Journal of Food Engineering 89 (2008) 24–32

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Journal of Food Engineering

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Twin-screw extrusion of barley–grape pomace blends: Extrudate characteristics

and determination of optimum processing conditions
Aylin Altan a, Kathryn L. McCarthy b, Medeni Maskan a,*
a
Department of Food Engineering, University of Gaziantep, Gaziantep, TR-27310, Turkey
b
Department of Food Science and Technology, One Shields Avenue, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The barley flour–grape pomace blends were extruded in a 30 mm APV co-rotating twin-screw extruder.
Received 17 September 2007 Response surface methodology using a central composite design was used to evaluate the effects of inde-
Received in revised form 13 March 2008 pendent variables, namely die temperature (140–160 °C), screw speed (150–200 rpm) and pomace level
Accepted 31 March 2008
(2–10%, db) on product responses (expansion, bulk density, texture and color). Sensory analysis was
Available online 6 April 2008
carried out for selected extrudates for appearance (color, porosity), taste (bran flavor, bitterness and
sweetness), off-odor, texture (hardness, crispness and brittleness) and overall acceptability. Multiple
Keywords:
regression equations were obtained to describe the effects of each variable on product responses. The
Extrusion cooking
Barley
product responses were most affected by changes in temperature, pomace level and to a lesser extent
Grape pomace by screw speed. Blends of 2% grape pomace extruded at 160 °C, 200 rpm and 10% grape pomace extruded
Response surface methodology at 160 °C, 150 rpm had higher preference levels for parameters of appearance, taste, texture and overall
Optimization acceptability. However, graphical optimization studies resulted in 155–160 °C, 4.47–6.57% pomace level
and 150–187 rpm screw speed as optimum variables to produce acceptable extrudates. The results sug-
gest that grape pomace can be extruded with barley flour into an acceptable snack food.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and pomace is particularly rich in phenols (Meyer et al., 1998).

Extrusion cooking technology, high temperature-short time
processing being used increasingly in the food industries for the
development of new products such as cereal-based snacks includ-
ing dietary fiber, baby foods, breakfast cereals and modified starch
from cereals (Sebio and Chang, 2000). The thermal energy gener-
ated by viscous dissipation during extrusion with combination of
shearing effect cooks quickly the raw mixture so that the proper-
ties of the materials are modified by physico-chemical changes of
the biopolymers (Thymi et al., 2005).
There is a growing interest in the evaluation of the residues
generated by the food industry. In particular, in the zones of grape
and wine production, a great quantity of residues are generated
whose storage, transformation or elimination pose problems in
economic terms. For this reason, the recovery of the antioxidant
compounds present in these by-products could represent an inter-
esting advance in the maintenance of the environmental equilib-
rium (Alonso et al., 2002).
Grape pomace is the press residue remaining when grapes are
processed for wine-making. The pomace consists of pressed skins,
disrupted cells from the grape pulp, seeds and stems. Among fruits,
grapes constitute one of the major sources of phenolic compounds
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 342 3172309; fax: +90 342 3601105.
E-mail address: maskan@gantep.edu.tr (M. Maskan).
Numerous studies have demonstrated the antioxidant and health
promoting effects of phenolic compounds present in grapes and
wine, particularly in relation to cardiovascular diseases (Scalbert
et al., 2005). Grape pomace therefore represents a potentially valu-
able source of phenolic antioxidants that may have technological
applications as functional food ingredients and possible nutritional
benefits. Grape pomace is also characterized by a high content of
dietary fiber and associated polyphenols (Valiente et al., 1995)
and could be used as a potential ingredient for dietary fiber-rich
supplements (Martín-Carrón et al., 2000).
With the growing awareness of the beneficial effects of healthy
diet on the quality of life as well as on cost-effectiveness of health
care, the food industry is facing the challenge of developing new
products with special health enhancing characteristics. To meet
this challenge, it must identify new sources of nutraceuticals and
other natural and nutritional materials with the desirable func-
tional characteristics. Although less common in food formulations
than other cereals, barley has the ability to promote good con-
sumer health through its nutritional components such as fiber
(both soluble and insoluble fiber), antioxidants and B-vitamins.
Therefore, the aim of this research was to investigate possibili-
ties of grape pomace utilization through the production of barley
based snack food using extrusion process. The target was also to
optimize processing conditions for production of extruded snack
food from barley flour and grape pomace by RSM.

