optimising internal comfort,
adapting to the specific climate, and
responding to requests of the external
weather/climate, which in turn minimises
recourses to air-conditioning systems.
Highly toxic products
HCI-CO
HCN-CO
HCN-CO
CO-Phenol
CO- Methyl methacrylate
CO-Aromatic hydrocarbons
CO
CO-HCN
The legislative and normative response
to such problems has finally arrived in
Italy with DLgs 192 of 19 August 2005
and subsequent modifications. It
introduces the requirement that summer
energy problems be considered in the
design and construction of buildings,
i.e., operating on a design/construction
level to make use of specific shading
devices, verify the surface mass of walls
(which significantly reduces thermal
fluxes that enter and controls the
internal temperature), and provide
innovative techniques and materials that
allow the oscillation in ambient
temperature to be modulated correctly
as a function of solar radiation. The
establishment of DLgs 192/2005, with
DPR no. 59 of 29 April 2009, referred to
important technological/implementable
energy performance indications. The
introduction of an energy performance
index seems fundamental, especially
when it is aimed at assessing the energy
behaviour of the building in the summer
(e.g., EPe) as well as what is already in
effect regarding winter heating (e.g.,
EPi). However, the decree defines
conditions and considerations for the
summer that seem to be unsatisfactory,
or rather, they are not satisfactory
enough to effectively confront the
problem of cooling and summer
comfort in a temperate climate such as
in Italy.
High temperatures produce variations in
its physical state
The flammable and toxic substances
contained in polystyrene (Fig. 32) render
it extremely dangerous for human
health (as seen in the previous section);

a Another limit of expanded polystyrene,
b necessary to install sintered expanded
they also modify its technical
characteristics, both in the case of high
temperatures and in case of fire.
Since polystyrene belongs to the
thermoplastic category of materials, its
mechanical characteristics are decidedly
influenced by temperature. In addition,
expanded polystyrene is a synthetic
insulating material that is combustible
even at low temperatures. Since it
produces reversible changes in
polystyrene’s physical state, temperature
is one of the main variables that
characterise and limit the use of
polymers in general.
Figure 33 a/b. threshold with respect to non-treated
Swelling and
explosions within
materials, but it does not ensure the
prefabricated panels non-combustibility of EPS (Baker G.B.,
made of lightweight 2002); if the EPS panel is exposed to a
EPS-aggregate
reinforced concrete.
sufficient source of heat, it will burn.
Each time it is used in situations that
exhibit elevated temperatures (proximity
to fixed pieces of equipment, etc.) it is
necessary to protect EPS from contact
with such sources, thus reducing to a
minimum the possibility of igniting a fire
(Baker G.B., 2002).
in addition to its flammability, is the very
rapid speed at which it combusts, and
because of which “…[fire] extinction is
impossible” (Kruse H., Zucal A., 1996).
As synthetic insulators, plastic products,
and especially expanded polystyrene, are
the most dangerous. Protective
aluminium sheets that are often used
are protective only in the first phase of
the fire, but they have a negative effect
later since they increase the difficulty of
extinguishing the fire once it has taken
hold. There are also particular tricks
polystyrene in prefabricated lightweight
Figure 34. The cavity floors made of reinforced concrete and
created by the
thermal sublimation prestressed reinforced concrete.
of the EPS element In a fire, air present within the
used to make the
flooring lighter.
polystyrene, which makes the product
lighter, also heats up: the increase in
temperature leads to an increase in
pressure, which, combined with a
reduction in the resistance of the
concrete, leads to dangerous swelling
and explosions as shown in Figure 33.
These explosions occur in cases where
adequate vents have not been installed
along with the flooring (according to
UNI 9502/2001, art. 7.2.2 and DM 16
It is highly flammable and quick to February 2007, annex DD 5.1), allowing
combust for gases created in the sublimation of
Polystyrene is a flammable material, and sintered expanded polystyrene at high
its use in buildings always requires temperature to escape (Fig. 34, Franchi
protection through the use of fire- A., 2007). A study conducted by an
resistant materials. international insurance agency (FM
Formulations containing flame Global, USA) analysed around ten years
retardants have therefore been of data and clearly demonstrated an
developed; however, even if they inhibit increase in damage caused by fire in
combustion, once the flame has spread, plastic construction materials (Battrick,
they do not prevent similar behaviour in 2001). More detailed analysis shows
materials without additives, which that in about a quarter of the 70 fires
usually emit more smoke. The use of analysed, panels with synthetic
brominated flame retardants (HBCD) insulation were used to insulate the
allows for an increase in the ignition building (http://epsfiretruth.blogspot.com).
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
23
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material
THERMAL BALANCE: STATIONARY REGIME, DYNAMIC REGIME
T he evaluation of thermal performance of building envelope compo-
nents may be made according to a partial approach, adopting a sta-
tionary thermal regime (which supposes constant thermal magnitudes
in time and neglects effects linked to the thermal inertia of the envelope),
or in the variable regime (in which the required magnitudes vary in time
and the envelope intervenes to attenuate and slow down the thermal
wave due to its energy accumulation characteristics). The stationary
regime is representative of heat transmission phenomena in winter or
buildings with low thermal inertia, but when daily temperature oscillations
are significant, it is necessary to analyse in the variable regime (Fassi A.,
Maina L., 2006).
Stationary regime
In the stationary regime, where thermal/physical characteristics do not
depend on time as much as the internal and external temperatures, the
fundamental parameter that expresses the ability of the wall to reduce
thermal fluxes and control the internal surface temperature (satisfying
the requirements of thermal comfort and preventing surface condensation)
is the thermal transmittance (Fassi A., Maina L., 2006). The thermal tran-
smittance parameter, U, expressed in W/m2K or W/m2°C, indicates the
transfer of heat that crosses a unit area of a wall orthogonally in stationary
conditions due to a unit difference between internal and external tem-
peratures; such a magnitude is, in fact, the inverse of the thermal resi-
stance of the wall, or rather the inverse of the sum of the resistances of
each individual layer composing the wall. The thermal resistance of one
insulating layer is in turn defined by its thickness and thermal conduc-
tivity.
Dynamic regime
The evaluation of thermal performance in the dynamic regime of a buil-
ding component is particularly complex. In the summer, it is necessary
to adopt an analysis that forecasts a trend of non-stationary thermal
phenomena over time, because the magnitudes that represent the stress
(primarily solar radiation) vary strongly over time. In recent years, different
simplified methods have been developed based on the sinusoidal variation
of the factors stressing the surface of interest over a defined period.
In this type of analysis, knowledge of the density, specific heat, and ther-
mal conductivity of each material is fundamental; thermal inertia can
also be associated with these values.
The parameters that come into play are the surface mass (total mass of
the structure per unit surface area in kg/m2) and the thermal conductivity
of the component materials. A specific surface mass, together with re-
duced thermal conductivity constitutes the best solution in that there is
sufficient mass, characterised by good thermal capacity and low con-
ductivity, with the consequent decrease in speed at which the structure
lets heat pass through.
Thermal inertia acts as a dampener and provides a phase shift for the
24 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
amplitude of the external thermal wave. This deals two substantial be-
nefits:
• dampening represents the relationship between the amplitude of the
internal and external thermal waves. It acts to stabilise indoor comfort
conditions, absorbing (or better, attenuating) the variations between
internal and external climate conditions. A good dampener helps to
reduce the size of the heating or cooling system for the building;
• the phase shift indicates the period of time necessary for the thermal
wave to cross the building component. It therefore represents the dif-
ference in time between when the worst external and the worst internal
conditions occur (minimum night-time temperature in winter; maximum
summer radiation).
For example, if the maximum summer thermal peak is felt inside the
home when the outdoor temperature is lower than the indoor tempe-
rature, it will be possible to cool the environment through simple natural
ventilation. Figure 35 shows a diagram of the average external tempe-
rature and its behaviour over time. It is clear how the lowest external
temperature is reached at 2 am and the highest at 2 pm. In moving from
outside to inside, the change in temperature depends on the technical
characteristics of the barrier between the two environments.
The thermal inertia of the structure therefore represents the tendency
to reduce (dampen) and delay (shift) the effect of the dynamic stress on
the thermal change of the internal environment. Only when the dispersing
surface (the envelope) cannot maintain internal comfort conditions is it
necessary to control the environment with a heating or cooling system.
Comparing the different insulators for winter and summer that are avai-
lable on the market today, the following conclusions can be reached.
In winter (Fig. 36) insulators offer the possibility of limiting heat dispersion
with a reduced envelope thickness. Such behaviour is to be favoured in
severe climates where it is important to keep interior living spaces warm
as long as possible, thus reducing the energy consumed for heating. The
lower the density of the insulator, the less its transmittance value. It is
evident that to reach the same thermal transmittance value (0.4 W/m2K),
the lower the density of the material, the lower the thickness necessary
to reach the required performance.
However, some materials that are very efficient at protecting from the
cold instead exhibit low energy performance when creating ideal com-
fortable living conditions in summer. As Figure 37 shows, cellular or
fibrous materials (mineral wool, expanded polystyrene, polyurethane,
and flax) require great thickness as compared to more compact materials
(cork or wood) in order to guarantee a phase shift of 9 hours. In temperate
climates, summer is evidently more problematic.
Here, the reference parameter is the phase displacement, which is related
to the material through the thermal mass. “The mass slows down the
incoming thermal wave to times when the need is greater, and stabilises
the internal temperature, a requirement that is absolutely not present
in extreme climates” (Stazi F. et al., 2008).
 ΔTe ΔTi
Tav,i
Tav,e phase displacement

dispersion surface

Figure 35. Diagram showing thermal transmittance across a massive wall.

