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Introduction
to Mechanics
Section 1
Newton’s Laws
2
Absolute space: Motion takes pace in the background of (1) Solve for the position and velocity of a damped linear oscillator
absolute space. The space is same for all observers. whose mass m=1, the viscous coefficient is γ. The initial
condition is [x(0),v(0)].
Consequence: The length of a rod is the same for all observers.
(2) Do the same for a forced undamped oscillator with initial
Absolute Time: Evolution of physical system in “time”. Time
condition is [x(0),v(0)]. Solve for both cases: ω0 ≠ ωf and ω0 = ωf
moves uniformly with equal rate for all observers.
(3) A spherical ball of mass m falls under gravity in a viscous
Consequence: Time interval between two events is the same
fluid. Find the position and velocity of the ball as a function of
for all observers.
time. Assume that the mass starts at rest from a height h
Mass conservation above the ground. Apply the above solution to a raindrop
whose radius is 1 mm. Assume the dynamic viscosity of air to
Infinite speed
be 10−5 kg/(m s).
Examples:
Oscillator: Equation
Exercises:
3
Section 2
Energy
∮
Work energy theorem: Conservative force fields: Fields for which F ⋅ dr = 0 for any
The work done on a particle by a force F as it moves from point
Q
∫P
A to point B: closed path. For such fields, F ⋅ dr is only function of the end
B
∫A
WAB = F ⋅ dr points, but remain independent of paths. Therefore, we choose
P as the reference point and define potential energy U(r) as
∫P
U(r) = − F(r′) ⋅ dr′.
[2 ]
B B
dv dr 1 2
∫A dt dt
[1] WAB = m ⋅ dt = mv = TB − TA
A Therefore,
B B A
where TA, TB are the kinetic energy of the particle at the points A
∫A ∫P ∫P
[2] F ⋅ dr = F ⋅ dr − F ⋅ dr = − UB + UA
and B respectively.
The above statement is work energy theorem: The difference in Eqs. [1,2] yield
the kinetic energy of a particle between two points is equal to the
net work done on the particle by the external forces during the TA + UA = TB + UB,
transit.
The sum of kinetic and potential energies is the total energy, and
Conservative force fields and Potentials: the above statement is the conservation of total energy of a
mechanical systems that are conservative.
4
Example: these charges. (a) Find the position(s) of equilibrium point(s).
(b) Compute the potential near the equilibrium point. (c) What
(1) Spring force F = − k x. Therefore
x
is the nature of the equilibrium point? Describe the motion of
1 1
∫x
U(x) = − (−k x)d x = k x 2 − k x02 the test particle near this point. (d) Does your analysis depend
0
2 2
on the sign of the test charge?
Hence, the potential energy is U(x) = k x 2 /2 apart from a constant, (3) What is the potential of an electric dipole? Compute the
and the total energy electric field induced by it. Sketch the potential.
(2) For gravitational force F = − GMm /r 2 r̂ , U(r) = De{1 − exp[−a(r − re)]}2 where r is the distance between
the atoms of the dipolar molecule re is the equilibrium bon
( rB rA )
B B
1 1
∫A ∫A
U(B) − U(A) = − F ⋅ dr = − Fr dr = − GMm − distance and De is the depth of the potential well. (a) Sketch
the potential. (b) Find the minima of the potential. (c) Expand
the potential near its minimum and compute the frequency of
By choosing rA = ∞, we deduce
oscillation.
GMm
U(r) = −
r
Exercises:
(1) A charged particle +Q is fixed at the origin. A test charged
particle +q of mass m is fired head-on towards the charged
particle +Q with velocity v∞ from ∞. Compute the shortest
distance of approach between the particles.
5
Section 3
Centre of mass: where fa,b is the force on the a-th particle due to the b-th particle.
fa is the net force on the a-th particle. Example: Two masses (m) connected by a spring. Example Ch
13
6
If the torque, N, on the particle is zero, then the angular
momentum L of the particle is a constant.
y
The Angular momentum of a system of particles is a sum of
P .
m
V angular momentum of individual particles. The angular
momentum of such system about a reference point is
r
.
O
L=
∑
a
ra × pa,
where ra denotes the position vector of the ath particle from the
x
reference point, and pa its linear momentum. Using the CM
We define the angular momentum of the particle about a coordinates, r = R CM + r′a and v = VCM + v′a:
reference point O, where OP = r, as
L= ra × pa
∑
a
L = r × p,
ma(R CM + r′a) × (VCM + v′a)
∑
=
where p = m r· is the linear momentum of the particle measured in a
the reference frame. The above formulas is valid in any reference
= R CM × PCM + r′a × p′a
∑
frame, inertial or noninertial. Now.
Therefore,
dL dp dr dp
=r× + ×p=r× =r×F=N
dt dt dt dt L = R CM × PCM + LCM = Lorbit + LCM,
where
where N is the torque on the particle about the reference point O.
7
LCM = r′a × p′a
∑
is the angular momentum of the body about the CM, The time derivative of LP is
d LP ··
ma(ra − RP ) × (··ra − RP ).
∑
=
dt
4. Equation of Motion Using Angular a
Momentum Using ma··ra = fa is the net force acting on the ath particle, we
obtain
We assume that x y coordinate system of the figure is an inertial
d LP ··
(ra − RP ) × (fa − maRP ).
∑
reference frame, and the reference point O belongs to it. The =
dt a
angular momentum of the body about O is
··
(ra − RP ) × (−maRP ) can interpreted as the torque on
∑
LO = mara × pa. The term
∑
a
a
··
the rigid body due to the pseudo force −maRP. The force fa is a
We also compute angular momentum LP about another point P sum of external and internal forces, i.e.,
shown in the following figure:
fa = fa,ext + fa,b
∑
·
LP = mar′a × p′a = ma(ra − RP ) × (r· a − RP ),
∑ ∑
b
a a
where fa,ext is the external force on the ath particle, while fa,b is the
internal force on the ath particle due to the bth particle as shown
y
in Fig. 15.4. Therefore,
d LP ·· 1
(ra − RP ) × (fa,ext − maRP ) + (r′ × f + r′b × fb,a)
∑ ∑ ∑ a a,b
ra
r'a
=
dt a
2 a b
P
RP
O x
8
where r′a = ra − RP. According to Newton's third law, fa,b = − fb,a. d LP ··
(ra − RP ) × fa,ext − M(R CM − RP ) × RP. or
∑
=
dt
Therefore, a
d LP ··
d LP ·· 1 = Next − M(R CM − RP ) × RP,
(ra − RP ) × (fa,ext − maRP ) + (r′ − r′b) × fa,b dt
∑ ∑∑ a
[3.1] =
dt a
2 a b
where Next is the external torque acting on the rigid body about
the point P, and the second term of the above equation is the
··
torque about the point P induced by the pseudo force −M R CM.
Note that the second term vanishes for one of the following
cases:
Rigid body
Rotation About a Single Axis
Solving For Motion Of A Rigid Body Example 1: A cylinder rolls down an incline without slipping.
Describe the motion of the cylinder.