0260-8774/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2008.03.025
 A. Altan et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 89 (2008) 24–32
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Barley flour used in these experiments was supplied from Bob’s
Red Mill Natural Foods (Milwaukie, OR, USA). The particle size dis-
tribution of the barley flour is shown in Table 1. Barley flour was
stored at 4 °C until use. Thompson seedless grape pomace was pro-
vided by Department of Viticulture and Enology, UC Davis pilot
plant. Grapes were conveyed into stemmer and crusher by screw
conveyor. They were pressed immediately after crushing. The
resulting juice was separated from pomace and processed for
wine-making. Grape pomace was frozen as sheet in a blast freezer
(Model FB27-5-5 ST S, Conrad, Michigan, USA) at 63.9 °C for
freeze drying. The pomace was freeze-dried (Model 50-SRC-5, Vir-
tis, Gardiner, NY, USA) at 8 Pa pressure for 72 h. The condenser
temperature was approximately 40 °C. Freeze-dried grape pom-
ace was finely ground and stored in polyethylene bags at 20 °C
for further usage. The moisture content of dried grape pomace
was between 3.9% and 6.3% (wb).
Analyses of proximates, dietary fiber and starch of the raw
materials were performed by Silliker Inc. (Modesto, CA, USA). The
moisture content, ash, protein (Kjeldahl, protein factor: 6.25),
starch (Ewers starch) and total dietary fiber were performed
according to approved methods described in AOAC (1995). The car-
bohydrate content was calculated by difference. The composition
of grape pomace (on dry basis) was 4.1%, 86.6%, 2.4% and 6.9%
for ash, carbohydrates, fat and protein, respectively. The starch
and fiber contents (on dry basis) were 0% and 12.3%, respectively.
2.2. Feed preparation for extrusion
Grape pomace was mixed thoroughly with barley flour to the
ratio of 0, 2, 6, 10 and 12.73% (w/w, db). The moisture content of
the blended samples for extruder feed was adjusted to 21.66 ±
0.49% (wb) by mixing continuously at medium speed in a mixer
(Mod. F-30T, Blakeslee, Chicago, IL, USA) with calculated amounts
of water being sprayed onto each blend. After that, the samples
were put in buckets and stored at 4 °C overnight to reach homoge-
neous moisture distribution. Before extrusion, the feed was allowed
to come to ambient temperature (25 °C) and mixed again after
checking the moisture content. Moisture content of samples was
determined by halogen moisture analyzer (Model HR83 and
HR83P, Mettler-Toledo GmbH, Greifensee, Switzerland) at 105 °C.
2.3. Extrusion process
Extrusion was performed in a laboratory-scale co-rotating twin-
screw extruder (MPC/V-30, APV, Staffordshire, England) of 30 mm
in barrel diameter and 13:1 its length to diameter ratio (L/D) with a
System9000 torque rheometer (Haake Buchler, Paramus, NJ) that
provided computer control and data acquisition. The slit die
(Haake Buchler, Paramus, NJ, USA) was used with dimensions of
20 mm  1.47 mm  150 mm. The barrel zone temperatures were
kept constant at 30, 60, 100 and 130 °C throughout the experi-
ments but die temperature varied according to the experimental
Table 1
Particle size distribution of barley flour used
Sieve size
Retained on Mesh 40
Mesh 60
Mesh 80
Mesh 100
Mesh 120
Passed through Mesh 120
25
design. The screws were composed of screw elements and lope-
shaped paddles which could be assembled on the hexagon-shaped
shafts to give different screw configurations. The extruder screw
consisted of three pieces of 1.5 D twin lead feed screws, two 1 D
twin lead feed screws, nine kneading paddles set at 30° feed for-
ward, one 1 D single lead feed screw followed by nine kneading
paddles set at 30° feed forward and 1 D discharge screw. Extruded
products were immediately dried at 52 °C overnight in a forced-air
drier (Model # R-4, Commercial Dehydrator System Inc., Eugene,
OR, USA). The final dried samples contained a maximum of 5.7%
(wb) moisture. Dried samples were stored in polyethylene bags
at room temperature and used for further analysis. The figure of
screw configuration and the details of extruder were given else-
where (Altan et al., 2008).
2.4. Product properties
2.4.1. Expansion
The sectional expansion index (SEI) of extrudates was deter-
mined as described by Alvarez-Martinez et al. (1988). The width
and thickness of 15 pieces of extrudate taken at random were mea-
sured with a digital caliper and SEI was calculated as the ratio of
cross-sectional areas of the extrudate to that of the slit die and
averaged.
2.4.2. Bulk density
The bulk density of the extrudates was determined by displace-
ment method using the glass beads of 1.00–1.18 mm diameter
(Hwang and Hayakawa, 1980; Sokhey et al., 1997). The values were
average of four measurements.
2.4.3. Texture
The peak force as an indication of hardness was measured with
a TA-XT2i Texture Analyzer (Texture Technologies Corp., Scarsdale,
NY, USA) using 3-point bend test with a sharp-bladed probe
(55 mm wide, 40 mm high, 9 mm thick). The test speed was
2 mm/s and the distance between two supports was 22 mm. The
curve was recorded and analyzed by Texture Exponent 32 software
program (version 3.0). The slope (N/mm) and distance (mm) at
which a product breaks were measured from force–distance curve
and evaluated as crispness and brittleness, respectively (Jackson
et al., 1996; Texture Technologies, a). Ten measurements were per-
formed on each sample.
2.4.4. Color
Color is an important characteristic of extruded foods. Color
changes can give information about the extent of browning reac-
tions such as caramelization, Maillard reaction, degree of cooking
and pigment degradation that take place during the extrusion pro-
cess. The color of the raw materials and ground extrudates were
measured in a HunterLab LabScan XE (Hunter Associates Labora-
tory Inc., Reston, Virginia, USA) as lightness (L), redness (a), and
yellowness (b). The extrudates were ground in a laboratory grinder
and passed through a 60 mesh sieve prior to color analysis. For
each sample, four measurements were taken and averaged. The to-
tal color change (DE) was calculated as
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
DE ¼ ðL  Lo Þ2 þ ðb  bo Þ2 þ ða  ao Þ2 ð1Þ
% where the subscript ‘o’ indicates initial color values of the raw
12.1
material.
42.9
38.9 2.5. Sensory analysis
5.5
0.4
A semi-trained panel of 35 students and from faculty from
0.2
the Food Engineering Department at the University of Gaziantep
26 A. Altan et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 89 (2008) 24–32