[Transmittance 0.4 W/m2K]

1. fibreglass/mineral wool
4. expanded cork
thickness (cm)

2. expanded/extruded polystyrene
5. wood fibre
9 8 7 10 9 9 3. polyurethane
6. flax

1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 36. Useful thickness (cm) of different insulators that can ensure a thermal transmittance of 0.4 W/m2K.

[9 hour phase displacement]

1. fibreglass/mineral wool
thickness (cm)

4. expanded cork
2. expanded/extruded polystyrene
5. wood fibre
3. polyurethane
6. flax

25 26 21 15 9 24

1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 37. Useful thickness (cm) of different insulators that can achieve a phase displacement of 9 hours (insulating packet with 20-mm beads).

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

25
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material
It Is not a Socially Sustainable
Material
Polystyrene is a material that is
connected neither to the place nor to
specific technological solutions
originating in the interpretation of local
environmental conditions. One of the
major market motives—being usable in
any context—becomes an element of
great social delicacy: its indifference to
the context contributes to the loss of
broad technical capabilities, making
solutions uniform and therefore
homogenising them.
These conditions not only reduce the
specificity of the building, which loses
local connotations and identity, but
also distance considerations of the
natural conditions as an element of
building design.
The product leads to the loss of
technical abilities, contributes to
making the construction phase a mere
montage of elements that are all the
same, and therefore diminishes the
local culture.
It is obvious that such criticism cannot
be directed only at the material nor
exclusively at producers, but also at
users (designers, businesses, citizens)
who, beginning with its easy
availability, low cost, simplicity, and
cheapness, combined with a lack of
widespread awareness about its
environmental “weight”, also use the
material in cases where much more
appropriate solutions exist.
“Environmental compatibility of a
building is verified not only on the basis
of consumption of the materials used,
but also as a function of the quantity
of energy contained, understood in
terms of the energy consumption of
each individual material in each phase
[of its life cycle]. It is evident that the
higher the energy content of a
material, the lower its environmental
compatibility, in that the energy
embodied (Gallo C., 2000) is
proportional to the quantity of carbon
dioxide, a major contributor to the
greenhouse effect and the subsequent
heating of the planet, emitted into the
atmosphere” (Bovati M., 2000). The
table in Figure 38 compares the energy
consumed in the production of various
26 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
Material
Inert materials
Solid bricks
Temperate climate wood
Cement
Glazed ceramics
Glass
Water-based paint
100% recycled aluminium
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Expanded polystyrene
Aluminium
Figure 38. Energy evaluation of various materials (adapted from Longhi G., 2003).
materials.
The use of inappropriate solutions
contributes to the degradation of the
building and therefore to the decrease
in the functional performance of
houses and settlements, and the
quality of life of the inhabitants. Once
the need to pursue significant energy
conservation in buildings is confirmed,
this action can be undertaken by simply
using insulating materials, or by
confronting the problem systematically:
considering the possibility of creating
buildings with greater overall quality
and connection to place, where local
energy savings corresponds to savings
over the entire production cycle, and
environmental quality is sought as a
primary objective. Therefore, when it is
not necessary, the use of an energy-
hungry material that has pollution
issues and health risks certainly appears
reductive.
Its Disposal Is Difficult
Recycling is often discussed when
talking about plastics. In reality, not all
plastics can be recycled easily or
conveniently. In addition, recycling
requires energy and does not usually
recover the original quantity or quality
of the material. Studies conducted in
2009 by the Italian Institute of
Packaging (AIPE, 2009) highlighted the
Energy consumption in kWh/kg
0.03
0.79 (about 26 times higher)
0.83 (about 28 times higher)
1.94 (about 65 times higher)
2.78 (about 93 times higher)
5.28 (about 26 times higher)
5.56 (176 times higher)
6.39 (about 213 times higher)
22.22 (about 740 times higher)
27.78 (926 times higher)
59.72 (about 1991 times higher)
quantity of packaging products that
the Italian industry places on the
market each year; it equals 5.6% of
world production, placing Italy among
the 10 leading countries in the sector.
Data related to the division that
includes EPS point towards a reduction
since 2008 in terms of both production
and export, and give sintered expanded
polystyrene an 11% share, with a
consumption of 49,500 t.
Another study conducted by
Plastinconsult (Piana, 2004) showed
how systems and equipment for the
production of polystyrene are in large
part the same ones used for recycling
production waste; in other words,
recycling is an activity fuelled with
similar quantities of pre- and post-
consumption fluxes, and therefore the
processing of more units does not
depend entirely on an increase in
recycling more material after use, but
on a general increase in production.
Within this mixed recycling, it should
also be pointed out that most of it is
connected to packaging products. On
the basis of this information, the
outline of recycling potential appears
invariable, but it is more complex in
reality, especially in the building sector,
where it would be necessary to
intervene in order to separate the
material through dismantling and
storing methods that are still far from
60
current demolition practices. Standard conditions
45.6 MJ/kg
At the moment, there is no disposal 50
problem for expanded polystyrene
products in construction, since the life
of buildings is fortunately long and the 40

Energy cost MJ/kg

use of this material is relatively recent. 31
But it would be useful to work keeping
in mind the technical difficulties and 30
negative environmental effects that
would inevitably be faced in recovering
a material deriving from petroleum, 20
12
especially when it uses strong additives
such as brominated flame retardants
(HBCD) and emits toxic substances 10
when burned.
The demolition and/or deconstruction
0
phase of buildings should play an 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
essential role in improving waste and % Recycled
reducing landfill. Life cycle planning Figure 39. Gross energy required (GER) trend with increased percentage of recycled EPS used in the process.
does, in fact, include the demolition
phase. For this reason, life-cycle
assessments made by expanded
polystyrene producers very often 4
Standard conditions
foresee a high percentage of recycled 3.5 kg CO2-eq./kg
material in order to substantially knock 3.5
down environmental impacts.
As an example, AIPE (Italian Association 3
of Expanded Polystyrene) made an 2.3
GWP [kg CO2-eq/kg]

evaluation in which they forecasted a 2.5

decrease in energy spent, the gross
energy required (GER), with the
hypothesis of being able to recycle a
high percentage of disused material.
Numerical evaluations were made of
such materials, e.g., EPS 70, EPS 100,
and EPS 150 (three different
Euroclasses of product, known in the
past as materials characterised by their
respective densities: 17 kg/m3, 20
kg/m3, and 26 kg/m3), using energy
indicators (GER) and contributions to
the greenhouse effect as indicators,
with a time span of 100 years
(GWP100). The results were normalised
to the production of 1 kg (Fig. 39) and
1 m3 (Fig. 40) of manufactured
product.
In the simulations, the percentage of
recycled material reused in the
production process was set equal to
either 40% or 90% (Figs. 39 and 40).
The interpolation of the characteristic
points was made with an exponential
fit. It is important to note that the
2
1.5
0.9
1
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Recycled
Figure 40. Trend of GWP100 with increasing percentage of recycled EPS used in the process.
calculations do not include the potential (GWP100, Fig. 40) can be
treatment of EPS waste to render it observed. From the trends, it is clear
usable for recycling (i.e., waste that if rubbish and/or waste from EPS
collection, transportation, chipping, products are used as secondary raw
etc.). This means that even though material within the life cycle, the
benefits can be inferred from the environmental impacts of the
graphs, these benefits are production cycle decrease enormously.
overestimated. In addition, other opportunities were
A decrease both in the energy required also highlighted, deriving from either
(GER, Fig. 39) and the global warming closed recycling (material beginning the

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

27
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

Energy carrier Indirect energy Direct energy Transportation energy Feedstock energy Total

Electrical energy 7.8 3.8 0.1 0.0 11.6

Oil combustibles 0.6 5.4 1.6 24.5 32.0

Other combustibles 3.1 37.8 0.1 26.6 67.6

Total 11.5 46.9 1.8 51.2 111.3

Figure 41. Overall energy results obtained for recycling 50% of EPS (expressed as MJ per kg of product).

Energy carrier Indirect energy Direct energy Transportation energy Feedstock energy Total

Electrical energy 7.5 3.6 0.1 0.0 11.1

Oil combustibles 0.2 1.1 1.4 24.5 27.3

Other combustibles 1.4 29.4 0.1 26.6 57.6

Total 9.1 34.1 1.6 51.2 96.0

Figure 42. Overall energy results obtained for recycling 90% of EPS (expressed as MJ per kg of product).