The equation of motion for the centre of mass of the rigid body in Solution: A cylinder is rolling down the inclined plane without
an inertial frame is slipping. The forces acting on the rigid body are gravity and
friction. The frictional force opposes the tendency to slip, hence
d PCM
= Fext (1) the frictional force is along − ̂x.
dt
Iα = f R. (2)
10
The constraint that the cylinder rolls down without slipping yields Ia k
f = = mg sin θ . (6)
R2 1+k
v = ωR (3)
where k = I /(m R 2). For the cylinder I = MR 2 /2, hence k = 1/2 and
By taking a time derivative of Eq. (3) we obtain a = (2g/3)sin θ.
a = αR (4) 1 2
XCM = at , (7)
2
1 2
ϕ= αt , (8)
2
z
A block slides with an acceleration a = g sin θ.
For rolling without slipping, the frictional force does not do any
∫
work ( f . dr = 0) because the contact point does not slip (dr = 0).
Since the frictional force does not dissipate any energy, we can
Now we have three equations (1,2,4), and three unknowns a , α, also solve the above problem by applying conservation of total
and f. Solving these equations yields energy:
g sin θ 1 1
a= (5) mgx sin θ = 2
mVCM + IΩ2, (9)
1+k 2 2
and
11
with VCM = ΩR. The LHS is the loss in potential energy, and the a = g(sin θ − μ cos θ)
RHS is the gain in KE. The time derivative of the above equation
α = k(g/R)cos θ.
yields the same acceleration as Eq. (5).
In the reference frame x yz, acceleration of any point on the
cylinder is aP = a − αr = αR − αr, where r is the distance of the Example 2: The cylinder of Example 16.1 is pushed up the
point P from the axis of the cylinder. Clearly the bottom-most incline in such a way that the cylinder rolls up the incline without
point (the contact point) of the cylinder has aP = 0. As a slipping. Describe the motion of the cylinder.
consequence, we can choose the bottom-most point of the
Solution: When the cylinder is rolled up, the frictional force is still
cylinder as the reference point since it is a non-accelerating point
upward in order to oppose the tendency of the cylinder to slip
of the rigid body. The equation for motion for the cylinder about
down the incline. Hence the equations of motion are exactly the
the contact point is
same as Eq. (1-4) of the above example, As a result, the cylinder
I′α = (mg sin θ)R (10) has the same acceleration as Eq. (5); the cylinder slows down
while ascending the incline. Note that the motion for this case is
2
with I′ = I + MR . Hence
the time reversed motion of Exercise 16.1. It is interesting to note
g sin θ that the time-reversal symmetry is respected in this problem even
α= , (11)
R(1 + k) in the presence of frictional force. This is because the rolling
frictional force does not dissipate energy, hence it does not break
g sin θ
a= , (12) the time-reversal symmetry.
1+k
12
Compute the trajectories of the bug and the centre of mass of the (6) A charged ball of mass m, radius R and charge q is resting on
hoop. a horizontal slab. We apply an electric field E on the ball. The
direction of the electric field is parallel to the slab. Describe the
(2) Two particles rotate around each other in a circular orbit under
motion of the ball.
the influence of gravitational pull of each other. The time period of
orbit is T. At a given time, the particles are stopped suddenly, and
then let go towards each other. After what interval of time, will the
particles meet each other?
13
Chapter 2
Constraints,
Lagrange’s
equations
Section 1
Constraints
The position of the particle or system follows certain rules due to 1. Principle of Virtual work
constraints:
Constraints that are not expressible as the above are called The total force on each particle fa = 0
nonholonomic.
Virtual displacement δra : Arbitrary infinitesimal change in the
Examples: position of the a-th particle keeping the constraints. This is called
virtual displacement.
Rigid body: ra,b = constant
Therefore, the sum of virtual work is zero:
Rolling without slipping: VCM = ωRCM
fa ⋅ δra = 0
∑
particle moving on a circle. a
15
then The internal forces between the molecules of the plank does not
do any work under displacement δθ.
fa,ext ⋅ δra = 0.
∑
a The normal forces do no work.
This is the principle of virtual work. Work done by the frictional force:
Example: A plank resting agains at a wall. The bottom surface is W1 = fd x = f lδ(sin θ) = f l cos θδθ
frictional with the friction force = f.
Work done by mg:
2f
Therefore tan θ = .
mg
θ 2. D’Alembert’s Principle
N1
y For dynamics
mg
fa = p· a
x f x
Hence
(fa − p· a) ⋅ δra = 0.
∑
a
Virtual displacement: δθ.
16
Again choose δra such that the virtual work done by the internal
dt [ ∂q· j ] ∂qj
d ∂T ∂T
m v· a,i δra,i =
∑ ∑
[1.2] − δqj
forces is zero. Hence
a,i j
(fa,ext − p· a) ⋅ δra = 0
∑
a where
∂U ∂ra,i ∂U
∑ ∑ ∂ra,ext,i ∂qj ∑ ∂qj j
[1.1] fa,ext,i δra,i = − δqj = − δq is the kinetic energy of the system. The displacement δqj is
a,i a,i, j j
arbitrary. Therefore, using Eqs. [1.1, 1.2] we obtain
∂ra,i, j
mav· a,i δra,i = mav· a,i
dt [ ∂qj ] ∂qj
d ∂T ∂T ∂U
∑ ∑
δqj
∂qj − =
a,i a,i, j ∂qj
dt [ ∂qj ] ∂qj
d ∂L ∂L
− =0
dra,i ∂ra,i ∂ra,i
Note: r·a,i = q· j +
∑ ∂qj
=
dt ∂t
j where L=T-U is the Lagrangian of the system.
17
Examples: ·· 3
θ = sin θ
2
(1) a free particle
(3) Construct Lagrangian for a cylinder rolling down an incline.
(2) a particle in 2D in radial polar coordinate (r, ϕ)
1 ·2 ·
L= m(r + r 2ϕ2) − U(r)
2 Exercises:
Hence the equations of motion are (1) A particle is sliding on a uniformly rotating wire. Write down
·· · 1
m(r ϕ + 2r· ϕ) = − ∂ϕU
r
Generalized coordinate = θ
1 ·2 ·2 1 1 · 1 ·
The KE = T = m(x + y ) + ml 2θ 2 = ml 2θ 2
2 2 12 6
1
The potential energy U = mgy = mgl sin θ
2
The Lagrangian L = T − U
Principle of
Least Action
Section 1
Variational Calculus
Function of functions We will derive an equation for the required function q(t) that
extremizes the action. We will compute action for another
· t)
L = L(q, q,
function
L is a function of q(t), which itself is a function of t.
q(t, α) = q(t,0) + αη
Objective:
where αη is the deviation from the required function. Here α is a
Extremize action · t). The change in action due to the above is
number and η(q, q,
∫t [ ∂q ]
t2 t2 t2
∂L ∂L
∫t ∫t
S= · t)dt
L(q, q, δS = · t)]dt =
[δL(q, q, αη + · α η· + HOT dt
1 1
∂q
1
with the ends fixed at (t1, q1) and (t2, q2). where HOT stands for the higher order terms. For extremization,
we take the limit α → 0 (ignore HOT). An integration by parts
q2 yields
20
∫t [ ∂q dt ( ∂q· )]
t2 Therefore,
∂L d ∂L
δS = − αηdt
dt ( ∂q· dt ) ∂q 2
1
d ∂ df ∂ 2f · ∂ 2f
= q+
∂q∂t
Since η is arbitrary,
and
dt ( ∂q· ) ∂q
d ∂L ∂L
=
∂q ( dt ) ∂q 2
∂ df ∂ 2f · ∂ 2f
= q+
∂q∂t
Note: The following Lagrangian
Hence the additional terms cancel each other. Q.E.D.