(Turkey) evaluated the extruded snacks for appearance: color and Table 3
porosity; texture: hardness, crispness and brittleness; and overall Extrusion conditions with actual variable levels for experimental design

acceptability on a 7-point hedonic scale (Bhattacharya and Prak- Run Actual levels
ash, 1994) (from 1 = dislike extremely to 7 = like extremely), while Die temperature (°C) Screw speed (rpm) Pomace level (%)
taste in terms of bran flavor, bitterness and sweetness and off-odor
1 140 150 2
were rated on a 7-point scale (from 1 = non to 7 = very high). The 2 160 150 2
samples were labeled with random letters. Evaluation was con- 3 140 200 2
ducted in individual booths at room temperature. The temperature 4 160 200 2
of the room used for sensory analysis was kept at 23 °C by air con- 5 140 150 10
6 160 150 10
ditioning. The flavor attributes were evaluated under red lighting,
7 140 200 10
while incandescent light was used for appearance and texture 8 160 200 10
attributes. Panelists rinsed their mouths with water after tasting 9 133.18 175 6
each sample. All sensory attributes were presented before sensory 10 166.82 175 6
11 150 133 6
analysis. The sheet that contains definitions of sensory attributes
12 150 217 6
was also placed in individual booths. Panelists evaluated hardness 13 150 175 0
as amount of force required to break sample on first chew with 14 150 175 12.73
molars. Crispness was measured as degree to which breaking noise 15 150 175 6
is heard. Brittleness was measured as capacity of a sample to break 16 150 175 6
17 150 175 6
up into numerous pieces during the first bite. Porosity was mea-
18 160 175 6
sured as number of pores in unit area by panelists visually. 19 150 175 6
20 150 175 6
2.6. Experimental design and data analysis

The experimental design was based on a central composite de- a and DE values. Predictive models (Table 4) were used to graphi-
sign for three independent variables and five levels. The indepen- cally represent responses as shown in Figs. 1–4. The contour plots
dent variables considered in this study were die temperature of all the responses were then superimposed and optimum region
(X1), screw speed (X2) and pomace level (X3). Coded levels for inde- appeared. Two contour plots (Figs. 5 and 6) were obtained as a
pendent variables are shown in Table 2. Actual levels were selected
according to the preliminary studies and literature data for suitable
extrusion cooking. The outline of experimental design with the
Table 4
actual levels is presented in Table 3. Dependent variables were The regression models for process variables and product properties using indepen-
sectional expansion index (SEI), bulk density, color and texture as dent variables temperature (X1), screw speed (X2) and pomace level (X3) of barley
product properties. Response surface methodology was applied flour-grape pomace extrudates
for experimental data using a commercial statistical package, De- Response Model R2
sign-Expert version 6.0.6 (Statease Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA)
SEI 1.45  0.15X1  0.13X12 + 0.09X32 0.8468
for the generation of response surface plots. The same software
BD 0.63  0.25X1 + 0.093X3 + 0.061X12 0.9837
was used for statistical analysis of experimental data. Response PF 7.18  7.40X1 + 3.73X12 + 1.39X32 0.9412
surface methodology was used to investigate effects of extrusion S 7.73  4.50X1 + 1.21X3 + 1.56X12 + 0.89X32 0.9554
cooking conditions on the product properties of barley flour-grape D 0.77  0.032X1  0.11X3 + 0.069X12 + 0.051X32 0.9469
L 72.89  2.07X3 + 0.94X32 0.9545
pomace blends. The results were analyzed by a multiple linear
a 3.79 + 0.91X3 0.8469
regression method which describes the effects of variables in the b 16.27 + 0.93X3 0.8402
models derived. Experimental data were fitted to the selected DE 5.47 + 0.22X3  0.32X32 + 0.36X1X3 0.7346
models and regression coefficients obtained. The analysis of vari-
ance (ANOVA) tables were generated for each of the response func-
tions. The individual effect of each variable and also the effects of
the interaction term in coded levels of variables were determined.
A Pearson’s correlation matrix on product properties and also be-
Bulk density (g/cm3)

tween sensory attributes and textural parameters were carried

1.094
out using SPSS 11.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) in order to deter-
mine correlation coefficients between parameters. Duncan’s multi- 0.920
ple range test was performed for sensory data to determine 0.747
differences between treatments by using SPSS. 0.573
Moreover, extrusion processing parameters were optimized by
0.399
using a conventional graphical method of RSM in order to obtain
extrudates with acceptable properties such as bulk density, peak
force, slope and distance to be as low as possible; high L and low

140.0
Table 2 145.0
Coded levels for the independent variables
10.0
150.0 8.0
Variable Coded level 6.0
Temperature (°C) 155.0
1.682 1 0 1 1.682 4.0 Pomace level (%)
160.0 2.0
X1: Die temperature (°C) 133.18 140 150 160 166.82
X2: Screw speed (rpm) 133 150 175 200 217
X3: Pomace level (%) 0 2 6 10 12.73 Fig. 1. Response surface plot for bulk density (BD) as a function of pomace level and
temperature at a screw speed of 175 rpm.
 A. Altan et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 89 (2008) 24–32 27

19.69 5.84
Peak force (N)

15.64 5.55
5.27

ΔE
11.60
7.55 4.98
3.50 4.69

140.0
2.0 140.0 10.0
145.0
4.0 145.0
150.0 8.0
6.0
150.0 6.0
8.0 155.0
Pomace level (°C) Temperature (°C) 155.0 4.0
10.0 160.0 Temperature (°C) Pomace level (%)
160.0 2.0
Fig. 2. Response surface plot for peak force (PF) as a function of temperature and
pomace level at a screw speed of 175 rpm. Fig. 4. Response surface plot for total color change (DE) as a function of pomace
level and temperature at a screw speed of 175 rpm.

