ACID BASE BALANCE

Acid- Donate protons. ex- HCl H+ + Cl –

Base- Accept protons ex- NH3 + H+ NH4

Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)-

• The acidic or basic nature of a solution is measured by H+ ion

concentration.

• pH is defined as the negative logarithm of H+ ion concentration

• pH of the blood ranges from 7.35 to 7.45.

• Volatile acids - carbonic acid (about 20,000 mEq/day) - from the metabolic
product CO2.

• Nonvolatile acids - lactic acid (anaerobic metabolism), sulfuric acid (sulfur

containing amino acids), phosphoric acid (organic phosphate - lipids) (about
80 mEq/day).

• A diet rich in animal proteins results in more acid production by the body that
ultimately leads to the excretion of urine which is profoundly acidic.

• vegetarian diet has an alkalizing effect on the body.

MAINTENANCE OF BLOOD pH

By three mechanism

1. Blood buffers Iry defence.

2. Respiratory mechanism - IIry defence mechanism & rapid.

3. Renal mechanism - IIIry defence mechanism.

Buffers- Buffers are defined as the solutions which resist change in pH by the
addition of small amounts of acids (H+ ) or bases (OH- )
1. Blood buffers

(i) Bicarbonate buffer

(ii) phosphate buffer

(iii) protein buffer

(i) Bicarbonate buffer

• It accounts for 65% of buffering capacity in plasma and 40% of buffering

action in the whole body

• When acid is added to the buffer, the base of the buffer (HCO3-) is used to form
weak acid and the concentration of the base falls.

HCO3 + H+ H2CO3
• When the strong base is added to the buffer, the weak acid of the base is
used up to form conjugate base and water, the concentration of the acid
falls

H2CO3 + OH- HCO3- + H2O

Blood pH and the ratio of HCO-3 to H2CO3 :

The plasma bicarbonate (HCO3–)concentration is around 24 mmol/l (range 22-26

mmol/l).

Carbonic acid = CO2 + H2O. Its concentration is given by the product of pCO2
(arterial partial pressure of CO2 = 40 mm Hg) and the solubility constant of CO2
(0.03).

Thus H2CO3 = 40 * 0.03 = 1.2 mmol/l.

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation for bicarbonate buffer
is
• At a blood pH 7.4 ratio of bicarbonate to carbonic acid is 20 : 1.
• This is referred to as alkali reserve and is responsible for the effective
buffering of H+ ions, generated in the body.
(ii) Phosphate buffer

• Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4)and disodium hydrogen phosphate

(Na2HPO4) constitute the phosphate buffer.

• It is mostly an intracellular buffer and is of less importance in plasma due to its

low concentration.
(iii) Protein buffer

• The plasma proteins and hemoglobin together constitute the protein

buffer system of the blood, histidine is the most effective contributor of
protein buffer

• Hemoglobin of RBC is also an important buffer which is involved in

transport of gases like O2 and CO2.
 2. Regulation of pH by Respiratory mechanism

• Respiratory system provides a rapid mechanism for the maintenance of acid-base

balance.
• Which is achieved by regulating the concentration of carbonic acid (H 2CO3) in the
blood.

• Any decrease in blood pH causes hyperventilation to blow off CO2 , thereby

reducing the H2CO3 concentration.

Generation of Bicarbonate by RBC (CA) & Chloride shift

• Due to lack of aerobic metabolic pathways, RBC produce very little CO 2.

The plasma CO2 diffuses into the RBC along the concentration gradient

where it combines with water to form H2CO3. This reaction is catalysed

by carbonic anhydrase.

• H2CO3 Carbonic anhydraseCO2 + H2O.

• In the RBC, H2CO3 dissociates to produce H+ and HCO3–.

• The H+ ions are trapped and buffered by hemoglobin. As the concentration of
HCO3– increases in the RBC, it diffuses into plasma along with the
concentration gradient, in exchange for Cl– ions, to maintain electrical
neutrality. Which is known as Cl shift.
 Hemoglobin as a buffer

• Isohydric transport : At the tissue level, Hb binds to H+ ions and helps to transport
CO2 as HCO3– with a minimum change in pH.