L′(q, q, · t) + d f (q, t)
· t) = L(q, q,
dt
NOTE: On many occasions, the dependent variable is x rather
yields the same equation of motion. than time. On those cases, we replace q· by q′.
t2 t2 t2
df For Multi Variables
∫t ∫t ∫t dt
Proof (a): S′ = · t)dt =
L′(q, q, · t)dt +
L(q, q, dt
1 1 1
= S + f (q2, t2) − f (q1, t1) Here the generalized variables are qi’s. Hence
Proof (b): For this case, qi(t, α) = qi(t,0) + αηi. Hence Eq. () becomes
d ∂f · ∂f
f = q+
dt ∂q ∂t t2 t2
∑ { ∂qi ∂qi }
∂L ∂L
∫t ∫t
δS = [δL(qi, q·i, t)]dt = αηi + · α η·i + HOT dt
Hence 1 1 i
∂q· ( dt ) ∂q
∂ df ∂f
=
21
t2 Examples:
∂qi dt ( ∂q·i )
∂L d ∂L
∫t ∑
δS = − αηi dt
1 i (1) Minimize the distance between two points in 3D:
(dx) (dx)
2 2 2
Since it is valid for arbitrary ηi, we obtain dy dz
∫1
D= 1+ + dx
dt ( ∂q· i ) ∂qi
d ∂L ∂L
=
x: independent variable
(dx) (dx)
2 2
dy dz
L= 1+ +
If L is not an explicit function of time t, then
∂L ∂L ∂L
q·i · = const
∑ ∂qi
L− Since = = 0,
i
∂y ∂z
∂L ∂L
Proof: = C1 and = C2
∂y′ ∂z′
dt ( ∂qi )
dL d ∂L
dt ∑
LHS = − qi · Therefore,
i
y ′2 2 z ′2
∂L ∂L · ∂L ∂L d ∂L = C1 and = C22
qi + · q··i − q··i · − q· i 1+y +z
′2 ′2 1+y +z
′2 ′2
∂t ∑
= +
i
∂qi ∂qi ∂qi dt ∂q· i
Hence, y ′2 + z ′2 = constant. Therefore, y′ and z′ are constants.
=0 Hence, the particle moves on a straight line.
Here we have used the equation of motion. (2) Minimize the time of descent between two points in a
gravitational field:
22
Cx
y′ = .
1 − Cx
1 + y ′2
L=
x
Since ∂L /∂y = 0, ∂L /∂y′ = C, a constant, which yields Note: We chose the vertical axis as x, so that L is independent of
y. It helps simplify the solution. If we interchanged the axes, the
y ′2 time will be
= C.
x(1 + y ′2)
dsB B 1 + y ′2
∫A v ∫A
Hence T= = d x.
2gy
23
Hence the Lagrangian will be equation is of higher order. Also, this method is not convenient
when we have more constraints and variables.
′2
1+y
L=
y Lagrange proposed an alternative. He suggests that the variables
x, y and a new variable λ be made independent. Idea is to look for
Using Beltrami identity, we obtain a contour of f (x, y) that is tangent to the g(x, y) = c curve. See
figure below.
∂L 1
L − q· · = =C
∂q y(1 + y ′2)
Therefore,
C−y
y′ = ,
y
From Wikipedia
Extremization under constraints
The intersection point is the desired extremum point. Here
Detour to Lagrange multiplier
∇f (x, y) = − λ ∇g(x, y) and g(x, y) = c.
We illustrate using an example. Suppose we want to Extremize
f (x, y) under the constraint that g(x, y) = c. The constraint would The above equations can be derived by extremizing
make f (x, y) a function of single variable (say x) that can be
maximized using the standard method. However solving for x F(x, y, λ) = f (x, y) + λ[g(x, y) − c]
24
fx = λgx We return to the original point, but with a constant perimeter. That
is, x(t1) = x(t2) = x0 and y(t1) = y(t2) = y0. We want to know a
fy = λgy
function that yields maximum area.
g(x, y) = c 1 t2 ·
∫
S= ·
(x y − y x)dt
2 t1
Example:
(1) Find minimum of the function x 2 + y 2 under the constraint that under the constraint that
y − x − 1 = 0. t2
∫t
I= (x· 2 + y· 2)dt
Solution: We minimize the function 1
25
which yields (4) Consider the functional
b
(x − C1)2 + (y − C2)2 = λ 2
∫a
S[y] = (P(x)y ′2 + Q(x)y 2)d x
which is an equation of a circle. The parameter λ is determined
by the perimeter of the circle. Find the extrema of the above subject to the condition that
∫a
w(x)y 2 d x = 1
Exercises:
(1) A rope of linear density γ and length l is hanging by two The resulting equation is called Sturm-Liouville problem. Relate
supports that are located horizontally 2a apart. Assuming this equation to the Schrodinger’s equation.
equilibrium position for the rope, compute its equation.
∫0
(a) y ′2 d x
∫0
(b) y y′d x
∫0
(c) x y y′d x
26
27
Section 2
Hamilton’s Principle:
dt ( ∂q· i ) ∂qi
d ∂L ∂L
=
Every mechanical system is characterized by a Lagrangian,
L(q , q· , t) or L(q, q,
i i
· t) in brief, and the motion of he system is such
∫t
S= · t)dt
L(q, q, properties are invariant under a space translation.
1
L = L(v 2) (1)
28
Since L is independent of r, Therefore the additional term is
∂L 1 1
= m = const. m v 2 − U(r1, r2, . . . , rn)
∑2 a a
∂v 2 2 L=
a
29
Homogeneity of space requires that U is dependent on the μ x·· = − k x
distance between the particles | ri − rj | , but not on their absolute
whose solution is
positions. The equation of motion of the particle is
x(t) = c1 cos ωt + c2 sin ωt
∂U
m v· a = −
∂ra
with ω = k /μ. Clearly, the later coordinates are more
convenient.
This is the Newton’s law.
x = x2 − x1 as
Cyclic coordinates and conservation
1 · 1 1 If a variable q does not appear explicitly in the Lagrangian (but q·
L = M X 2CM + μ x· 2 − k x 2
2 2 2 appears), then the equation of motion yields
30
·· ·· · ·
Example: Ml12ϕ1 + m2l1l2 cos(ϕ1 − ϕ2)ϕ2 − m2l1l2 sin(ϕ1 − ϕ2)ϕ1 ϕ2
CM. · ·
= − m2 gl2 sin ϕ2 + m2l1l2 sin(ϕ1 − ϕ2)ϕ1 ϕ2
2. Double pendulum: figure
3. Cone problem: constraint: z = ρ cot α
1 ·2
T1 = m1l1ϕ1 1 ·
2 L= m[ ρ· 2 + z· 2 + ρ 2ϕ2] − mgz
2
1
T2 = m2(x· 22 + y· 22) 1 ·
2 = m[ ρ· 2cosec2α + ρ 2ϕ2] − mgρ cot α
2
where x2 = l1 cos ϕ1 + l2 cos ϕ2 and y2 = l1 sin ϕ1 + l2 sin ϕ2. Therefore,
Since L is not an explicit function of ϕ, ϕ is a cyclic variable.