Overlay Plot
10.0

Distance: 0.72
1.017
Distance (mm)

0.940 8.0
Pomace level (%)

0.863 PF: 5 ΔE: 5.60

0.786 L: 72 .7
6.0 6
0.709 BD: 0.49
Distance: 0.82

4.0
2.0 Slope: 6.41
140.0 4.0
145.0 ΔE: 5.04
6.0 2.0
150.0
Temperature (°C) 155.0 8.0 Pomace level (%) 140.0 145.0 150.0 155.0 160.0
160.0 10.0 Temperature (°C)
Fig. 3. Response surface plot for distance (D) as a function of pomace level and Fig. 5. Superimposed contours for product responses affected by temperature and
temperature at a screw speed of 175 rpm. pomace level at 175 rpm screw speed.

result of superimposing or overlaying of contour plots from which
one can determine optimum process variables range (temperature,
screw speed, pomace level) for extrusion of barley based product
with specified properties.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Expansion
Multiple linear regression analysis of the experimental data
yielded second order polynomial model for expansion in terms
of coded variables (Table 4). An analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was performed to study the effects of independent variables on
expansion. Table 5 shows the significance of polynomial model
for SEI of the extrudates in ANOVA table. The linear and qua-
dratic effects of temperature and quadratic effect of grape pom-
ace level had significant effect on SEI at P < 0.05. Although the
coefficient of determination for SEI was high (R2 = 0.8468) with
low coefficient of variation (8.33%), lack of fit was significant
(P < 0.05).
Sectional expansion index is a measure of the cross-sectional
area expansion of extrudates. SEI of extrudates varied between
0.949 and 1.747. It appears that SEI decreased with increasing bar-
rel temperature, however volumetric expansion (inverse of bulk
density) increased. This could indicate that longitudinal expansion
increased (Alvarez-Martinez et al., 1988). The fact that a long slit
die was used also probably facilitated bubble growth in the longi-
tudinal direction. Surprisingly, screw speed, which is a very critical
operating variable, did not affect expansion. Bubble growth due to
vapor pressure of steam is a primary factor that influences expan-
sion in both radial and longitudinal direction. Also the pressure
drop at the die is not directly responsible for expansion, but is
the cause for bubble nucleation. It is the pressure difference be-
tween the vapor pressure of water inside nucleated bubbles and
the pressure of the melt that drives expansion (Arhaliass et al.,
2003). Hashimoto and Grossmann (2003) also reported a decrease
28 A. Altan et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 89 (2008) 24–32
Overlay Plot
200.0
ΔE: 5.6
187.5
Screw speed (rpm)
L: 72.7
BD: 0.49
175.0 Distance: 0.82 6 the cellulosic walls, leading to a composite wall of cellulose, gela-
Slope: 6.41
162.5
PF: 5
ΔE:5.6
150.0
140.0 145.0 150.0 155.0 160.0
Temperature (°C)
Fig. 6. Superimposed contours for product responses affected by temperature and
screw speed at 6% pomace level.
in expansion with respect to increasing extrusion temperature for
extrusion of cassava bran and cassava starch blends. It was found
out that after a critical temperature, which depends both on the
type of starch and moisture content, expansion decreases with
temperature, most likely due to excessive softening and potential
structural degradation of the starch melt which becomes unable
to withstand the high vapor pressure and therefore collapse (Koki-
ni et al., 1992). In addition, Launay and Lisch (1983) suggested that
the sectional and longitudinal expansions were dependent on melt
elasticity and melt viscosity, respectively. The elasticity loss with
increasing temperature would then be one of the possible reason
for the decrease of SEI. This result is in agreement also with works
of Ilo et al. (1999) and Doğan and Karwe (2003). Colonna et al.
(1989) also reported that the decrease in expansion at higher tem-
peratures has been attributed to increased dextrinization and
weakening of structure.
Increasing grape pomace level up to 6% decreased SEI of extru-
dates. Beyond that level SEI increased slightly with respect to the
quadratic effect of pomace level (Table 4). However, linear effect
of pomace level was not significant on SEI statistically (P > 0.05).
3.2. Bulk density
The regression equation for the relationship between bulk den-
sity and independent variables of temperature and grape pomace
level obtained in terms of coded variables is presented in Table
4. The experimental data fit the response equation with a high de-
gree of significance (Table 5). A high value of coefficient of determi-
nation (R2 = 0.9837) with a low value of coefficient of variation
(CV = 6.21%) of the predicted model were observed. However, the
lack of fit was significant (P < 0.05). Linear effect of temperature
and grape pomace level as well as the quadratic effect of tempera-
ture were found to significantly influence the bulk density of bar-
ley flour-grape pomace extrudates at P < 0.05.
Bulk density is a very important parameter in the production of
expanded and formed food products. Bulk density, which considers
expansion in all directions, ranged from 0.325 to 1.18 g/cm3 in this
study. Response surface plot for bulk density as functions of pom-
ace level and temperature is given in Fig. 1. Increasing temperature
decreased bulk density as in agreement with Ilo et al. (1999) and
Singh et al. (2007). Higher temperature provides a higher potential
energy for flash-off of super-heated water from extrudates as they
leave the die. With higher barrel temperatures, the extrudates exit-
ing the die lose more moisture and become lighter in weight (Kök-
sel et al., 2004). Increase in bulk density with increase in level of
grape pomace may be due to the increasing fiber content of feed
material. This was because the presence of fiber particles tended
to rupture the cell walls before the gas bubbles had expanded to
their full potential (Lue et al., 1991). Colonna and Mercier (1983)
also reported that partially molten starch granules adhered to
tinised starch and cellular protein. The formation of this complex
wall should restrict the product’s expansion ability (Chang et al.,
1998). Similar effect of fiber has been observed for extrusion of yel-
low corn with wheat and oat fiber, corn meal and sugar beet fiber,
corn meal with soy fiber, salt and sugar, jatobá flour and cassava
starch blends and corn starch with pectin and wheat fiber (Hsieh
et al., 1989; Lue et al., 1991; Jin et al., 1994; Chang et al., 1998;
Yanniotis et al., 2007). Sugar could be another reason for increase
in bulk density with higher pomace content. Sugar would limit
the availability of water. Limited water might also hinder gelatini-
zation of starch, which could be another factor. However, the ac-
tual mechanism has more to do with the plasticization effect of
sugar leading to lower melt temperatures and thus reduced vapor
pressure of water.
3.3. Texture
The maximum peak force (hardness), slope (crispness) and dis-
tance (brittleness) were measured to determine textural property
of extrudates. Multiple regression equations for peak force (PF),
slope (S) and distance (D) in terms of coded variables are given
in Table 4. The peak force, slope and distance of extrudates were
dependent on temperature and grape pomace level. Peak force of
extrudates was significantly affected by linear and quadratic ef-
fects of temperature and quadratic effect of grape pomace level
(P < 0.05). The linear and quadratic effects of temperature and
grape pomace level were found to be significant for slope and
distance (P < 0.05). ANOVA results for models are summarized in
Table 5. The lack of fit was significant (P < 0.05) for all textural
properties. However, the higher degree of coefficients of determi-
nation of the predicted models for peak force, slope and distance
were 0.9412, 0.9554 and 0.9469, respectively. The peak force mea-
sured as hardness of barley flour-grape pomace extrudates ranged
between 4.62 and 27.23 N. An increase in temperature resulted in a
decrease in peak force (Fig. 2). This result is in line with bulk
density which confirms by positive correlation with bulk density
(Table 6). Similarly, Ryu and Walker (1995) observed that breaking
strength and bulk density decreased over the temperature range of
140 to 160 °C in extrusion cooking of wheat flour. Ding et al. (2005)
reported that increasing temperature would decrease melt viscos-
ity, but it also increases the vapor pressure of water. This favors the
bubble growth which is the driving force for expansion that pro-
duces low density products and thus decreasing hardness of extru-
date. As shown in Fig. 2, increasing grape pomace level resulted in
increase in peak force of extrudates with respect to quadratic
effect.
Crispness is typically a textural attribute for snack foods and
baked products. The slope before the first major fracturability peak
was taken as the crispness of the extrudates (Jackson et al., 1996).
The maximum peak force value was considered to be an indication
of the hardness of the sample. The lower the slope, the crisper the
product is considered. The values of slope measured as crispness
varied between 4.27 and 19.62 N/mm for barley flour-grape pom-
ace extrudates. As temperature was increased, the slope decreased
which means that crispness of extrudates increased. It is noted that
when progressive increase in temperatures resulted in pores in
the structure due to formation of air cells and the surface appeared
 A. Altan et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 89 (2008) 24–32 29