Soil
Hydrosphere
50 50
Atmosphere

Waste Management
kg/year

kg/year

Use

Production

0 0
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Figure 43. HBCD emissions from building materials subdivided by source (left) and sector (right).

recycling loop is reintegrated within the
same system after treatment,
substituting the virgin raw material) or
open recycling (material starting the
recycling loop is inserted into a
production process different from the
one that produced the product or
waste), by always relying on waste
materials or “clean waste”, an aspect
that is not discounted in insulating
materials used in the construction
sector. Waste essentially comes from
commercial and industrial activities that
use EPS in significant quantities, and
which, most importantly, manage to
furnish waste material with a high
degree of purity. In simulations,
however, the packaging sector has
been studied due to its susceptibility
for products to reach their end of life
rapidly and the potential purity of its
waste. This is in contrast to waste
deriving from insulating materials made
with polystyrene, in which there are
always additives (i.e., impurities), and
whose useable life does not facilitate
the eventual creation of a virtuous
cycle. In the tables in Figures 41 and
42, various overall energy results are
reported (based on two estimates of
the percentage of recycled material),
obtained by a company that exclusively
produces insulating material (EPS) for
use in buildings (AIPE, 2007).
By analysing the results, the possibility
of effectively reducing energy
consumption (in relation to the
different tracks) can be seen, but a
critical point is the scarce, if not absent,
possibility of disassembling and
deconstructing the material as
permitted by current building
decommissioning technologies.
Standard planning does not consider
temporary and provisional notions
directed at creating maximum
reversibility in the construction process,
which would foresee the later

28 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

deconstruction of the product itself. In
Italy, most demolition is made with the
use of mechanical equipment, such as
excavators, shredders, and demolition
machines that allow for a rough
separation of three materials: wood,
iron, and concrete mixed with bricks or
other materials. Such separation of
material is not sufficient to guarantee
its improvement; among waste
materials, the only case of near-total
recovery for new use taking advantage
of its full potential is for iron used in
the building framework (Nironi, 1998).
The problem of polluting HBCD
substances should also be considered
during the decommissioning phase.
In a study made in Switzerland,
emissions from this substance in the
deconstruction phase were considered,
and a dependence on the percentage
of emissions was observed based on
the way in which the building was
demolished/deconstructed (Morf et al.,
2007). Estimates of such emission were
also provided in the “risk assessment
draft report” prepared by the European
Commission in May 2008 (EU, 2008).
In reference to polluting emissions
caused by the use of expanded
polystyrene doped with HBCD flame
retardants, Figure 43 shows trends
projected to 2020 assuming continuous
production of the HBCD molecule
(Morf et al., 2007). The linear increase
in polluting emissions over time is clear.
This is due to the use of expanded
polystyrene and the consequent
management of waste in the soil, air,
and water.
It Uses Incomplete
Environmental Information
Polystyrene could be an appropriate
solution in many applications even if it
is not an environmentally friendly
material. But commercial
communication, whether from
businesses or associations, is not
capable of providing critical technical
information about the material’s
characteristics and usage conditions. A
rigorous analysis of the promotional
brochure “Quello che ti hanno detto su
di lui fino ad oggi sono tutte palle”,
(“What They Told You about It So Far
Was All Nonsense”), compiled and
edited by AIPE (Italian Association for
Expanded Polystyrene), demonstrates
that producers are quite far from
understanding how to face the
question of ecology, even in the field of
commercial promotion.
Those who strive for environmental
quality in building need to have
objective information and not biased
interpretations; they need to
understand the product’s limitations in
order to optimise its use and provide
solutions that allow it to be used
appropriately.
Commercial advertisement that does
not adequately face these requests
demonstrates an instrumental use of
environmental themes, marginality in
company actions, and interest solely in
promoting the product.
This attitude leads to the detriment of
the quality of communication and
places the entire production in a bad
light, increasing workers’
preoccupation regarding the effective
environmental and social awareness of
the companies involved and their ability
to interact positively with this very
delicate aspect.
What follows is a quick look at the
brochure mentioned. The title “What
They Told You About It So Far Was All
Nonsense” adopts language that is
brisk, even nice, but which assumes
that news from other sources is all
wrong and that you can finally get the
correct information by reading the
document. In addition, the revelation
that “the truth is that you have a secret
benefactor” stands out. Transferring
the name of “benefactor” to a material
implies awareness that it is not just a
substance. It is also important to
understand who benefits and in what
circumstances. As well, the adjective
“secret” does not appear consistent
with the product in question, given the
material’s wide distribution.
“This material, far from being toxic,
knows how to make itself useful in so
many ways, each as essential as the
next.” It is to this declaration that the
motives for non-awareness can be
traced. Its toxicity is in fact unknown;
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
however, the scientific community
refers to a principle of “precaution”
when using this material. It continues,
“… knows how to make itself useful in
so many ways, each as essential as the
next”. Expanded polystyrene is also
described in this instance as the
solution to any problem. It would be
more correct to say that it is “applied in
so many ways”, since it cannot be
useful in the same way in every
circumstance. Data show that there are
always solutions with less
environmental impact and a
performance efficiency more suitable to
the context. In reference to the
graphics, including the image of a fox
on the first page, the brochure is rich
with images that continually remind
the reader of nature, but which neglect
to consider the characteristics
attributed to the fox in common
culture, e.g., cunning: “expanded
polystyrene is really a clever idea: it is
non-toxic, it contains neither CFCs nor
HCFCs…” Composites based on CFCs
and HCFCs have been employed as
expanding agents for many years, and
serious environmental problems arise
today regarding the recovery and reuse
of products that have incorporated
them. Consequently, considering past
production and the drop-off in the long
term, it does not seem to be a
particularly “clever” approach. The
experience acquired places no doubt
on the need for greater attention
regarding the substances currently
contained in the material, as if the past
could not repeat itself, especially when
behaving with the same imprudence.
“…it has a great cost/performance
ratio.” In reference to the
cost/performance ratio, expanded
polystyrene aims to highlight precise
characteristics that, applied specifically
to the building sector, do not relate
organically to all the variables, some of
which are overlooked completely.
“Nature likes it.” Also in this case, a
human feeling ascribed to the system
that humans belong to seems to be an
appropriation more for publicity than
for proper reflection.
29
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

LCA (Life Cycle Assessment)

LCA is the acronym for the environmental life cycle assessment of products.
This concept refers to the combination of interactions that a product has
with the environment, considering the extraction and production of ma-
terials, distribution, use, reuse, maintenance, recycling, and final disposal.
LCA methodology is regulated at the international level with ISO 14040
and 14044, which define its structure and guide its correct application,
with the aim of evaluating impacts associated with the various phases
in the life cycle of a product and improving the environment. The funda-
mental characteristic of an LCA is in the way it confronts an analysis:
from a traditional approach—favouring study separate from the individual
production processes—to a global view of the production system and
the product—in which all of the transformation processes, starting from
extraction of the raw material through to the management of the end-
of-life phases, are considered. The logic of LCA is therefore to manage
the phases from “cradle-to-grave” in the best way possible, or to allow
for improvement in production processes to guarantee the passage from
“cradle-to-cradle”. The life cycle assessment method is based on a pro-
cedure organised in a series of successive phases (Fig. 44):
Goal and scope definition: the first phase in an LCA is composed of
identifying the objectives and the scope of the assessment process.
Life cycle inventory (LCI): this phase aims to identify the input and
output fluxes of each phase in the life of the product, which is fundamental
for a correct LCA. In the inventory phase, resource consumption (raw ma-
terials, water, recycled products), energy (thermal and electrical), and
emissions into the air, water, and soil are identified and quantified. It is
thus possible to structure what can be defined as environmental balance.
An extremely important phase for compiling the balance is quality control
of the data, since the validity and reliability of the entire study are based
upon it. The data collected may be primary data (from direct readings),
secondary data (gathered from the literature, databases, and other studies),
and finally tertiary data (from estimates and average values).
Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA): the impact assessment phase
represents the focal point of the LCA, and deals with evaluating the im-
portance of potential impacts associated with data deriving from the in-
ventory phase, regarding the effects on health and the environment caused
by the product over the course of its life cycle.
Life cycle interpretation: the last phase aims at analysing the results
and evaluating improvements in the preceding phases, i.e., defining pos-
sible lines of intervention.
One criticism of the LCA that can immediately be noticed is related to
the request for a large quantity of information and data that is not always
available and/or reliable. Recourse is often made to public and private
databases, which should be compiled carefully in order to improve the
efficiency of the study. One of the greatest problems encountered when
using the LCA is the construction of a data bank, resulting from both the
effort necessary to collect the required information and the heterogeneity
of the data, due to production conditions and construction methods. It
is necessary, however, to construct national, if not regional data banks.
In addition, it is possible to unwittingly collect unreliable data, either be-
cause it is provided by the producers themselves or because it is based
on statistical sampling.
Data related to different data banks can exhibit notable variations in both
the energy mix and the different technologies and energy carriers used
in production plants (Lavagna M., 2008). The variability of data therefore
depends on the reference data; even if inventory data always refer to the
same processes and system limits, it is not often easy to identify the
aspects that determine the variation of the data and consequently the
choice of the data that is most adequate. The environmental profile, ex-
pressed as a function of 1 kg of product (functional unit), is characterised
by estimating the following parameters:
• primary energy from non-renewable sources
• primary energy from renewable sources
• greenhouse effect (GWP)
• acidification potential (AP)
• eutrophication potential (EP)
• photo-oxidant creation potential (POCP)
• ozone layer depletion potential (ODP)
• embodied energy.
The data found in the literature are hardly ever representative of the na-
tional context, since there is still no official Italian data bank. An example
of such uncertainty is found in the environmental profile for sintered ex-
panded polystyrene, compiled based on data in the literature (Fig. 45),
where it is evident that the range in variability for the different environ-
mental parameters for 1 kg of product is very large (Lavagna M., 2008).