1 · · · · Hence
T2 = m2[l1ϕ21 + l2ϕ22 + 2l1l2 cos(ϕ1 − ϕ2)ϕ1 ϕ2]
2
∂L 2 ·
· = mρ ϕ = Lz = const
U = − m1gl1 cos ϕ1 − m2 g(l1 cos ϕ1 + l2 cos ϕ2) ∂ϕ
·· 2 ·
m ρcosec α = mρ ϕ2 − mg cot α or
1 · 1 · · ·
L= Ml1ϕ21 + m2l2ϕ22 + m2l1l2 cos(ϕ1 − ϕ2)ϕ1 ϕ2] − Mgl1 cos ϕ1 − m2 gl2 cos ϕ2
2 2
·· 2
Lz2
m ρcosec α = − mg cot α
mρ 3
The equations of motion for the bobs are
We will solve this equation later in Chapter 5.
31
c. A double pendulum consisting of two bars of lengths l1 and
l2, and masses m1 and m2.
Constrained Mechanical Systems
Examples: d. A vertical spring-mass system (mass m and spring constant
k) whose base is being vibrated vertically with a frequency of
(1) Simple pendulum: We use the constraint that r = l.
ωf.
The Lagrangian of the pendulum is
e. A pendulum whose length is l, and whose bob’s mass is m.
1 2 ·2 1 ·2 Make the base of the bob oscillate (i) horizontally as A cos ωf t
L= mr θ + m r + mgr cos θ + λ(r − l )
2 2
and (ii) vertically as A cos ωf t.
The equations of motion of the system are
2. Suppose a system depends on the generalized coordinate q
·· · q,
·· t). Show that
m θ = − g sin θ and its first two derivatives, that is L = L(q, q,
· the equation of motion for such system is
m ··r = λ − mg sin θ + mr θ 2
dt 2 ( ∂q·· ) dt ( ∂q· ) ∂q
d 2 ∂L d ∂L ∂L
r =l − + =0
b. A bar pendulum.
32
Chapter 4
Symmetries
and
Conservation
Laws
xx
Section 1
Hamiltonian
∂L
Legendre transform pμ =
∂q· μ
A system is described by a function f with x, y as independent
variables.
Legendre’s transform to go from q· μ to pμ as a independent
f = f (x, y) variable. The Hamiltonian
∂f ∂f pμq· μ − L,
∑
df = dx + dy = ud x + vdy H=
∂x ∂y
Hence
Now we want to describe the system in terms of x, v.
∂L ∂L ∂L
( pμδq· μ + q· μδpμ − μ δq μ − · μ δq· μ) −
∑
dH = δt
Since d(v y) = vdy + ydv, ∂q ∂q ∂t
d(v y − f ) = − ud x + ydv ∂L
( pμδq· μ + q· μδpμ − p· μδq μ − pμδq· μ) −
∑
dH = δt
∂t
The new function is g = g(x, v) = v y − f.
∂L
∂g ∂g dH = q· μδpμ − p· μδq μ − δt
= − u; =y ∂t
∂x ∂v
Hence
Hamiltonian
∂H · ∂H ∂H ∂L
Lagrangian L = L(qμ, q· μ, t) q· μ = ; pμ = − μ ; =−
∂pμ ∂q ∂t ∂t
34
dL ∂L ∂L ∂L ∂L
Note: = μ q· μ + · μ q··μ + δt = p· μq· μ + pμq··μ +
dt ∂q ∂q ∂t ∂t
dH ∂L
=−
dt ∂t
dH
= 0,
dt
Exercise
35
Section 2
36
Conservation of Angular Momentum is a constant. This is related to the isotropy of space.
Isotropy of space: The system or Lagrangian of an isolated
If the system is invariant under rotation about an axis, the angular
system is invariant under the rotation of the whole system by an
momentum about the axis is conserved.
arbitrary angle.
The above three symmetries (homogeneity and isotropy of space,
Let us rotate the system by angle δφ about an axis. The vector
and homogeneity in time) have never been broken. So far, we
δφ is a vector aligned along the axis, and its magnitude is δφ.
have not observed any violation of conservation laws of energy,
Under this operation, each particle is shifted by
linear momentum, and angular momentum.
δra = δϕ × ra and δva = δϕ × va.
Robust conservation
∂L ∂L Galilean invariance:
∑ ∂ra
δL = ⋅ δra + ⋅ δva = 0 or
a
∂v a
1 1
mav2a and L′ = ma(va + Vr )2
∑2 ∑2
L=
Therefore,
a a
d
ra × pa = 0.
dt ∑
δϕ ⋅ Hence
a
Since δφ is arbitrary, the total angular momentum of the system
∑ [2 a a ] [ ∑ a a] r
1
about the origin δL = L′ − L = δm (v + Vr )2 = m v ⋅ V = PCM ⋅ Vr
a a
d
L= ra × pa
dt ∑
a
for small Vr.
37
We do not set δL zero like in earlier cases because it will lead to α2
L′ = 2 T − α kU = α k L
PCM = 0, a special case. We set β
Suppose the potential of the function is a homogeneous function Infinite charged plate, infinite line charge, two charges of equal
of the coordinates, then magnitude, infinite half-plane charge, charged helix, charged
torus.
U(r′a) = U(α ra) = α kU(ra)
38
3. Construct conserved quantities for the system of Exercise 1 of
Section 3.2 as well as a system of two masses m1 and m2
coupled by a spring of a spring constant k.
39
Section 3
Noether’s theorem
We can derive conservation laws for continuous transformation. ∂L′ ∂L′ dt′ ∂L′ dq ′μ ∂L′ d q· ′μ
= + + ·μ
A general transformation is ∂ϵ ∂t′ dϵ ∂q μ dϵ ∂q dϵ
∫ [ dt ]
dt′
∫ ∫
L′dt′ − L dt = L′ − L dt d dq ′μ ·
we obtain = ζμ − q· ′μτ.
·
dϵ dt′
For minimum,
dϵ ( dt′ ) dϵ
d dt′ d · = τ·
Also, = (1 + ϵ τ)
dϵ [ dt ]
d dt′ dF
L′ −L =
ϵ=0
dt
Therefore
or ∂L · · = dF or
L τ· + τ + p· μζ μ + pμ(ζμ − q· ′μτ)
∂t dt
dϵ [ dt ]ϵ=0 [ dϵ ]ϵ=0
d dt′ dL′ dF
L + =
dt ∂H · dF
−Hτ· − τ + p· μζ μ + pμζμ = or
∂t dt
Note:
pμζ μ − Hτ − F = const.