Table 5
Analysis of variance results for fitted models of product properties

Response Source df Sum of squares Mean squares F-value P-value

SEI Regression 9 0.78 0.087 6.14 0.0045*
Lack of fit 5 0.14 0.028 44.20 0.0040*
Pure error 5 3.134  103 6.268  104
Residual 10 0.14 0.014
Total 19 0.92
BD Regression 9 1.08 0.12 67.10 <0.0001*
Lack of fit 5 0.015 3.045  103 5.74 0.0389*
Pure error 5 2.653  103 5.305  104
Residual 10 0.018 1.788  103
Total 19 1.10
PF Regression 3 966.58 322.19 85.36 <0.0001*
Lack of fit 11 60.38 5.49 1440.85 <0.0001*
Pure error 5 0.019 3.809  103
Residual 16 60.40 3.77
Total 19 1026.97
S Regression 9 345.49 38.39 23.83 <0.0001*
Lack of fit 5 15.93 3.19 87.82 <0.0001*
Pure error 5 0.18 0.036
Residual 10 16.11 1.61
Total 19 361.60
D Regression 9 0.25 0.028 19.81 <0.0001*
Lack of fit 5 0.012 2.354  103 5.13 0.0485*
Pure error 5 2.29  103 4.589  104
Residual 10 0.014 1.407  103
Total 19 0.26
*
Significant at P < 0.05, df: degrees of freedom.