LCA Framework Primary energy from 95.5–170 MJ

non-renewable sources
Goal and Scope Definition
Primary energy from 0.88–5.6 MJ
• Goal and scope
renewable sources
definition
GWP 3.49–9.33 kg CO2eq
Interpretation

• Functional unit
• System limits Inventory analysis AP 22.0–26.6 g SO2eq
• Data categories
and quality EP 1.90–2.06 g C2H4eq

POCP 7.33–8.96 g C2H4eq

Impact assessment ODP 0.07 mg CFC11eq

Embodied energy 44–170 MJ

Figure 44. Phase to define the goal and field of application (adapted from Figure 45. Environmental profile of sintered expanded polystyrene
UNI EN ISO 14040-14044: 2006). (EPS).

30 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

“It does not present any health risk
because it does not release toxic
substances.” Expanded polystyrene, as
previously seen, derives from
production processes that are very
energy-hungry and it uses highly
unstable substances whose danger for
the environment and human health is
recognised at the regulatory level,
requiring decidedly restrictive
prevention and protection measures. In
buildings, expanded polystyrene does
not release toxic substances,
particularly when used as an insulating
material, but the scientific community
has expressed strong doubts on its
healthiness when in contact with other
substances.
“It is made of 98% air.” Such a
peculiarity derives from the use of
expanding agents (pentane, a gaseous
hydrocarbon), whose healthiness is also
strongly doubted by the scientific
community.
“It knows how to regenerate.” This
statement is most certainly wrong. A
living organism can regenerate, but
always via an exchange of energy. A
material is recycled or reused, and this
occurs through precise production
processes, with the consequent need
for additional energy, environmental
impacts, and the loss of some amount
of material. The fact that it is 100%
recyclable does not imply that recycling
100 parts of polystyrene yields 100
parts again. Referring to construction,
the difficulty in dismantling buildings at
the end of their life cycle, the
separation of rubbish that currently
characterises the sector, and the
conditions in which polystyrene is
found after decades spent in buildings
suggest that it would be more
opportune to refer to disposal services
whose problems are already dealt with
by the community and will inevitably
burden future generations.
“It saves lives.” This statement is made
in clear reference to different objects
that employ expanded polystyrene,
where its lightness and capacity to
absorb impacts make it particularly
adapted to such uses, for example in
the production of life-saving buoys. The
promotion of a material may not
highlight some limits (those connected
to the production, transport, and
storage of styrene, its flammability,
effects connected to fires, danger for
workers, the risk of explosion, and the
possible release of toxic substances, for
example, in the case of polystyrene);
but it should also not overturn the
arguments by ignoring the health
effects of its production and use and by
only pointing out its use (the device
that saves lives and not the material,
which could also be another with the
same effectiveness).
“It is a thermal insulator with high
performance and low costs.” Expanded
polystyrene’s thermal insulation
capacity is effective in the stationary
regime and therefore mostly in the
winter; the effectiveness of polystyrene
drops when these conditions vary,
meaning that its function is exclusively
for insulation. The reference to low
costs can be associated only with the
economic costs affecting the buyer; its
production, distribution, and disposal
processes have very high environmental
costs that are hardly ever taken into
consideration, and which significantly
reduce the benefit of using the
material.
“It holds everything.” This reference is
made in particular to the characteristics
of expanded polystyrene that render it
a particularly suitable product for
packaging: impact-resistant, light, and
hygienic. But to reach such
characteristics, the manufacturing
processes for expanded polystyrene can
be considered neither light nor
hygienic. Therefore, if the final product
allows for less impact on transport due
to its lightness, this does not hold if the
environmental “weight” regarding
transportation of the cisterns of styrene
or the use of additives and catalysts is
considered.
“Can you ask for more?” The response
is that it would be desirable that
commercial communication, rather
than exalting, allows the technical and
application characteristics of the
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
material to be understood, highlighting
its capacities, but also its limits.
More Environmentally
Friendly Solutions Are
Available
In an environmentally friendly
approach, the production process of a
given material should be examined in a
global view that considers all the
variables and their interrelationships. In
fact, modifying one parameter that is
presumed to increase the effectiveness
of a given performance can give rise to
short- or long-term criticalities that
affect other variables. However, it is
necessary to define the environmental
impact of the building product as
evaluated within its entire life cycle.
The environmental impact of a product
is measured through an ecological
balance or LCA. An ecological balance
is the analysis of a product’s possible
impacts from “cradle-to-grave” and
the quantitative and qualitative
evaluation of the resultant effects on
humans and the environment.
The LCA method, in fact, studies
environmental aspects and potential
impacts throughout the life of a
product (from the retrieval of primary
materials to the production,
installation, operation, and
decommissioning or end of its useful
life; source: UNI EN ISO 14040, 1996).
The LCA method of evaluation requires
the limits of the system considered to
be defined along with a functional
unit. The system limits define the fluxes
(material, energy, emissions) that
should be considered, and the impacts
due to the infrastructure, assigned to
the system in a certain proportion.
The functional unit is the objective
performance of a product, and is used
as a unit of reference in a life cycle
assessment (ISO 14040, 1997).
Regarding thermal insulation products,
a thermal resistance, R, equal to 1
m2K/W is generally accepted as a
meaningful and operational functional
unit. It should refer to a precise useful-
life time interval; for thermal insulation
materials, a useful life of 50 years is
preferred (Busato F. et al., 2005).
31
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

Material λ ρ FU Corresponding thickness

[mW/(mK)] [kg/m3] [kg] [mm]

Mineral wool 37 32 1.184 37

Cellulose 40 32 1.28 40

Flax 42 30 1.26 42

Expanded polystyrene 29 20 0.58 29

Expanded polyurethane 26 80 2.08 26

Figure 46. Material characteristics (conductivity, λ, density, ρ) and functional unit (FU, in kg) necessary to provide a thermal resistance of 1 m2K/W for 50 years of
use.

Environmental Global warming Acidification Non-toxic waste Toxic waste Primary energy Feedstock energy
impact [g CO2eq] [g SO2eq] [g] [g] consumption [MJ] [MJ]

Mineral wool 144 12 53 0.50 20.60 3.36

Cellulose 819 5 30 2.00 26.20 14.42

Flax 2357 17 122 0.40 49.70 22.84

Expanded polystyrene 3468 16 26 7.00 54.00 25.64

Expanded polyurethane – – – – 76.50 45.00

Figure 47. Environmental impact per functional unit.

The table in Figure 46 reports some
examples related to the functional unit,
defined as the quantity of thermal
insulation necessary to produce a
certain thermal resistance (1 m2K/W)
throughout the useful life of the
insulation (Baldo G.L. et al., 2003;
EUMEPS, 2003; Schmidt A.C. et al.,
2004).
The table in Figure 47 instead shows
some representative indices for
environmental impact per functional
unit. As can be seen even in reference
to the function of insulating, the two
synthetic materials have a higher
environmental impact than other
insulating materials (Baldo G.L. et al.,
2003; EUMEPS, 2003; Schmidt A.C. et
al., 2004). In the last column, the
elevated feedstock energy value can be
seen, expressed in MJ, which
represents the energy that can
potentially be recovered from a
product, in whole or in part, via
combustion of the product. Using the
concept of economics, this is
analogous to the “residual energy” of
the material, usable at the end of the
product’s life.
This high value means that expanded
polystyrene is often sent to incinerators
at the end of its life in order to recover
energy. Regarding disposal, within the
product safety sheet, the indications
furnished are for recycling the material
if possible, or complete (100%)
disposal in a landfill or incinerator.
Since 1997, the Ronchi Decree, in
activating European directives in
matters of waste, indicated incineration
as a possible form of waste
management. The incineration of
waste is not, in and of itself, in contrast
or alternative to the practice of
kerbside recycling strategies adopted
by the European Union (supported in
Italy with the Environmental Code,
DLgs 152/06 and successive
modifications and integrations), which
tackle the question of waste,
delineating priority steps within a
framework of integrated problem
management. Therefore, if the first
level of attention is directed at the
need to prevent the formation of waste
and reduce its danger, the next step
deals with the need to reuse products
and, if their reuse and recycle is not
possible, it proposes incineration with
energy recovery instead of disposal in a
landfill.
Despite this, due to its high heat-
producing power, expanded
polystyrene is often incinerated, which
also causes emission problems, as
previously highlighted. In fact, due to
flame-retardant additives used in
synthetic building materials,
independent of the chemical formula
of the brominated flame retardant
used, incineration of waste containing
these compounds contributes to the
formation of brominated dioxins and
furans, which lead to levels of toxicity
similar to their chlorinated equivalents
(IPCS, 1998).
If a material is defined as
“environmentally friendly” or
“sustainable”, its entire life cycle—
from the extraction of the raw material
through to the disposal phase,
including the construction process in
which it is used—should reach the
highest level of environmental and
social quality, i.e., it should have a
minimal impact and not lead to any