40
This is the Noether’s theorem. Therefore, the conserved quantity with F = 0 is
Examples: pζ − H = constant
( 2m )
bx
Hence pζ = m x· − exp(bt /m) = − bx x· exp(bt /m).
(3) Choose τ = 0,F = 0, x′ = x − ϵy, y′ = ϵx + y that yields Mz =
constant.
(2 )
1 ·2 1 2
Also H = p x· − L = m x + k x exp(bt /m)
(4) Galilean invariance: τ = 0,F = RCM ⋅ Vr, ζ μ = Vrμt. It yields a 2
conserved quantity as
Therefore the conserved quantity is
PCM ⋅ Vr t − RCM ⋅ Vr = const
(2 )
1 ·2 1 2 1 ·
m x + k x + bx x exp(bt /m)
2 2
which is identically zero since RCM = PCM t.
(2 )
1 ·2 1 2
L= m x − k x exp(bt /m)
2
· ·
( 2m )
·x′ = x + ϵ ζ = x· 1 − ϵ b
1 + ϵ τ·
Discrete Symmetries
U(−t) = U(t),
We cannot distinguish between the forward and time-reversed Can’t figure out who is the real gun man!
dynamics.
(b) (a)
42
Proper and pseudo vectors A cross product of two pseudo vectors is a proper vectors.
When a mirror is placed as an xz plane, the symmetry of mir- Examples of pseudo vectors
ror reflection is mathematically expressed as
(1) Angular momentum L = r × p since the linear momentum
z′ = z, y′ = − y, x′ = x; t′ = t p = mv is a proper vector. Also, spin angular momentum of a
Hence, body.
v′x = vx, v′y = − vy, v′z = vz (2) Angular velocity Ω, which is defined using v = Ω × r.
C=A×B
= (Ay Bz − Az By) ̂x + (Az Bx − Ax Bz ) ŷ + (Ax By − Ay Bx ) ẑ B B
tions of yield
Cross product of two proper vectors is a pseudo vector. Does the mirror symmetry hold for all experiment?
Two corollaries of the above statements are Ans: No! In Beta decay
43
(b) (a) Let us understand the phenomena from the fundamental forces
and fundamental particle point of view. Find a schematic diagram
e e
v v of neutriono.
S S
However we observe that right-handed antineutrino exist, as (a) F=q v×B (b) F=q v×E
shown below.
(c) F=q v×B+mg (d) F=E+B
(e) F=E×B
Left-handed
Right-handed
neutrino
antineutrino
45
Section 5
Relativistic Lagrangian
Relativistic Dynamics ∂L mv
p0 = =
∂v 1 − v 2 /c 2
A particle follows a trajectory for which the elapsed proper time
is minimum. This action is Lorentz invariant. Therefore the energy or the Hamiltonian of the free particle is
∫
S = − α dτ mc 2
H0 = p ⋅ v − L =
1 − v 2 /c 2
∫
= −α 1 − v 2 /c 2 dt
For a charged particle in an electromagnetic field
q d xμ
∫ ∫
In the nonrelativistic limit, 2 μ
S = (−mc )dτ + Aμd x = (−mc )dτ + Aμ 2
dt
c dt
1 v2
∫[ 2 c2 ]
S =−α 1− dt. Hence the Lagrangian of the particle is
L = L0 − q(ϕ − A ⋅ v/c)
Hence, when we choose α = mc 2, we obtain the usual
Lagrangian as L = mv 2 /2. Hence, the relativistic Lagrangian is The generalized momentum is
∂L
L0 = − mc 2 1 − v 2 /c 2 p= = p0 + qA/c = γ mv + qA/c
∂v
The linear momentum is
Hence γ 2 = 1 + (p − qA/c)2 /m 2c 2.
46
H = p ⋅ v − L = γ mc 2 + qϕ = m 2c 4 + (pc − qA)2 + qϕ
1 2
L= mv − q(ϕ − A ⋅ v/c)
2
(p − qA/c)2
H= + qϕ
2m
d
(mvi + qAi /c) = − ∂i ϕ + (∂i Aj )vj
dt
d Ai ∂A ∂A
Using = i + i vj, we obtain
dt ∂t ∂xj
∂Aj
[ ∂t ]
d
(mvi) = − q ∂i ϕ + + (v × B)i = q(E + v × B)i
dt
47
Chapter 5
Solution of
Equation of
Motion
Section 1
One-dimensional Motion
1 2 ·2
L= ml ϕ − mgl(1 − cos ϕ)
2
Generic features
where φ is the displacement in the counterclockwise direction.
The equation of motion
U(x)
··
ϕ = − g sin ϕ,
a b c x
It is easier to solve the energy equation which is first order in
time:
1 ·2
For the given energy E, l ϕ = g(cos ϕ − cos ϕ0)
2
l ϕ dϕ′
g ∫0 2
Pendulum =
(sin2(ϕ0 /2) − sin2(ϕ′ /2))
49
(2) Repeat the exercise for (a) U(x) = − U0 /cosh2 α x where
−U0 < E < 0, (b) U = U0 tan2(α x), and (c) U(x) = A | x |n .
We make a change of variable
sin(ϕ/2) (3) A particle experiences a force F(x) = 1/x 3 − 1/x 2. Compute the
=x potential for the particle. Identify the equilibrium point as well
sin(ϕ0 /2)
as the fixed points. Sketch the phase space plots.
that yields
(4)
l x d x′ l
g ∫0
t= = K(x, k)
(1 − x ′2)(1 − k 2 x ′2) g
l 1 d x′ l
g ∫0
T =4 =4 K(x = 1,k)
(1 − x ′2)(1 − k 2 x ′2) g
For small ϕ0, k → 0. Hence
l
T = 2π
g
Exercises:
50
51
Section 2
Two-dimensional motion
1 2 2 Therefore
V(x, y) = ω (x + y 2)
2
(x y) A T A (y) = 1 or
x
and hence the Lagrangian is
1 1 α x 2 + βy 2 + γx y = 1 with
L = m(x· 2 + y· 2) + ω 2(x 2 + y 2)
2 2
alpha = (d12 + d32); β = (d22 + d42); γ = 2(d1d2 + d3d4)
and equations of motion are
which is an equation of an ellipse since 4αβ − γ 2 = det(A T A) > 0 .
m x·· = − ω 2 x; m ··y = − ω 2 y,
2. Motion under a central potential
or We solve for the motion of a particle under the influence of
central potential: U(r) = U(r). Hence, the force F(r) = − ∇U(r) is
F = − mω 2r
radial. Therefore, the angular momentum L about the centre of
The solution of the above equations are the force is conserved. By definition L = r × p, hence L ⋅ r = 0.
Therefore, the motion of the particle will be in the plane
x(t) = c1 cos(ωt) + c2 sin(ωt) = A cos(ωt − ϕA)
perpendicular to L. Therefore, we use two-dimensional radial-
y(t) = c3 cos(ωt) + c4 sin(ωt) = B cos(ωt − ϕB) polar coordinate system:
52
·
r = r r̂ + r ϕ ϕ̂
In the next section, we consider the motion of planet under the The potential for a pair of charges with same sign is repulsive:
influence of a star. α α
U(r) = = . (2)
| r1 − r2 | r
3. Motion under −α/r potential
The above potential is applicable to In the following discussion, we will solve for the motion of a
particle under an attractive potential. In particular, we will solve
1. star-plant system
for the motion of a planet. We will verify the three laws of Kepler.