Table 6
The measured value of distance for barley flour-grape pomace
Correlation coefficients between product properties
extrudates was in the range of 0.693–1.06 mm. The effect of grape
SEI BD L a b DE PF pomace level and temperature on distance is shown in Fig. 3. It was
SEI 1 0.438ns 0.122ns 0.075ns 0.037ns 0.140ns 0.382ns found that temperature was the main factor affecting the bulk den-
BD 1 0.253ns 0.196ns 0.338ns 0.069ns 0.859* sity of the extrudates with a greater extent. It would be expected
L 1 0.905* 0.877* 0.657* 0.070ns
that low bulk density and low hardness value with increased tem-
a 1 0.964* 0.459* 0.137ns
b 1 0.462* 0.055ns
perature would produce lower distance to break and thus higher
DE 1 0.021ns brittleness of extrudates. However, further increase in temperature
PF 1 to 155 °C caused increase in distance slightly and this would de-
SEI: sectional expansion index; BD: bulk density; DE: total color change; PF: peak
crease brittleness. Increasing grape pomace level decreased dis-
force. tance and hence increased brittleness of samples.
*
Significant at P < 0.05, nsnot significant.
3.4. Color

flaky and porous and hence decreased hardness (Bhattacharya and
Choudhury, 1994) as seen in this study. Therefore, a crispy texture
was obtained with increasing temperature due to decrease in hard-
ness. This is in agreement with results of Duizer and Winger (2006)
who stated that less force requires breaking a product that is very
crisp. Therefore, it is expected to have a crispy texture while
increasing temperature and then less force requires to break a
product that is very crisp (Duizer and Winger, 2006). Increasing
grape pomace content in extrusion cooking of barley flour-grape
pomace increased the slope of force–time curve. This means that
highest pomace content causes less crispy extrudate. This might
be the result of the effect of fiber in the grape pomace. Fiber re-
duces the cell size, probably by causing premature rupture of gas
cells, which reduces the overall expansion and results in less por-
ous structure (Lue et al., 1991; Yanniotis et al., 2007). However,
it was reported that sucrose addition around 10% level in extrusion
of corn and wheat caused to a minimum crispness force value (N/
mm) and therefore, improved product crispness (Mezreb et al.,
2006). This result was not in agreement with our findings.
The distance to break the extrudate was considered to be an
indication of brittleness, with the shortest distance being the most
brittle product. A good general rule is that if a product cracks at a
smaller deformation it is more brittle (Texture Technologies, b).
The models developed for the lightness (L), redness (a), yellow-
ness (b) parameters and total color change (DE) of barley flour-
grape pomace extrudate as functions of coded independent vari-
ables are presented in Table 4. According to the regression results,
grape pomace level had a dominant effect on color parameters
(L, a, b) and total color change of extrudates. Grape pomace level
had a negative significant linear effect (P < 0.05) on L value,
whereas it had a positive significant effect on a, b values and DE
at P < 0.05. On the other hand, the quadratic effect of grape pomace
level was found to be significant (P < 0.05) only for L value and DE.
DE was also affected significantly (P < 0.05) by interaction effect of
temperature and grape pomace level. Table 7 shows that multiple
regression analysis of color parameters and total color change
models were significant (P < 0.05) and the lack of fit of the models
of color parameters were not significant (P > 0.05) but it was signif-
icant (P < 0.05) for DE. Although the lack of fit was found significant
for total color change, the low coefficient of variance was observed
for total color change with a value of 6.42%. The regression analysis
for the determination of the desired constants yielded a regression
coefficient (R2) of 0.9545, 0.8469, 0.8402 and 0.7346 for color
parameters L, a, b and DE, respectively.
The reduction in lightness with increasing grape pomace level
may be resulted from occurrence of browning reaction such as
30 A. Altan et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 89 (2008) 24–32

Table 7 Table 8
Analysis of variance results for fitted models of color parameters Sensory evaluation of selected extrudates produced by different extrusion conditions