32 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

type of problems with health or the Construction element Material Grey energy
environment. Given the climate change
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) 105 MJ/kg
conditions, an environmentally friendly
material should have a positive impact, Glass foam 59 MJ/kg
and therefore regenerate and conserve
Fibreglass 41 MJ/kg
ecological systems.
Insulating material Mineral wool 15.7 MJ/kg
One of the indicators used to assess
Wood wool 20 MJ/kg
the environmental “weight” of a
material quantifies the embodied Sheep wool 16.5 MJ/kg
energy, in which the consumption of Cork panels 12.7 MJ/kg
energy is estimated, whether directly,
indirectly, or stemming from the Cellulose fibre 3.6 MJ/kg
exploitation of raw material that the
production system of each building Figure 48. Energy consumption for the production of insulating materials.
material relies on.
Expanded polystyrene has a notably Material Limits Embodied energy Embodied carbon
high embodied energy. This is due, (MJ/kg) (kg CO2/kg)
firstly, to the fact that the extraction,
Cellulose Cradle-to-gate 0.94–3.3 –
transport, and processing of the raw
material is very energy hungry. Cork Cradle-to-gate 4 0.19
As can be seen in Figure 48, the
Fibreglass Cradle-to-site 28 1.35
production of EPS requires the most
energy consumption, in that the Flax Cradle-to-grave 39.5 1.7
starting materials (plastics) already
Wood fibre Cradle-to-site 16.6 1.2
exhibit a high grey energy content
(amount of energy used to produce, Mineral wool Cradle-to-grave 16.8 1.05
transport, and dispose of the product).
Paper wool Cradle-to-grave 20.2 0.63
The high content of embodied energy
not only differentiates expanded Expanded polystyrene (EPS) Cradle-to-gate 88.6 2.5
polystyrene from many natural or less- Polyurethane Cradle-to-gate 72.1 3
processed products, but also from
materials obtained by processing widely Wood wool (shredded) Cradle-to-gate 10.8 –
available local raw materials, with Wood wool (panel) Cradle-to-gate 20 0.98
reduced extraction or transportation
costs, low energy requirements per unit Recycled wool Cradle-to-gate 20.9 –
produced, and highly efficient
production plants. Comparing energy Figure 49. Embodied energy of some insulating materials (Hammond G., 2008).
costs, the overall environmental impact
is decidedly in favour of natural
products. local stone 0,79
concrete blocks 0,94
cement 1,30
In Figure 50, which compares the preformed cement 2,00
embodied energy of some building brick 2,50
products, it is seen that, apart from cellulose insulation 3,30
drywall 6,10
aluminium, polystyrene has the most
recycled aluminium 8,10
embodied energy: a good 35 times recycled steel 8,90
higher than cellulose insulation, 50 plywood 10,40
times higher compared to brick mineralised wood insulation 14,60
glass 15,90
products, and 90 times higher fibreglass insulation 30,30
compared to cement (adapted from steel 32,00
Lawson B., 1996). zinc 51,00
It is important to note, however, that PVC 70,00
copper 70,60
for a more rigorous comparison, real polystyrene insulation 117,00
usage conditions (a functional unit) aluminium 227,00
should be considered. It is interesting
to apply a life cycle assessment (LCA) Figure 50. Summary of embodied energy (MJ/kg) characteristic of some construction materials.

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

33
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

4.2 component is already at a disadvantage

4
3.8 from an environmental point of view
3.6
3.4 compared to a lighter component. This
3.2
3 is because one of the aspects evaluated
2.8
2.6 in the LCA is the consumption of raw
2.4
2.2 materials, so a high-density
pt

2
1.8 component, which is therefore heavy,
1.6 can lead to a greater use of resources
1.4
1.2 and greater production of waste over
1
0.8
0.6
its life, as well as more energy for
0.4
0.2
transportation, installation, and
0 disposal. At the same time, however,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
“heavy” components carry out more
Carcinogens Ozone layer Ecotoxicity Climate change tasks simultaneously (thermal, acoustic,
Radiation Minerals Combustible Acidification/
fossil fuels eutrophication load-bearing). It is therefore important
Land use Costs
Renewable Organic Inorganic Non-renewable energy to compare solutions characterised by
energy respiration respiration similar, if not identical, performance.
The advantage of lightness in
Legend of technological packages environmental assessments runs
counter to the advantage of greater
1) 1 m2 external wall 13) transport of insulation durability, which often characterises
2) 1 m2 compressed-wood panel 14) transport of wood heavier solutions.
3) 1 m2 galvanised steel for wood panel support 15) transport of internal plaster
4) 1 m2 plaster mesh 16) maintenance of 1 m2 surface plaster In other words, it would not make
5) 1 m2 cement, sand, and lime plaster 17) brick recycling with secondary production sense to compare the environmental
6) 1 m2 XPS insulation 18) wood recycling with secondary production impact due to a ton of polystyrene with
7) 1 m2 brick (30 cm x 25 cm x 21.9 cm) 19) steel recycling with secondary production the impact of a ton of concrete, while
8) 1 m2 lime and chalk interior plaster 20) non-reinforced concrete recycling with it does make sense to compare the
9) transport of steel support and screws secondary production impact due to the quantity of material
10) transport of external plaster 21) plastic recycling with secondary production necessary for a wall in brick or
11) transport of plaster mesh 22) insulation (plastic) recycling with secondary reinforced concrete to obtain a given
12) transport of bricks and mortar production performance.
Even if the building is a single product,
Figure 51. Single score assessment diagram according to Eco-Indicator 99 for the production of 1 m2 it is different from time to time since it
of external wall (Pavanello R., 2007). can be located in different contexts and
have specific characteristics. It is
therefore difficult to generalise because
to the various scales of the building fibreglass net, 30-cm-thick bricks, and a product suitable in one context may
sector with the aim of being able to finally external plaster, the framework not be suitable in another. The
estimate the environmental in galvanised steel is the most harmful, definition of the functional unit must
compatibility of construction products, followed by the extruded polystyrene therefore be made carefully, but
and the entire building in general. insulation (Fig. 51). For all materials, sometimes even this is not enough
Such methods indicate the best choice the consumption of fossil fuels since building components may
of technological packages related to necessary for their production is the perform multiple tasks simultaneously.
the building envelope. In fact, LCA is most significant component. For a functional unit of 1 m2 of
the only method that allows In addition to the environmental insulation, Figure 52 shows that
technological package to be chosen in “weight”, time is also determined with expanded polystyrene still yields
the design phase. Among those sustainability in mind: if the material embodied energy values that are higher
selected, the package indicated lasts a long time, environmental than other insulating materials (The
minimises environmental damage due consumption is diluted in the long run; New Zealand Ecolabelling Trust, 2010).
to the life cycle of the materials. For however, it is necessary to carefully Likewise, for an example of energy
example, if an LCA is used to analyse plan and select construction materials retrofitting that defines new vertical
an vertical external wall component and solutions that are characterised by packages among the operational
composed of wood panels, a steel a longevity comparable to the expected variables, one finds that the use of
frame to fix them to the wall, external duration of the project. expanded polystyrene as an insulating
plaster, 20 cm of polystyrene insulation, The environmental “weight” emerges material always has more impact than
double plaster with an interposed from the LCA approach, i.e., a heavier other solutions (e.g., mineral wool) for