2. Motion of a classical electron in an atom For the solar planets:
3. Scattering between two masses, and two charged particles Now we solve the equation of motion for star-planet system
shown in the above figure in the CM reference frame. Hence,
Note that the forces between two masses, and that between two
oppositely charged particles is attractive, i.e., m2 m1
r1 = r; r2 = − r, (3)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
α α
U(r) = − = − , (1)
| r1 − r 2 | r
where r = r1 − r2. The kinetic energy of the system is
where α>0, and r1, r2 are the positions of the planet and star 1 1 1
T= m1v12 + m2v22 = μ r· 2,
respectively as shown in the following figure. 2 2 2
1 2
L= μv − U(r).
2
53
Since ∂L /∂t = 0, the total energy equation of the system is
1 2
μv + U(r) = E
2
1 ·2 · α
μ(r + r 2ϕ2) − = E
2 r
1 ·2
μr + Ueff (r) = E(4)
2
with
α L2 Figure 1: Plot of effective potential Ueff (r) vs. r
Ueff (r) = − + .
r 2μr 2
at
Lz2
r0 = . (6)
mα
2 ( dt )
2
1 dr αLz2 variables
μ + − = E, (7)
2μr 2 r
r = r0r̃; t = t0t̃, v = v0 ṽ, E = E0 Ẽ . Lz = L0 L̃z .
When we non-dimensionalise the equation discussed in the ear-
lier section using appropriate length- and time scales, they ap-
pear somewhat simpler. For non-dimensionalization, we use the Since Lz = L0, L̃z = 1, which yields
radius of the circular orbit as the length scale. For the circular or- dϕ
bit, L̃z = r̃ 2 = 1.
d t̃
v02 α
m = 2 . Here the time derivative is in terms of new non-dimensional time
r0 r0 t̃. When we substitute the above in the energy equation, we ob-
tain
Using Lz = mv0r0 for a circle, we obtain the radius of the circular
2 ( d t̃ )
2
orbit in terms of Lz as 1 d r̃ 1 1
+ 2 − = Ẽ . (8)
2r̃ r̃
Lz2
r0 = .
mα A change of variable ũ = 1/ r̃ provides
1
ũ = =1+ 1 + 2Ẽ cos ϕ . (10)
r̃
Here one focus of the curve is at the origin (position of the star).
Circle (e = 0)
4. e > 1 (Ẽ > 0).
56
A circle is a conic section with e = 0. Hence 1
Ẽ = − .
2ã
1
r̃ = 1 and Ẽ = −
2 Let us shift the origin of the coordinate system to the centre of
the ellipse by an amount ã − r̃min = ãe. The coordinates in the
In dimensional form
shifted system as (x′, y′) are
Lz2 cos ϕ e + cos ϕ
r = p = r0 = . x̃′ = x̃ + ãe = + ãe = ã ,
mα 1 + e cos ϕ 1 + e cos ϕ
and
sin ϕ 1 − e 2 sin ϕ
ỹ′ = ỹ = r̃ sin ϕ = = b̃ .
α mα 2 1 + e cos ϕ 1 + e cos ϕ
E=− =− ,
2r0 2Lz2
A simple manipulation shows that
This orbit corresponds to the minimum of the effective potential
x̃′2 ỹ′2
Ueff (r). + = 1,
ã 2 b̃2
Ellipse (0 < e < 1)
Since e ≥ 0, we conclude that Ẽ ≥ − 1/2. Note that the circular or-
When e < 1, the trajectory is an ellipse (Figs. 2). Hence bit of unit radius (p = 1) has total energy Ẽ = − 1/2.
1
r̃max =
1−e In non-dimensional units, the time period of the elliptical orbit is
1
b̃ = .
1 − e2
57
the corresponding points are called aphelion and perihelion re-
spectively, while for the geo satellites (including the Moon), the re-
spective points are {\em apogee} and {\em perigee} respectively.
Parabola (e = 1)
1
r̃ = , (23)
1 + cos ϕ
d ϕ̃ d r̃ ̂
=α (− ϕ + r̃ r̂ )
d t̃ dϕ
1
= α(−e sin ϕ ϕ̂ + r̂ )
r̃
Therefore,
N = v × L − α r/r = − αe ̂x.
Hence the direction of N is along the apogee, that is from the foci
of the ellipse to the point with rmax. The above result also shows
Figure 3 Trajectories of solar planets: (a) Mercury, Venus, Earth, that N
and Mars in increasing order; (b) Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Naputune; The planets Mercury, Mars, Earth, and Mars appear to- Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector is an additional constant for Kepler’s
gether near the origin. We normalise the distance in the units of problem. Thus, for the 2D motion, we have three conserved quan-
Earth-Sun distance. tities: E, Lz, N. There is only one free variable here, which is ϕ, the
azimuthal angle. Hence the motion is very constrained.
Keplerian Orbit as a function of time
SOLVING THE FORCE EQUATION OF A PLANET
Landau
59
We can also derive the solution of the planetary orbit from the which yields
force equation that in non-dimensionalised form is
c1 = 2Ẽ + 1.
( d t̃ )
2 2
d r̃ dϕ 1
− r̃ = − , Therefore,
d t̃ 2 r̃ 2
60
the Sun. Determine the speed of the comet when it is closest to Note that E is proportional to the mass of the comet. At the clos-
the Sun? est point to the Sun,
T = 2πa 3/2 m /α = 2πa 3/2 / GMs , (1) Hence we obtain the speed at rmin as vmax = 54.3 km/s, which is
approximately 1.8 times the average orbital speed of the Earth.
where Ms = 2 × 1030 kg is the mass of the Sun, and
G = 6.67 × 10−11m3 /s2 kg is Newton's gravitational constant, we Example 9.5 For a Earth's satellite, rmin and rmax are 10000 km
compute the semi-major radius a of the comet as and 6000 km respectively. The mass of the satellite is 2000 kg.
Compute the eccentricity, energy, angular momentum, and mini-
1/3
GMsT 2 mum and maximum speeds of the satellite.