Response Source df Sum of squares Mean F-value P-value Sensory attributes Extrudates
squares
A* B C D E
L value Regression 9 65.88 7.32 23.32 <0.0001*
Appearance
Lack of fit 5 1.64 0.33 1.10 0.4600
Color 4.93a 5.12a 4.19b 4.59ab 2.25c
Pure error 5 1.50 0.30
Porosity 4.59a 4.62a 4.35ab 4.37ab 3.68b
Residual 10 3.14 0.31
Total 19 69.02 Taste
Bran flavor 3.59a 3.93a 3.65a 3.68a 3.25a
a value Regression 3 10.87 3.62 29.49 <0.0001*
Bitterness 1.59a 1.46a 1.62a 1.46a 1.46a
Lack of fit 11 1.48 0.13 1.37 0.3833
Sweetness 2.43a 2.25a 3.43b 3.65b 4.65c
Pure error 5 0.49 0.098
Off-odor 1.56a 1.34a 1.65a 1.21a 1.68a
Residual 16 1.97 0.12
Total 19 12.84 Texture
Hardness 3.90a 5.53b 4.18a 5.09b 2.71c
b value Regression 3 11.47 3.82 28.04 <0.0001*
Crispness 4.34a 5.56b 4.46a 5.59b 3.31c
Lack of fit 11 1.84 0.17 2.40 0.1721
Brittleness 4.03a 5.81b 4.40a 5.15c 2.93d
Pure error 5 0.35 0.069
Overall acceptability 4.65a 5.53b 4.84ab 5.34ab 2.40c
Residual 16 2.18 0.14
Total 19 13.66 A: 0% pomace level, 150 °C, 175 rpm; B: 2% pomace level, 160 °C, 200 rpm; C: 6%
DE Regression 9 3.34 0.37 3.08 0.0474* pomace level, 150 °C, 217 rpm; D: 10% pomace level, 160 °C, 150 rpm; E: 12.73%,
Lack of fit 5 1.03 0.21 5.81 0.0380* 150 °C, 175 rpm.
*
Pure error 5 0.18 0.035 Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different
Residual 10 1.21 0.12 (P < 0.05).
Total 19 4.54
*
Significant at P < 0.05, df: degrees of freedom.
extrudate E and extrudates A and B but extrudate E was not signif-
icantly different (P > 0.05) from C and D.
Taste of extrudates was evaluated as bran flavor, bitterness and
Maillard reactions and caramelization, because of contribution of sweetness. There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) in bran
more sugar that favored the browning reaction (Maga, 1989). The flavor and bitterness in selected extrudates. Low sensory scores
increase in a value of the extrudates may be associated with Mail- were observed for bran flavor (3.25–3.93) and bitterness (1.46–
lard reaction and destruction of heat sensitive pigments. The 1.62). More sweet taste was detected for extrudate E with 12.73%
change in b value increased with increasing grape pomace level grape pomace level which is expected and it was significantly dif-
which may be due to the yellowish pigments present in the pom- ferent (P < 0.05) from other extrudates (Table 8). Extrudates re-
ace. Temperature and screw speed did not affect significantly ceived low sensory scores for off-odor (1.21–1.68). This means
(P > 0.05) all three color parameters (L, a, b). The parameter L was that panelists did not perceive any off-odor from extrudates.
negatively correlated with a and b values. On the other hand, a Texture of extrudates was assessed in terms of hardness, crisp-
and b values were positively correlated with each other (Table 6). ness and brittleness. Extrudates B and D had higher preference
The same correlation between parameters L and a was observed with higher sensory scores in hardness (5.53–5.09), whereas extru-
by Ilo and Berghofer (1999) in extrusion cooking of maize grits. To- date E had lowest sensory score (2.71). They were significantly dif-
tal color change, varied between 4.21 and 6.31. Response surface ferent (P < 0.05) in sensory hardness from extrudates A and C.
plot for total color change as functions of the grape pomace level Sensory hardness was negatively correlated with peak force and
and temperature is given in Fig. 4. Color change increased as grape slope measured instrumentally at P < 0.05 (Table 9). An increase
pomace level increased. The low value of total color change was in peak force measured as hardness and slope of extrudates as
obtained at high temperatures with a low percentage of grape crispness resulted in decrease in preference of panelists in sensory
pomace. A negative correlation was observed between total color hardness. Grape pomace levels of 2% and 10% had higher prefer-
change and lightness but positive correlation was found for red- ence in sensory crispness (5.56–5.59), whereas 12.73% of grape
ness and yellowness (Table 6). pomace gave lower sensory score (3.31). A decrease in preference
of sensory crispness of extrudate E (12.73%) may be attributed to
3.5. Sensory analysis the increasing fiber content resulted in a less expanded, more com-
pact texture in extrudate. Peak force, measured as hardness, was
Five extrudate samples were selected out of twenty extrudate positively correlated (R = 0.941, P < 0.05) with slope (as crispness)
samples. The selection of extrudates was based on textural prop- measured instrumentally. However, peak force was negatively cor-
erty and different pomace level for sensory evaluation. The mean related (R = 0.943, P < 0.05) with sensory crispness which agrees
scores of sensory attributes for selected extrudates are shown in with Seymour and Hamann (1988), Norton et al., (1998). Seymour
Table 8. Appearance of extrudates was evaluated in terms of color and Hamann (1988) investigated crispness and crunchiness of five
and porosity by panelists. Sensory scores for color decreased as moisture foods subjected to three humidity conditions. They
grape pomace level was increased. Extrudate E had the lowest showed that maximum shear/compressive force and work done
score (2.25) when compared to other extrudates. The highest score to failure respectively correlated inversely with crispness and
(5.12) of color was obtained for extrudates B with 2% grape pomace crunchiness of low moisture snack foods. The sample was placed
level. Color of extrudate E was significantly (P < 0.05) different between incisors and bitten though; crispness was evaluated as
from than those of extrudates A, B, C and D. It is obvious that extru- the level of higher pitched noise. Norton et al. (1998) demonstrated
date E received lower sensory score for porosity due to highest le- a method to determine the contribution to overall line length of
vel of grape pomace. Porosity was positively correlated with the force–compression curve by fractures of specific dimensions.
sensory color (Table 9). Porosity is directly related with the expan- The method has been applied to a series of puffed rice samples ex-
sion of product. If the product expands less, a compact structure truded with various water contents to create different textures and
appears to be dull and hence it results in low score in sensory color. to investigate the relationship between the mechanical method