• In the lungs, as hemoglobin combines with O2, H+ ions are removed which combine

with HCO3– to form H2CO3. The latter dissociates to release CO2 to be exhaled.
3. Regulation of pH by renal mechanism

The renal mechanism tries to provide a permanent solution to the acid-base

disturbances

Renal regulation of pH carried out by 4 process

(i) Excretion of H+ ions

(ii) Reabsorption of bicarbonate

(iii) Excretion of titratable acid

(iv) Excretion of ammonium ions

(i) Excretion of H+ ions
(ii)Reabsorption of bicarbonate
(iii) Excretion of titratable acid
(iv) Excretion of ammonium ions
 Acid base disorders

Normal pH range – (7.35 – 7.45)

1. Acidosis- a decline in blood pH (<7.35 pH)

a. Metabolic acidosis—due to a decrease in bicarbonate

b. Respiratory acidosis—due to an increase in carbonic acid

2. Alkalosis- a rise in blood pH (>7.45 pH)

a. Metabolic alkalosis—due to an increase in bicarbonate.

b. Respiratory alkalosis—due to a decrease in carbonic acid

1. a. Metabolic acidosis

• Defect- primary defect is reduction in bicarbonate

• Clinical features- pH, bicarbonate,

• Causes – Renal failure, Diabetic keto-acidosis

• Treatment – bicarbonate infusion and treat underlying causes

• 1. b Respiratory acidosis

• Defect- retention of CO2 (H2CO3 )

• Clinical features- pH, H2CO3

• Causes- depression of the respiratory center (overdose of drugs), asthma,

pneumonia

• Treatment- bronchodilators medications

2. a Metabolic alkalosis

• Defect- The primary abnormality in metabolic alkalosis is an increase in

HCO3 – concentration

• Clinical features- pH, bicarbonate.

• Causes- Due to excessive vomiting (resulting in loss of H+) or an

excessive intake of sodium bicarbonate, In severe K+ deficiency, H+ ions
are retained inside the cells to replace missing K+ ions.

• Treatment – infusion of sodium chloride, potassium.

2. b Respiratory alkalosis

• Defect - The primary abnormality in respiratory alkalosis is a decrease in

H2CO3(carbonic acid)

• Clinical features- pH- carbonic acid-

• Causes- It is observed in conditions like excessive artificial ventilation,

drugs like aspirin, conditions like liver disease

• Treatment – treat underlying causes

 Acid base disorders

• The blood pH compatible to life is 6.8-7.8, beyond which life cannot exist.

• Henderson-Hasselbalch equation knowledge is required to understand the acid-base

balance.
• The plasma bicarbonate (HCO3– ) concentration is around 24 mmol/l
(range 22-26 mmol/l).

• Carbonic acid is a solution of CO2 in water. Its concentration is given by

the product of pCO2 (arterial partial pressure of CO2 = 40 mm Hg) and the

solubility constant of CO2 (0.03).

Clinical causes of acid-base disorders
 Compensation of acid-base disorders

• To counter the acid-base disturbances, the body gears up its homeostatic mechanism
and makes every attempt to restore the pH to normal level (7.4) & referred to as
compensation.
 Anion gap

• difference between the total concentration of measured cations (Na + and K+) and that
of measured anion (Cl– and HCO3 – ).

• The anion gap (A–) in fact represents the unmeasured anions in the plasma which
may be calculated as follows, by substituting the normal concentration of electrolytes
(mEq/l).

• Na+ + K+ = Cl – + HCO3 – + A–

• 136 + 4 = 100 + 25 + A–

• A– = 15 mEq/l. (Range is 8-18mEq/l)

 Metabolic acidosis

• Cause is reduction in bicarbonate concentration leads to a fall in blood pH.