34 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

Material Embodied energy per unit of insulation (MJ/m2)
the same energy performance (Neri,
2007), even if it reduces the
EPS/XPS 70 environmental impact with respect to a
Fibreglass 29 building without retrofitting (Figs. 53,
54, and 55). From the analysis, the
Stone wool 7 three insulation solutions proposed
Sheep wool (recycled) 20 (EPS, mineral wool, and fibreglass) are
all advantageous compared to the
Cellulose 19 current wall (indicated as “old wall”)
Polyester 59 thanks to the drastic decrease in winter
energy consumption. But if the three
insulators are compared across most
Figure 52. Comparison of embodied energy values of different insulators (study of embodied energy of damage categories, as estimated with
different buildings made by the University of Wellington, NZ). three main environmental impact
assessment methods (Eco-indicator 99
13
in Fig. 53, IMPACT 2000 in Fig. 54, and
12 EPS2000 in Fig. 55), EPS is penalised by
11 greater emissions of CO2, SOx, and
10
9 NOx associated with the production
8 process.
7
pt

6
5 This type of wall, chosen as an example
4 of the energy retrofitting that
3
2 characterises most of the Italian
1 building heritage, shows strong
0
performance deficits on the thermal
1m2 EPS- 1m2 stone wool- 1m2 fibreglass- 1m2 old wall
insulated wall insulated wall insulated wall level in almost all cases; in fact, it
consumes more energy than necessary
Carcinogens Ecotoxicity Inorganic respiration Function and contributes to altering air quality
Ozone layer Energy Land use Climate with this waste. Energy recovery of
Combustible Organic Acidification/ change
existing buildings constitutes a
fossil fuel respiration eutrophication
Radiation Minerals Costs challenge and a need to ensure that
the objectives imposed by the Kyoto
Figure 53. Eco-Indicator 99 single score assessment diagram comparing solutions, from left, with EPS, mineral Protocol and the European Union are
wool, fibreglass, current state. met. At the same time, priority should
be given to guaranteeing the lowest
environmental impact in recovery
46 actions. In such a sense, the LCA
44
42 method directs the study of a system’s
40
38
36
efficiency, towards both protecting the
34
32 environment and human health, and
30
28
26
conserving resources. It is therefore
24 necessary to choose materials carefully
22
mPt

20
18
16
when energy retrofitting buildings.
14 These affirmations can be reinforced by
12
10
8 referring to research carried out at the
6
4
2 University of Ferrara and the ENEA
0
research centre in Bologna. The
1m2 EPS- 1m2 stone wool- 1m2 fibreglass- 1m2 old wall
insulated wall insulated wall insulated wall researchers studied the use of
expanded polystyrene in energy
Carcinogens Non-carcinogens Inorganic respiration Organic restoration for a building that disperses
Aquatic Land ecotoxicity Land acidification respiration
enormous amounts of energy via
ecotoxicity Non-renewable
Mineral Thinning of Global warming energy transmission through the envelope.
extraction the ozone layer Compared with natural cork insulation
(Fig. 56), expanded polystyrene
Figure 54. IMPACT 2002 single score assessment diagram comparing solutions, from left, with EPS, mineral produces more environmental
wool, fibreglass, current state. damage—an estimated 98% more—

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

35
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

55 with renewable raw materials has

50 increased in recent years, and their
45 usage potential has grown, even if
40
market prices do not facilitate their use
35
30 in daily construction practice.
25 Comparing several types of insulating
pt

20 panels, it is interesting to observe data

15 related to the materials’ performance
10
5
and their impact on the environment
0 from the point of view of energy use
1m2 EPS- 1m2 stone wool- 1m2 fibreglass- 1m2 old wall (renewable or non-renewable) and
insulated wall insulated wall insulated wall their potential impact on the
greenhouse effect due to possible
Life expectancy Land acidification Serious disturbances Extinct
Meat and fish production Morbidity Consumption of species gases emitted in the production phase.
Severe morbidity Consumption of potable water Figure 57 (Vv. Aa., 2006, modified)
Tree growth capability non-potable water Disturbances compares data on the ecological
Internal costs Resource exhaustion balance of various insulators: an
expanded polystyrene panel (synthetic,
Figure 55. EPS 2000 single score assessment diagram comparing solutions, from left, with EPS, mineral wool, petroleum-derived insulation), a panel
fibreglass, current state. in boiled cork, and a panel in wood
fibre (natural insulation). Thermal
2.2 performance assessment is made using
the thermal conductivity, λ (W/mK),
i.e., the physical factor that represents
the thermal flux crossing a unit surface
area and unit thickness of a material
subject to a unit of temperature
0.173 change. Attention is first placed on the
size of the panel: the measurement
-0.0123
-0.216 unit, physical dimensions, and
Cork panel EPS panel performance must comparable. The
Life expectancy Morbidity Disturbance Costs three panels all have a thermal
Meat and fish Consumption of Resource exhaustion performance λ = 0.04 W/mK, since
production non-potable water they are composed of materials with a
Severe morbidity Serious disturbance Crop growth capability
low conductivity, making them good
Soil acidification Consumption of Tree crop capability
potable water insulators.
Another parameter is the density, ρ.
Figure 56. Ecological balance analysis for 1-m2 cork and EPS panels. The difference between EPS (25 kg/m3)
and wood fibre (160 kg/m2) or boiled
cork (250 kg/m3) is evident. Expanded
for equal transmittance and functional occurred so far. In fact, from the 1970s polystyrene is the lightest material, a
unit (1 m2; Di Croce D., 2007). In to today, the role of insulation has characteristic that is undeniably useful
addition to the entire life cycle, the changed profoundly, assuming an ever- from the transportation and installation
study carefully analysed the concise more significant environmental and points of view. On the other hand, in
parameters that characterise the performance weight. virtue of its attenuation and thermal
ecological balance, since the research Due to the growing need for insulating wave displacement properties, the
was directed principally at the materials and more requests for density responds to different insulation
environmental “weight” of the choice thermal insulation, the variety of needs in cold weather and warm
of one material with respect to insulating products available on the weather that render alternation
another. market has grown constantly, and the between the winter and summer
The ecological balance compared, for role conferred on such materials has necessary: a high density as well as
equal performance, the effects of the assumed marked complexity. Even appropriate thermal insulation ensures
different materials on various though products composed of mineral more effective behaviour, both with
environmental variables. It allows more fibre and rigid expanded foam respect to energy savings and living
ecologically aware choices to be represent more than 90% of the comfort, as well as responding to other
oriented at the beginning, in an prevailing market share (Vv. Aa., 2006), performance needs, such as sound
attempt to contrast with what has the use of insulating materials made insulation.

36 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

Insulator Primary energy Primary energy GWP ODP AP EP POCP
from non-renewable from renewable Greenhouse gas Ozone hole depletion Acidification Eutrophication Summer smog
sources [MJ] sources [MJ] [kg CO2eq] [kg R11 eq] [kg SO2eq] [kg PO4eq] [kg CH4eq]

Panels

Expanded polystyrene (EPS) 511 17 28 0 0.7 0.0062 0.0022

EPS panel, λ = 0.04 W/mK
ρ = 25 kg/m3
120 mm polyvinyl acetate glue (PVAC)

Boiled cork (BC) 15 0.24 1.1 0 0.006 0.00041 0.001

BC panel, λ = 0.04 W/mK
120 mm mortar for attachment

Wood fibre panel (WF) 436 79 19 0 0.13 0.0083 0.02

WF panel
λ = 0.04 W/mK
ρ = 160 kg/m3
120 mm mortar for attachment

Figure 57. Ecological balance comparison for some insulating products (Hegger M. et al., 2006).

Material Density Conductivity Specific heat Heat capacity Thermal effusivity

ρ (kg/m³) λ (W/mK) c (J/kgK) C = ρc (kJ/m³K) e = (ρ c λ)1/2 (J/√sm²K)

Air 1.29 0.024 1005 1.256 5.6

Polystyrene 15 0.04 1380 21 29

Fibreglass 120 0.04 828 99 63

Cork 215–220 0.04–0.05 1750 376–385 122–139

Wood 400–800 0.13–0.2 2400–2700 960–2160 353–657

Cellular concrete 400–800 0.14–0.23 1000 400–800 237–429

Fibre-based insulation 500 0.05 600 300 120

Light concrete 600–2000 0.22–102 1000–1100 600–2200 360–1600

Natural linoleum 700 0.081 1900 1330 330

Brick walls 700–2000 0.30–0.96 900 630–1800 480–1300

Laterite 1500 0.75 900 1350 1000

Stone (porous) 1600 0.55 700 1120 785

Concrete 2200–2400 1.6–2.1 1100 2400–2640 1960–2350

Aluminium 2700 200 900 2430 22000

Natural stone (non-porous) 2800–3100 3.5 900 2520–2790 2970–3120

Iron 7250 56 540 3915 14800

Steel 7800 60 500 3900 15300

Copper 9000 348 385 3465 34700

Water 1000 0.58 4200 4200 1560

Figure 58. Thermal properties of various construction materials (Kur F., 2000).