There was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in porosity between and perceived texture, samples were assessed by a sensory panel.
 A. Altan et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 89 (2008) 24–32
Table 9
Correlation coefficients between sensory attributes and textural properties measured instrumentally for extrudates
Peak force Slope Distance Sensory hardness Sensory crispness
* *
Peak force 1 0.941 0.483ns
0.958 0.943
Slope 1 0.735ns 0.931* 0.911*
Distance 1 0.557ns 0.491ns
Sensory hardness 1 0.987*
Sensory crispness 1 0.972*
Sensory brittleness
Sensory color
Porosity
Overall acceptability
* ns
Significant at P < 0.05, not significant.
They found a negative correlation of maximum force with sensory
crispness.
Mohamed et al. (1982) investigated the crispness of fried food
products using instrumental and sensory evaluation methods.
They pointed out that the poor correlation between sensory crisp-
ness and instrumental hardness could be associated to the fact that
a hard product did not necessarily mean a crisp one. A negative
correlation was observed between slope and sensory crispness,
sensory color and porosity (Table 9). This is expected because
crispness is related with texture formed. The expanded extrudate
would have larger cells with thinner cell walls, resulting in a crispy
texture and hence resulted in low value of crispness force (slope)
and high score of sensory crispness. Since the structure of extru-
date becomes more open with larger cells, hardness decreases,
color becomes brighter and it gets higher sensory preferences. Sen-
sory crispness was positively correlated with sensory hardness (Ta-
ble 9). Mean sensory scores of extrudates A and C were not
significantly different (P > 0.05) in sensory brittleness, whereas
extrudates B, D and E were significantly different (P < 0.05). Sen-
sory brittleness in preference was the lowest (2.93) in extrudate
E and the highest (5.81) in extrudate B. High correlations were
found between sensory brittleness and peak force, slope, sensory
hardness and sensory crispness. Sherman and Deghaidy (1978) re-
ported that the maximum force at fracture of low moisture foods
correlated inversely with panelists’ evaluations of brittleness
either in the mouth or using the fingers as found in this study.
The overall acceptability of extrudate B showed higher prefer-
ence (5.53) but this was not significantly different (P > 0.05) from
extrudates D (5.34) and C (4.84). The lowest score (2.40) was ob-
served for extrudate E with highest level of grape pomace level
with a significant difference (P < 0.05) over other extrudates. High
correlations were observed between overall acceptability and all
sensory attributes and textural properties except brittleness (Table
9). A negative correlation between overall acceptability and peak
force and slope showed that decreasing peak force and slope in-
creased the overall acceptability of extrudates.
3.6. Optimization
A graphical multi-response optimization technique was applied
to determine the optimum combination of temperature, screw
speed and grape pomace level for the production of extrudates
from barley flour-grape pomace with a twin-screw extruder. The
main criteria for constraints optimization were bulk density, peak
force (low hardness), slope (high crispness) and distance (high brit-
tleness) to be as low as possible; high L and low a values and low
DE. The optimum extrusion conditions can then be determined by
superimposing the contour plots of relevant and statistically signif-
icant responses. Five extrudate samples with different pomace lev-
els and textural properties were selected out of twenty extrudates.
According to the results of sensory analysis of these extrudates, nu-
meric limits were selected on the products with higher sensory
31
Sensory brittleness Sensory color Porosity Overall acceptability
* *
0.950 0.874 ns
0.840 ns
0.984*
0.920* 0.979* 0.957* 0.979*
0.568ns 0.791ns 0.817ns 0.589ns
0.997* 0.836ns 0.788ns 0.937*
0.815ns 0.753ns 0.925*
1 0.822ns 0.780ns 0.923*
1 0.993* 0.944*
1 0.917*
1
preference for optimization process. The following limits were pro-
posed: bulk density of not more than 0.49 g/cm3, peak force of not
more than 5 N, slope of not more than 6.41 N/mm, distance of not
more than 0.82 mm and L value of at least 72.7, a value of not more
than 5.43, b value of at a range of 14.47–17.69 and DE of not more
than 5.60. Superimposing the individual contour plots for the prod-
uct response variables resulted in the identification of a region
(shown by the shaded area) that satisfied all constraints. Superim-
posed contour plots indicated the ranges of variables which could
be considered as the optimum range for best product quality in
terms of bulk density, texture and color as shown in Figs. 5 and
6. The optimum ranges of variables obtained from the superim-
posed contours were 155–160 °C of die temperature and 4.47–
6.57% of pomace level at 175 rpm of screw speed and 156–160 °C
and 150–187 rpm at 6% pomace level. These optimum conditions
can be used to produce extrudates with the estimated physical
and textural characteristics given above.
4. Conclusion
The product responses were affected by temperature and pom-
ace level. The results showed that varying levels of grape pomace
could be incorporated into an extruded barley snack depending
on the desired texture of the final product. Blends of 2% grape pom-
ace extruded at 160°C, 200 rpm and 10% grape pomace extruded at
160 °C, 150 rpm had higher preference levels for parameters of
appearance, taste, texture and overall acceptability. The sensory
scores were above 5 on a 7-point sensory scale which can be con-
sidered as acceptable snacks. The findings of this study demon-
strate the feasibility of developing value added products from
grape pomace and barley flour by extrusion processing.
Acknowledgements
This research project was supported by the University of
Gaziantep, Scientific Research Projects Governing Unit (Turkey)
and Center for Advanced Materials, Methods and Processing, sup-
porting the mission of the Robert Mondavi Institute for Wine and
Food Science, University of California, Davis. Special thanks are ex-
tended to Mr. Jannes Vandeven for assistance with extrusion pro-
cessing and Mr. Ken Shaw, principal mechanician, Department of
Food Science and Technology, UC Davis.
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