( 4π 2 )
a= = 2.69 × 1012 meters . (2)
Solution:
Note that a is independent of the mass of the comet. Using a, we rmax − rmin 4 1
The eccentricity of the satellite e = = =
obtain rmax + rmin 16 4
rmin = a(1 − e) = 8.9 × 1010m ∼ 0.59 AU, The semi-major radius of the satellitea = (rmax + rmin) /2 = 8000 km
rmax = a(1 + e) = 5.3 × 1012m ∼ 3.53 AU. The latus rectum of the elliptical orbit p = r0 = a(1 − e 2) = 7500 km.
where AU, called the astronomical unit, is the distance between Also, α = GMm = gRE2 m = 7.2 × 1017 Joule m
the Sun and the Earth, and it is equal to 1.5 × 1012 meters. We can
compute the latus rectum of the ellipse using Therefore, the angular momentum =
L = mr0α = 1.039 × 1014 kg m2 /sec
p = r0 = rmin(1 + e) = a(1 − e 2)
α
The energy of the comet is computed using Eq. (9.5.26) as Energy = E = − = 4.5 × 1010Joules
2a
α GMs m GMs m
E = Ẽ = (e 2 − 1) =− = − m × 2.48 × 107J . Since Lz = m rmin Vmax, we obtain
r0 r0 2a
61
1.03 × 1014 GMm
Vmax = = 8.5km /s The energy at point A of the circular orbit = −
2 × 103 × 6 × 106 4Re
Example 9.6 A space vehicle of mass 2000 kg is orbiting around a = (rmin + rmax )/2 = 3Re
the Earth in a circular orbit with the radius of orbit as 2Re. We wish
4−2 1
to transfer the vehicle to a circular orbit of radius 4Re (see Fig. e= =
4+2 3
9.15). One of the schemes to transfer the vehicle is to use a semi-
( 3)
elliptical orbit as shown in the figure. What velocity changes are 1 8
p = (1 + e)rmin = 1+ 2Re = Re
required at the points of intersection, A and B? What is the 3
change in energy of the system in the two configurations?
α GMm GMm
E=− =− =−
2a 2 × 3Re 6Re
1 2 GMm
E= mv − ,
2 r
m( 2Re )
2 GMm 2GM
VAe = E+ =
3Re
Figure 4 Example 9.6: A space vehicle is transferred from an in-
ner orbit to an outer orbit.
and at B
Solution:
m( 4Re )
2 GMm GM
VBe = E+ =
Total energy of a circular orbit of radius r is −GMm /(2r), where M 6Re
is the mass of the planet and m is the mass of the satellite. There-
fore,
62
For the circular orbit, v = GM/r, where r is the radius of the cir- convenient to work with a non dimensionalized form of the energy
cular orbit. Therefore, equation. For non dimensionalization we use r0 = Lz /(mω) as
GM the length scale, 1/ω as the time scale, and L ω as the energy
VAc = scale, which yields
2Re
t′ E′
r = r0r′; t = ; E= .
GM ω Lω
VBc =
4Re
The energy equation in terms of the non dimensionalized vari-
ables is
Hence,
2 ( d t̃ )
2
1 d r̃ 1 1
+ 2 + r̃ 2 = Ẽ .
Re ( ) ( 2)
GM 2 1 2 1
ΔVA = − = gRe − 2r̃ 2
3 2 3
The above equation resembles an equation of a particle executing
(2 6)
1 1 a one-dimensional motion under the effective potential
ΔVB = gRe −
1 1 2
Ueff = + r̃ ,
2r̃ 2 2
In the next section, we will work out the trajectories of a two-
dimensional oscillator. 54. Two-dimensional oscillator in radial- which is plotted in Fig. 9.4. The effective potential has a mini-
polar coordinate mum value of 1 at r̃ = 1. At the minimum value, the orbit of the
particle is a circle with unit radius. For Ẽ > 1,rmin ≤ r ≤ rmax as indi-
cated in Fig. 9.4. We will solve for the orbits for this regime.
The equation of a two-dimensional oscillator in radial-polar coordi-
nate is
2 ( dt )
2
1 dr Lz2 1 2 2
m + + mω r = E, (1)
2mr 2 2
63
ũ2 = Ẽ + Ẽ 2 − 1 sin 2ϕ
or
(x̃ 2 + ỹ2)Ẽ + 2 x̃ ỹ Ẽ 2 − 1 = 1
x̃′2(Ẽ + Ẽ 2 − 1) + ỹ′2(Ẽ − Ẽ 2 − 1) = 1,
ũd ũ
∫ ∫
= dϕ.
where T is the time period of the planetary orbit. Let us take
(Ẽ 2 − 1) − (ũ2 − Ẽ )2
Q = p ⋅ v, where p is the linear momentum of the planet. Using
the product rule
The solution of the above equation is
d
2
ũ − Ẽ p⋅v= (p ⋅ r) − ma ⋅ r,
sin −1
= 2(ϕ + C ) dt
Ẽ 2 −1
where a = − α r/r 3 is the acceleration of the planet. Temporal aver-
where C is a constant, which is chosen to be zero. Therefore aging of each of the terms of the above equation yields
⟨p ⋅ v⟩ = 2 ⟨T ⟩,
64
−m ⟨a ⋅ r⟩ = ⟨α /r⟩ = − ⟨U ⟩, and
⟨ dt ⟩ T→∞ T ∫ dt
d 1 d 1
dt (p ⋅ r) = lim [p ⋅ r] = 0
t=T
(p ⋅ r) = lim
T→∞ T t=0
⟨E⟩ = ⟨T ⟩ + ⟨U ⟩ = − ⟨T ⟩ = ⟨U ⟩/2.
6. General Central Force Problem Figure 6 Effective potential for (a) 0 < n < 2 with α = 1, (b) n = 2
A general attractive central force potential of the power law form
with α = 1 (solid line) and α = 0.1 (dashed line), (c) n > 2 with
is
α = 1, (d) m > 0 with β = 1.
α
U(r) = − , or U(r) = βr m, The behaviour of these systems are
r n
with α, n, β, m > 0. The effective potentials are 1. 0 < n < 2: Ueff has a similar behaviour as that for −1/r (Kepler-
ian) potential. Therefore, we obtain bounded orbits for E < 0
Lz2 and unbounded orbits for E > 0.
Ueff = U(r) +
2mr 2
2. The orbits for n > 2 are inward spiral towards the centre.
and they have been plotted in Fig. 9.5.
3. n = 2 with Ueff = α′ /r 2: we obtain unbounded and bounded or-
bits depending on the value of α′ and E.
65
Also exact solutions exists only for n = 1 and m = 2, and they If we demand that U(r = ∞) = 0, then clearly, E = 0. The force is
have been solved in this chapter. It has been shown rigorously −dU(r)/dr ∝ r −3, and its direction is radially inward.
that the orbits are closed only for these two cases.
Example 2: Consider a potential
Example 1: An object of unit mass orbits in a central potential
α
U(r). Its orbit is given by r = a exp(−bϕ) with b > 0. What are the U(r) = − ,
r2
constants of motion? Find the potential.
where α > 0. Solve for the trajectories of a particle moving under
Solution At ϕ = 0, r = a. As ϕ increases, r decreases. The veloc- this potential.
ity of the particle is
· Solution The energy equation for a particle of mass m moving un-
v = r· r̂ + r ϕ ϕ̂ der the above potential is
· ·
= a exp(−bϕ)(−b ϕ) r̂ + r ϕ ϕ̂
2 ( dt ) ( 2m
2
Lz2
) r2
1 dr 1
· m + −α = E,
̂
= r ϕ(−b r̂ + ϕ).
The constants of motion are angular momentum L and energy E: where the effective potential is
·
Lz = r 2ϕ Lz2
( 2m ) r2
1
Ueff = −α .