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

37
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

Insulating material Density Thermal Water vapour Fire class1 Regulation Product form
(kg/m³) conductivity diffusion resistance
(W/mK) coefficient µ (-)

Inorganic from synthetic raw materials

2
Calcium silicate 115–290 0.045–0.070 2/20 A1-A2/to A1 Panel

Fibreglass/Mineral wool 12–250 0.035–0.050 1/2 A1-B1/to A1 DIN EN 13162 Panel, film, mending wool

Cellular glass (CG) 100–150 0.040–0.060 practically watertight A1/A1 DIN EN 13167 Panel, filler

Inorganic from natural raw materials

Expanded perlite 60–300 0.050–0.065 2/5 A1-B2/to A1 DIN EN 13169 Panel, filler

Expanded clay 260–500 0.090–0.160 2 A1/A1 DIN EN 14163 Filler

2
Vermiculite (expanded mica) 60–180 0.065–0.070 2/3 A1/A1 Filler

Organic from synthetic raw materials

2
Polyester fibre 15–45 0.035–0.045 1 B1-2/to B Film

Rigid expanded polystyrene (EPS) 5–30 0.035–0.040 20/100 B1/to B DIN EN 13163 Panel

Rigid expanded polystyrene (XPS) 25–45 0.030–0.040 80/250 B1/to B DIN EN 13164 Panel

Rigid expanded polyurethane (PUR) ≥ 30 0.025–0.035 30/100 B1-2/to B DIN EN 13165 Panel, building foam

Organic from natural raw materials

2
Cotton 20–60 0.040–0.045 1/2 B1-B2/to B Mat, felt, mending wool,
puffed products
2
Flax 25 0.040–0.045 1/2 B1-B2/to B Panel, mat, felt,
mending wool
2
Cereal grains 105–115 0.050 unclassified B2/to D Puffed products, filler
2
Hemp fibre 20–70 0.040–0.045 1/2 B2/to D Panel

Insulating wood fibre panels (WF) 45–450 0.040–0.070 1/5 B2/to D DIN EN 13171 Panel

Insulating wood wool panels (WW) 360–570 0.065–0.090 2/5 B1/to B DIN EN 13168 Panel

Multi-layer wood wool panels (WW-C) depends strongly on the structure of the layers B1-B2/to B DIN EN 13168 Panel

Coconut fibre 50–140 0.045–0.050 1/2 B1-B2/to B DIN 18165-1/-2 Mat, felt, mending wool

Expanded cork (BC) 80–500 0.040–0.055 5/10 B1-B2/to B DIN EN 13170 Filler, panel
2
Sheep wool 20–80 0.035–0.040 1/2 B1-B2/to B Mat, felt, mending wool
2
Cellulose fibre 30–100 0.035–0.040 1/2 B1-B2/to B Puffed products, panels

“Innovative” (organic/inorganic) insulating materials

EPS modified with IR absorber 15–30 0.032 20/100 B1/to B DIN EN 13163 Panel
4
Transparent thermal insulation 0.02–0.13 practically watertight 4 2
Panels

Vacuum panels 150–300 0.004–0.008 practically watertight B2/to D Panels

Figure 59. Comparison of different insulators used in construction (Hegger M. et al., 2006). 1Fire classes indicated represent suggestive values. They
should be compared with data for the actual product. 2Insulation permitted by building authorities. 3Insulating material exploits solar heating and the
static insulation effect; values indicated include solar heating measured in a warm period in Germany. Significant differences can be registered according
to the climate and orientation of insulation. 4Transparent thermal insulation substances are assigned to classes from A1 to B3 according to the material.

38 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

ENVIRONMENTAL PROFILE (Ecological Balance)
T he knowledge of data and information related to materials and pro-
ducts is fundamental when aiming for sustainability in construction.
There are many ways to verify the environmental “weight” of a material;
among these is the ecological balance, which also takes embodied energy
into account. Embodied energy is the amount of non-renewable energy
spent to produce a unit of material, component, or system, and may be
expressed in MJ/kg or MJ/m2.
It is assessed for the following phases in the building process:
• material extraction;
• transportation of materials to the manufacturing plant;
• processing and manufacture;
• transportation to building site and installation.
Embodied energy is therefore a global indicator that describes the energy
consumed, from the acquisition of raw materials to the installation of
each component, i.e., the sum of all the energy entering the production
system required by the different phases in the production cycle; it helps
to define the environmental “weight” of the material, object, or process
the method is applied to. This indicator provides information on important
parts of the life cycle, even if it includes neither the end-of-life phase nor
material fluxes, and it also allows for the comparison between energy
used to construct the building and energy consumed during use. The eco-
logical balance is an instrument for evaluating the ecological performance
of a material or product. With respect to other instruments that evaluate
a material’s effectiveness and also consider the mechanical, physical, te-
chnical, or technological performance, the ecological balance identifies
and analyses “quantifiable” ecological parameters to determine the en-
vironmental “weight” of a certain design choice.
The ecological balance refers to the entire life of a building element. The
phases of obtaining the raw materials, production, manufacturing and
transport, use, reuse, and disposal are considered. The parameters in an
ecological balance (Vv. Aa., 2006) are:
Potential effect indicators (PEI, MJ) describe the necessary expense
in terms of energy (resources) for the production and use of the material.
A distinction is made between renewable and non-renewable primary
energy. Equivalence: 100 MJ = 2.8 L of combustible oil.
Global warming potential (GWP, kg CO2eq) measures the potential
of a gas to generate the greenhouse effect. It represents the contribution
of a substance to the greenhouse effect and is reported as an equivalent
quantity of carbon dioxide. Such a potential is calculated for 20, 100, and
500 years and is the most often used predictor. Equivalence: 10 kg CO2
emitted = 3 L of combustible oil.
Ozone depletion potential (ODP, kg CCl3Feq) indicates the destruc-
tive effect on the ozone by different gases. Reference: CFC-11 (trichloro-
fluromethane).
Acidification potential (AP, kg SO2eq) is linked to emissions of par-
ticular acidifying substances, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur
oxides (SOx). The reference substance is the H+ ion.
Eutrophication potential (EP, kg PO34eq) assesses the eutrophication
effect, that is, the increase in concentration of nutritive substances in
aquatic environments. Contributing substances are compounds based on
phosphorous and nitrogen. The reference substance is phosphate.
Photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP, kg C2H4eq) de-
scribes all volatile organic substances that lead to the photochemical for-
mation of tropospheric ozone; they are grouped under the name
“photochemical smog”. The reference substance is ethylene C2H4.
Duration (a) describes the potential period in which a material can
remain functional. A higher value means an improvement in the design.
Heat potential (MJ) describes the energy released during combustion of
the material. Equivalence: 1 m3 of wood = 8000–13000 MJ = 225–365
L of combustible oil.
Recycling potential represents the amount of environmental pollution
that can be avoided compared to new production of the material. It starts
at 95% (Vv. Aa., 2006). The parameters refer to what is indicated by the
producer per m3 and kg of the material in question. In this way, products
can be presented from the environmental, and not just technical, point
of view. It is also true, however, that direct knowledge of phenomena af-
fecting the environmental impact of the product is indispensable.
Depletion of non-renewable resources represents the decrease in
availability of natural reserves. This index focuses attention on the depletion
of different resources rather than on environmental impacts caused by
their extraction (for example, methane emissions in coal mining). The po-
tential (expressed in years) represents the number of years the current
mineral or fossil reserves of a certain substance can last, taking into ac-
count the current level of its production (extraction).
The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
39
 Expanded polystyrene is not an environmentally friendly material

30

20

10

Multi-layer wood-wool
Insulating WF panel

thermal insulation
Wood wool panel
Expanded perlite

with IR absorber
Rigid expanded

Rigid expanded
Expanded rigid

Vacuum panels
Expanded cork
Expanded clay

Polyester fibre

Cellulose fibre

EPS modified
Coconut fibre
Brick, thermal

Wood, spruce
Mineral wool

Cellular glass

Cereal grains

Transparent
panel WW-C

Sheep wool
Vermiculite

Hemp fibre
insulating

Silicates

PU PUR

Cotton
PS XPS
PS EPS

Flax

Figure 60. Thicknesses for different materials necessary to reach a thermal transmittance value of 0.3 W/m2K (Hegger M. et al., 2006).

The table in Figure 58 lists the • greenhouse gases. The emission of materials. In particular, parameters
properties of some materials and allows carbon dioxide is widely documented related to density and thermal
for quick comparison. From the for products deriving from conductivity are highlighted. Figure 60,
ecological balance point of view, i.e., petroleum, which are the ones that on the other hand, shows the
the impact the material has on the tend to release the most CO2. EPS dimensional range of some insulating
environment throughout its entire life, panels can be counted among these materials necessary to reach a
the data considered in the example are: products. Greenhouse gas emissions transmittance of 0.3 W/m2K. Synthetic
• primary energy from renewable and for wood products are calculated in materials such as EPS and XPS allow for
non-renewable sources. As shown in relation to the decrease in living a lower thickness to be used.
Figure 57, installation techniques are trees, which, through photosynthesis, However, as pointed out in preceding
also associated with each product: contribute to the transformation of sections, the performance
synthetic glue for EPS, mortar for carbon dioxide in oxygen. characteristics of a building material
others. For this parameter, the should not be considered
“environmental distance” is clear. From this, it is easy to understand the unambiguously, since even if they
Boiled cork has the least impact, environmental weight of wood constitute a necessary requirement,
both for the product itself and for its products (such problems, however, are they may not be sufficient to guarantee
installation. On the contrary, cork is resolved with forest management in health and environmental comfort. In
the most expensive insulator planning cycles). It should be noted addition, other construction
considered. The multi-layer wood- that contributions to the greenhouse “solutions”, which at first glance my
fibre panel also uses a lot of effect tend to zero with cork, which seem advantageous from the
non-renewable primary energy, since derives from peeling off the bark and installation or performance points of
the production processes, bonds the not cutting down the resource. view, may actually be unsuitable to
fibres and enhances determined The table in Figure 59 compares several projects when the overall
characteristics, use different products organic and inorganic materials environmental comfort of the result is
that affect the balance; deriving from natural and synthetic raw considered.

