Carbohydrates (Sugar) polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone
Hydrates de carbone name by french scientist (CnH2On) not all contain like rhamnose &
dexyribose
Importance and Function
1. They are very effective energy yielding nutrients (primarybasic fuel)
2. They serve as effective building materials (cellulose polymer)
3. They are important water soluble materials (pass one molecules to another)
4. They are important structural components of the living cell.
5. They serve as backbone or precursors substances
General Classifiaction
Monosaccharide (simple sugars) one sugar and cannot be hydrolyzed
Dissaccharide (Double Sugar) two monosaccaharide unit
Oligosaccharide (few or small) two to six monosaccharides
Polysaccharide hydrolyzed and most complex monosaccharides
Aldose (polyhydroxy adldehyde in terminal side of hydrocarbon)
Ketose (polyhydroxy ketones carbony is in between hydrocarbon)
Diose (2 carbon atoms)
Triose (3 carbon atoms)
Tetrose (4 carbon atoms)
Pentose (5 carbon atoms)
Hexose (6 carbon atoms)
Heptose (7 carbon atoms)
EPIMERS ( two sugars differ in configuration )
Assymetric Carbon – C structure with 4 radicals & gives ff. properties
Optical Activity or Mutarotation (bend or deflect polarized light)
d or (+) isomers rotates clockwise or right (dextrorotatory)
l or (+) isomers rotates counterclockwise or left (levorotatory)
Stereoisomerism/Enatiomerism (mirror images)
D-ISOMERS OH written in right
L-ISOMER OH is written in left
MOSACCHARIDES
SOME IMPORTANT MOSACCHARIDES
Glucose (dextrose, blood sugar, grape sugar)
- Aldohexose found in free state of plant & animal tissue (key sugar for metabolic fuel)
Galactose (pectin, gums, mucilages)
- Aldohexose combine with glucose in maltose & found in mammary gland
Fructose (fruit sugar)
- Ketohexose found in fruits
Ribose
- Nucleic acid RNA
Deoxyribose
- Nucleic Acid DNA
DISACCHARIDES
SOME IMPORTANT DISACCHARIDES
Maltose (malt sugar) – reducing saccharide found in starch and glycogen
Lactose (milk sugar) – one glucose and galactose {least sweetest and not ferment}
Sucrose (table sugar, beet sugar,cane sugar, saccharose) – glucose & fructose
POLYSACCHARIDES
(TYPES OF POLYSACCHARIDES)
1. Homopolysaccharide - polysaccharide w/ similar and repeating units
Glucosans (only glucose units like starch and glycogen)
Fructosans (fructose like Inulin)
2. Heteropolysaccharides- polysaccharide that yields sugar and their derivatives
SOME IMPORTANT POLYSACCHARIDES
Starch – (amylum) reserved food or storage of carbs for plants {diastase}
Glycogen – (animal starch) storage of carbs for animals; stored in liver and broken down in
glucose process called Glycogenolysis.
Cellulose – abundant organic substance & insoluble carbs (plants and woods)
Chitin- outer covering of insects, crustaceans, fungi, and brain
PHYSICAL Property
Monosaccharides Starch Cellulose
& Disaccharides
APPEARANCE White crystalline Amorphous Fibrous
solids
SOLUBILITY IN WATER Readily soluble in Slightly soluble in Insoluble in Water
(Inversely proportional water water
to the complexity)
TASTE Sweet Tasteless Tasteless
Chemical Property
A. Hydrolysis
-Upon addition of water, disaccharide and polysaccharides are broken into monosaccharides with help
of enzymes (catalyst; stimulate reaction not affects substrate)
B. Dehydration
-Acid of higher concentration act on monosaccharide forming furfural derivatives
1. MOLISCH’S TEST
Alpha- naphthol and sulfuric acid yields a VIOLET ring
2. SELIWANOFF’S TEST
Resorcinol and HCL yields a RED ring
C. Reducing Property
-Sugar contain aldehyde reduce metallic ions
1. FEHLING’S TEST
Copper (II) Sulfate, Sodium Hydroxide , and Rochelle Salt causes brick-red precipitate
2. BENEDICT’S TEST
Copper (II) Sulfate, Sodium Citrate, and Sodium carbonate causes brick-red precipitate
D. Oxidation
-Terminal functional group (carbonyl and primary alcohol) aldoses can turn to carboxyl.
1. Aldonic Acid – Aldheyde had been oxidized.
2. Uronic Acid – Alcohol group had been oxidized
3. Saccharic – Both Aldehyde and alcohol had been oxidized
E. Lobry de Bruyn Transformation
-weak alkali takes place one sugar to another & product is ENOL
F. Osazone Transformation
-heated with phenylhydrazine a yellow precipitates obtained called osazone crystal (use to identify
sugars)
G. Ester formation
-they can either to form esters with acids
H. Fermentation
-Conversion of carbohydrate to alcohol
-Yields the enzyme zymase to ferment glucose, mannose & frustose producing alcohol
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
-Primary energy fuel (GLUCOSE) leads to Metabolic process which is highly integrated, purposeful
activity of MULTI-ENZYME
PROCESS INVOLVED
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the process of breaking down a glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules, while storing
energy released during this process as ATP and NADH.
- Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway.
Glucogenesis
Conversion of non-glucose hexoses like mannose, fructose, and galactose to substrate found in glycolytic
pathway.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the reverse process of glycolysis.[6] It involves the conversion of non-carbohydrate
molecules into glucose.[6] The non-carbohydrate molecules that are converted in this pathway include amino
acid, lactate, glycerol, alanine, and glutamine
Glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis refers to the breakdown of glycogen.[6] In the liver, muscles, and the kidney, this process occurs to provide
glucose when necessary. Process regulated by hormone Glucagon.
Glycogenesis
Glycogenesis refers to the process of synthesizing of excess molecule called glycogen.[6] In humans, excess glucose is
converted to glycogen via this process. Eventually stored in river and regulated by the hormone Insulin.
Pentose phosphate pathway
- Also known as phosphogluconate oxidative or Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
- Is an alternative pathway/method of oxidizing glucose
Kreb’s cycle
- Also known as Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
- final common pathway for breakdown of foodstuffs where acetyl coenzymes(helper of enzyme) utilized ATP
