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Classification.
Sources.
1. Carbohydrates are the main sources of energy in the body. Brain cells and
RBCs are almost wholly dependent on carbohydrates as the energy source.
Energy production from carbohydrates will be 4 kcal/g.
• Trisaccharide: Raffinose
Fructose + Galactose + Glucose
• Tetrasaccharide: Stachyose
2 moles of Galactose + Glucose + Fructose
• Pentasaccharide: Verbascose
3 moles of Galactose + Glucose + Fructose
Polysaccharides / Glycans/ complex carbohydrates
Polysaccharides are polymers consisting of hundreds or thousands of
monosaccharide units.
They have high molecular weight and are only sparingly soluble in
water.
They are not sweetish and do not exhibit any of the properties of
aldehyde or ketone group.
Polysaccharides/Glycans are of two types.
i. Homopolysaccharides (homoglycans)
principle - Adsorption/Adhesion.
Principle - Dehydration.
Triose
Pentose
Tetrose
Hexose
Chiral carbon : The carbon that is attached to four different atoms or
groups.
1. Ketose-aldose isomerism.
2. D and L isomerism
3. Optical isomerism
4. Epimerism
5. Anomerism.
Ketose-aldose isomerism
Glucose and fructose are isomers of each other having the same molecular
formula C6H12O6, but they differ in structural formula with respect to their
functional groups.
Racemic mixture does not exhibit any optical activity, since the dextro-
and levorotatory activities cancel each other.
Epimers: Two monosaccharides differing in the configuration around only
one specific Carbon atom (except the carbonyl carbon)
For example: Glucose and galactose are C4 epimers, Glucose and mannose
are C2 epimers, Mannose and galactose are not epimers (differ in
configuration around two carbons C2, C4).
Anomerism
There are many cyclic forms of sugars e.g. Fischer projection (straight
chain) & Haworth projection (simple ring)
Mutarotation
Freshly prepared solution of a -glucose has a specific rotation +112o.
When this solution is allowed to stand the rotation falls till reach +52.7o
At equilibrium : 36% are a –D- glucose & 64% are b –D- glucose
CH O CHOH CH O
H OH C OH HO H
HO H HO H HO H
H OH H OH H OH
H OH H OH H OH
44
Benedicts reagent:
CHO CHO
H OH O
H OH
enzyme OH
HO H HO H O
H OH H OH HO
HO OH
H OH H OH OH
CH2OH COOH
Ribose Ribitol
Galactose Dulcitol (cataract in
galactosemia)
Xylose Xylitol
7. Glycosides
1. When a monosaccharide reacts with an alcohol: A glycoside is
produced
2. Glycosides do not reduce benedicts reagent
3. Acid hydrolysis bring back the free aldo group
4. Examples
Ouabain – Na-K ATPase inhibitor
Streptomycin – antibiotic
Phlorizin - to cause renal damage in experimental animals
Digitonin - Cardiac stimulant
8. Formation of esters
Examples:
OH OH OH O OH
H NH 2 H N C CH 3
H
-D-glucosamine -D-N-acetylglucosamine
10. Deoxysugars
Oxygen of hydroxy group is removed to form deoxy sugar.
It is required for nucleic acid synthesis.
Disaccharides : Maltose
Maltose is named after malt, the juice from sprouted barley and other
cereal grains.
Invert sugar
Also called Invert sugar – inversion of direction of rotation by the sucrose
on hydrolysis. The products will change from dextro to levo rotation.
Starch
Present in plants, not found in animals.
main carbohydrate in food.
Sources: cereals, roots, tubers, vegetables
Starch hydrolysis
Starch (amylose)
Amylopectin
Polymer of fructose.