• NaHCO3– + Organic acids----- Na salts of organic acids + CO2

• Commonly seen in severe uncontrolled diabetes mellitus which is

associated with excessive production of acetoacetic acid and beta
hydroxybutyric acid (both are organic acids).
 Anion gap and metabolic acidosis

• Increased production and accumulation of organic acids causes an elevation in the

anion gap. Which is seen in metabolic acidosis associated with diabetes
(ketoacidosis).
 Compensation of metabolic acidosis

• The acute metabolic acidosis is usually compensated by hyperventilation of lungs.

This leads to an increased elimination of CO2 from the body (hence H2CO3 ). but
respiratory compensation is only short-lived. Renal compensation sets in within 3-
4 days and the H+ ions are excreted as NH4+ ions.
 Respiratory acidosis

• Cause is retention of CO2 (H2CO3 ).

• Other causes may include depression of the respiratory centre, pulmonary disorders
and breathing air with high content of CO2.

• The renal mechanism comes for the rescue to compensate respiratory acidosis. More
HCO3– is generated and retained by the kidneys which adds up to the alkali reserve
of the body. The excretion of titratable acidity and NH4+ is elevated in urine.
 Metabolic alkalosis

• This may occur due to excessive vomiting (resulting in loss of H+) or an excessive
intake of sodium bicarbonate for therapeutic purposes (e.g. control of gastric acidity).

• Cushing’s syndrome causes increased retention of Na+ and loss of K+ from the body.
Metabolic alkalosis is commonly associated with hypokalemia.

• The respiratory mechanism initiates the compensation by hypoventilation to retain

CO2 (hence H2CO3 ). This is slowly taken over by renal mechanism which excretes
more HCO3– and retains H+.
 Respiratory alkalosis

• The primary cause is decrease in H2CO3 concentration.

• Which may occur due to prolonged hyperventilation resulting in increased

exhalation of CO2 by the lungs.

• Hyperventilation is observed in hypoxia, raised intracranial pressure, excessive

artificial ventilation and the action of certain drugs (salicylate) that stimulate
respiratory centre.

• The renal mechanism tries to compensate by increasing the urinary excretion of

HCO3–
 Acid-base disorders and plasma potassium

• Plasma potassium concentration (normal 3.5-5.0 mEq/l) is very important as it

affects the contractility of the heart. Hyperkalemia or hypokalemia can be life-
threatening.
 Potassium and diabetic ketoacidosis

• The hormone insulin increases K+ uptake by cells (particularly from skeletal muscle).
The patient of severe uncontrolled diabetes (i.e. with metabolic acidosis) is usually
with hypokalemia.

• When such a patient is given insulin, it stimulates K+ entry into cells. The result is that
plasma K+ level is further depleted.

• Hypokalemia affects heart functioning, and is life threatening.

• Therefore, in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis, potassium has to be given (unless

the patients have high plasma K+ concentration).
 Potassium and alkalosis

• Hypokalemia leads to an increased excretion of hydrogen ions, and thus may cause
metabolic alkalosis. Conversely, metabolic alkalosis is associated with increased renal
excretion of K+.

• In cases of these disorders associated with hypokalemia, potassium supplementation

(with carefull monitoring of plasma K+) needs to be considered.
 BLOOD GAS MEASUREMENT

• In certain conditions associated with respiratory failure and/or acid-base

disorders, blood gas (CO2 and O2) measurement assumes significance.

• Based on the results obtained and the severity of the condition, oxygen treatment or
artificial ventilation is carried out.

• For blood gas analysis, a sample of arterial blood collected from (most commonly)
radial artery in the forearm, or (less commonly) from the femoral artery in the leg is
used.
• The biochemical profile measured include pO2, pCO2, and pH (H+ ion
concentration).

• The concentration of bicarbonate is calculated by using Henderson-

Hasselbalch equation.

• In fact, the blood gas analysers employed in the hospitals are designed to
perform the various calculations automatically and give the final results.
Thank you