40 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

 Environmental profile
of expanded polystyrene (EPS) in construction

Thermal insulation Low thermal conductivity, good thermal insulation

Water repellence and vapour permeability High capacity for vapour permeability and water-repellent

Inertial capacity, Thermal accumulation Low thermal heat capacity

Grey energy High grey energy content

Production of polluting emissions (air, water, land) CO2 emissions during production and diffuse emissions(styrene,
additives, and catalysts) during use and disposal

Life cycle analysis (LCA) High environmental impact

Compressibility Incompressible during transportation

Health Contains components that can damage health

Fire reaction Uses dangerous anti-flammable additives; produces toxic emissions

and dense smoke in case of fire

Recyclability and reusability Limited recyclability and reusability

Percentage of recycled content Limited use of “secondary” raw materials

Availability of raw materials (renewable/abundant) It is derived from petroleum

Cyclicity (ease of recycling the product) Low cyclicity of the product because it is impure (additives)

Production of waste and production waste High biopersistence in the environment

Sustainability of the material Material not environmentally sustainable

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

41
 E
nvironmentally friendly
Conclusions construction has grown out of a
reaction to the serious
environmental crisis, which
demands great responsibility from
construction due to the contribution it
makes to the worldwide consumption
of energy. CO2 emissions and waste
production in the construction and
daily functioning of buildings are
enormous.
Considering international goals to
protect the climate and conserve
resources, careful regulation of the
building sector is inevitable. Ecological
construction tries to identify designs
capable of limiting technological
choices that could potentially impact
the environment, and to favour the
recovery of existing materials for new
buildings, using non-toxic and
recyclable materials capable of curbing
energy consumption and waste. Today,
preoccupation in the construction
sector is primarily concentrated on the
use of energy resources, which
represent only one of two factors in
environmentally friendly building; the
other, material use, is understood. But
in constructing architecture and places,
next to and along with an “ecology of
techniques”, an “ecology of materials”
is necessary. The choice of insulating
materials, as well construction
materials, is of fundamental
importance, in that it influences the
environment and inhabitants’ health.
A society like the current one, in which
economic progress (and well-being) is
measured in terms of material growth,
is characterised by an attitude that is
intrinsically unsustainable. The
transition towards sustainability should
be a process of investigation and
knowledge that, by virtue of its nature
and the size of the change, is
necessarily vast and articulated. It
should start from information
regarding technologies and materials
used in the complete, detailed,
transparent architectural project. The
main theatre of this transition towards
environmentally friendly building is, in
fact, workers’ awareness, developed
thanks to careful analysis of the
42 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction
environmental, contextual, and
energetic efficiency conditions.
It is necessary to have an integrated
systemic approach that highlights how
the design of a given building
represents something more than the
design of a single component part. It is
in this global view that the
characteristics of a material are reread.
It is a material with very efficient
insulating properties, but its use within
an organic design process cannot be
made solely because it is characterised
by a low value of thermal conductivity,
easy, rapid installation and, finally, a
very competitive cost. While the
energetic performance of an insulator
is fundamental in its primary task of
containing energy and reducing the
emissions of CO2, it is necessary at the
same time to consider and evaluate its
environmental performance and
ecological weight.
In recent years, there has been a
growth in regulations, laws, and
standards that impose greater respect
for the environment and a greater
sensitivity on behalf of actors to
improve the energetic efficiency of
those complex machines known as
buildings. In light of their skills, the
protagonists in this process are
undoubtedly the designers, technicians,
professionals, and, obviously, the
materials (and producers); they must
work with respect for the final user and
the environment, and guarantee that
the components used will perform well
in the long run.
The study of sintered expanded
polystyrene (EPS) begins with its
origins, which are found in styrene, a
monomer derived from petroleum.
Styrene is characterised by its danger
for human health: it is the source of
different respiratory illnesses as well as
being a probable carcinogen according
to its IARC (International Agency for
Research on Cancer) classification. As a
consequence, the raw material is
difficult to store and transport. In
addition, the production of expanded
polystyrene makes use of energy-
hungry processes that are polluting and
produce greenhouse gases. Regarding
aspects linked to health, it is a material
that uses dangerous catalysts and
additives (in particular brominated
flame retardants, HBCD) to reach a
desired performance. Also because of
this, it is a material that is difficult to
dispose of or recycle, and it can
therefore not be considered an
environmentally sustainable material.
Pursuing sustainability objectives in the
building sector means completely
rethinking and renewing the current
steps that lead to the construction of a
building, recognising that the choices
made affect the entire span of the
construction process, from the
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46 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

Useful Websites www.amiplastics.com

www.architetturaesostenibilità.it

www.corepla.it

www.ecoage.it/buco-ozono.htm

www.epsass.it

www.eurobrick.com

www.grn.com

www.indoor.apat.gov.it/

www.ipcc.ch

www.isolstyle.com/polistirene_estruso.html

www.mybestlife.com

www.naturalia-bau.it/i

www.nonsoloaria.com/buoz.htm

www.recycle.net

www.pentasrl.net/docs/File/utilities/caratteristiche-tabella.jpg

www.plastica.it

www.plastbau.it

www.plasticaitalia.com

www.plasticsnews.com

www.polimerica.it

www.polistirene.it

www.unionplast.org

www.epsfiretruth.blogspot.com www.regione.lazio.it/web2/contents/infrastruttu-
re/argomento.php?vms=1

www.ec.gc.ca/lcpe-cepa/default.asp?lang=En&n=A27E7A601&offset=6&toc=sho-
wecb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/esis

The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction

47
 This publication grows out of documented research on the use of expanded
polystyrene in construction. This technical/popular text analyses the environmental
suitability of the use of polystyrene in building and the possible environmental,
political, and social effects, both small- and large-scale, of the widespread use of
this material, whose use in construction is often (erroneously) associated with an
“environmentally friendly” practice by virtue of its performance characteristics.
Aspects are dealt with in the text such as the use of expanded polystyrene in
construction, the nature of the material (production, market, etc.), direct and
indirect effects of the life cycle (LCA), installation conditions, standard indoor
pollution and pollution due to fire, etc. All of these topics have been dealt with in
a documented, referenced manner.

WWF Ricerche e Progetti is beneficially owned by Fondazione WWF Italia,

established in 2004 as a body specifically dedicated to the promotion and
management of projects. It is an instrument for the creation, design, and
activation of activities aimed at concretely defining measures, steps, and
illustrative realisation aimed at improving environmental conditions. With this aim,
it supports the conservation of the biological diversity of species and ecosystems,
while promoting the sustainable use of natural resources. It is with this logic and
starting from this clear cultural organisation that WWF Ricerche e Progetti Srl is
proposed as technical support for public administrations, companies, and private
individuals in the course of reducing the environmental “weight” of
transformations and identifying solutions and behaviours capable of improving
the environmental effectiveness of human activities.

Adriano Paolella is an architect, expert in environmental planning and design,

Director General of WWF Italia, and a technology instructor in the Architecture
Department in Reggio Calabria. Since 1979 he has coordinated and directed
plans, studies, applied experiments, research, and environmental projects. He is an
active writer. Recent publications: Abitare i luoghi (2004), Progettare per abitare
(2004), Identificazione e cambiamenti nel paesaggio contemporaneo (2005),
L’ombra dei grattacieli (2006), Attraverso la tecnica (2008), Architettura
sostenibile e laterizio (2009).

Roberta Cocci Grifoni is a physicist and instructor of environmental physics in

the School of Architecture and Design “E. Vittoria” at the University of Camerino.
In recent years, she has dealt with the relationship between architecture and
climate, which is aimed at reaching environmental comfort while minimising
energy consumption necessary for winter heating and summer cooling, and
consequently limiting the emissions of climate-changing gases. She is a Fellow
Member of Wessex Institute of Great Britain. Since 2008 she has served as a
consultant with WWF Ricerche e Progetti for the study and analysis of eco-
compatible construction materials. She is a reviewer for various international
journals in the field and the author of more than 40 works in books or
international journals.

48 The Use of Expanded Polystyrene in Construction