·
= a 2 exp(−2bϕ)ϕ,
1 ·
· Using r = 1/u and Lz = mr 2ϕ, the energy equation is transformed
E = (r· 2 + r 2ϕ2) + U(r)
2 to
1 2 ·2 2
( dϕ ) (
2
Lz )
= r ϕ (b + 1) + U(r) . du 2mα 2mE
2 + 1− 2 u2 = 2
Lz
Lz2
= (b 2 + 1) + U(r) (1)
2r 2 or
2m ( L ) r2
Lz2 2mα 1 Lz2 β
Ueff = 1− 2 = × . similar to Fig. 7(b), except that the convergence to the origin
2m r 2
is slower for this case compared to item 2.
PS: In this problem we cannot construct a length scale purely
from Lz, m and α, like in −α /r potential. Here, the length scale is
α /E. From the above equation, it is appropriate to choose β/γ
as the length scale.
1 γ
1. γ > 0,β > 0: = cos( βϕ). Here r(ϕ) increases with ϕ,
r β
as illustrated in Fig. 7(a). Here β = 0.01 and γ = 2.
1 γ
2. γ > 0,β < 0: = sinh( | β | ϕ). Here the particle falls to
r |β|
the centre of the potential, as illustrated in Fig. 7(b). Here
β = − 0.1 and γ = 2.
67
The force equation for the planet is x(t) = ̂x0 exp(iωt); y(t) = ŷ 0 exp(iωt)
2
··r = L − α = − dUeff ,
Substitution of the above in the equation yields
m 2r 3 mr 2 dr
2 dΩ2
−ω ̂x0 − 2iΩ0ω ŷ 0 = − ̂x0 R
where the effective potential Ueff plotted in Fig. is convex. Hence dR
the orbit will be stable.
−ω 2 ŷ 0 + 2iΩ0ω ̂x0 = 0.
RAYLEIGH CRITERION
Elimination of ̂x0, ŷ 0 in the above yields
Let us analyze the dynamics of the orbit in more detail. For sim-
plicity, we will work out the stability of a circular Keplerian orbit of 2 2 dΩ2
ω (ω − 4Ω20 −R )=0
radius R0, We denote the angular velocity of the planet at a dis- dR
tance R from the centre as ω(R). We employ a reference frame
which is attached at a distance R0 and it rotating with an angular whose solutions are ω = 0 and
velocity of ω(R). Now consider a planet of mass m located at dΩ2 1 d
2
(x,y) and moving with velocity v = (x, · y).
· ω = 4Ω20 +R = 3 (R 4Ω2)
dR R dR
In the undisturbed state, the gravitational force acting on planet For stability ω 2 > 0. The above condition is called the Rayleigh cri-
provides the centripetal force −m[Ω(R0 + x)]2(R0 + x) ̂x to facilitate terion for centrifugal stability.
the circular motion. In the rotating frame, the equation of motion
is For the planetary orbit, Ω2 = CR −3,where C is a constant, hence
2 MAGNETOROTATION INSTABILITY
dΩ
x·· − 2Ω0 y· = − xR
dR Balbus proposed that the magnetic field acting like a spring can
··y + 2Ω x· = 0 destabilize a Keplerian orbit. He modelled the magnetic force as
0
−Kr, and hence modelled the equation of motion of the planet as
where Ω0 = Ω(R0). To solve the equations, we attempt
68
2
dΩ massive objects exhibits a chaotic motion. It has been shown rig-
x·· − 2Ω0 y· = − xR − Kx
dR orously that for some set of parameters, the final states of the
two nearby initial states will diverge exponentially. Malhotra, Hol-
··y + 2Ω x· = − Ky
0 man, and Ito (2001) argued however that the time-scale for this
divergence is over 5 to 10 million years, and the escape time-
By following a similar procedure as above, we obtain
scale of the planets is beyond the age of the Sun. These studies
dΩ2 show that even though a two-body problem is exactly solvable,
( dR )
4 2 2
ω − (2K + κ )ω + K K + R =0 three-body and many-body problems are much more complex.
These issues will be discussed when we take up nonlinear dynam-
ics and chaos.
2 dΩ2
where κ = 4Ω20 +R . The solutions of the above equation are
dR
9. Additional interesting results on central
dΩ2 potential orbits
( dR )
2ω = (2K + κ ) ±
2 2 2 2
(2K + κ ) − 4 K + R
(a) Write down the equation of motion for the bead in the
radial-polar coordinate system. Is the angular momen-
tum of the particle about the origin conserved?
(b) Solve for the motion of the bead with an initial condition
(r = 0,r· = v0). Show that the system is in equilibrium if
v0 = 0.
3. Evaluate the ratio of the mass of the Sun to that of the Earth
given that a terrestrial year is 365.24 terrestrial days, and a lu-
nar month is 27.3 days. Assume that the mean radius of
Earth's orbit is 1.49 × 108 km, and radius of moon's orbit is
3.8 × 105 km, and the orbits are circular.
4. A shell is fired from a Bofors gun with velocity 100 m/s. The an-
gle of the projectile is 45∘ with respect to the horizontal. Com-
70
pute the trajectory of the shell using (a) g = const, (b) g ∝ − r̂ /r 2 (b) Identify a stationary orbit, which is circular, for the sys-
(Kepler's problem). Show that both these results are consistent. tem.
5. Perilion and aphelion (shortest and largest distance from the 12. An object of unit mass orbits around a central potential U(r).
Sun) of Pluto's orbit are 29.658 AU and 49.305 AU respec- The orbit of the object is r = 1/(1 + cos ϕ), and its angular momen-
tively. The corresponding quantities for the Earth are 0.999860 tum is L.
AU and 1.0000 AU. Compute the orbital time period of Pluto
given that Earth's time period is 365.256 solar days. (a) Sketch the trajectory of the object.
6. Compute the ratio of the maximum and minimum speed of the (b) Express object's velocity in terms of ϕ and L.
Earth around the Sun given that the eccentricity of Earth's or-
(c) What is the potential on the object?
bit about the Sun is 0.0167. Do the same exercise for Pluto
whose eccentricity is 0.24. 13. A particle moving in a central potential follows a trajectory
given by rϕ = const. Sketch the trajectory of the particle.
7. A comet orbiting around the Earth has a velocity 10 km/sec at
Also, compute the potential of the particle as a function of r.
apogee and 80 km/sec at perigee. Compute the shortest and
largest distances for the comet from Earth's centre. 14. The trajectory of a particle is described by x = a cos(ωt),
y = b sin(ωt). Determine the force that acts on the particle at
8. Devise schemes to measure the mass of the moon.
every point of the path.
9. Compute mass of the Sun using the orbital properties of the
x2 y2
Earth. 15. The trajectory of a particle is given by a curve 2 + 2 = 1,
a b
10.A geostationary satellite is one whose position in the sky re- and the acceleration of the particle is always along the y-axis.
mains the same for an observer on the Earth. These satellites At t = 0, the particle was at (x = 0,y = b) and had velocity v0.
are place above Earth's equator. Compute the radius of the Determine the force acting on the particle at all time.
orbit of a geostationary satellite.
16. Estimate the escape velocity on the surface of the Earth.
11.Consider a general attractive radial force f (r) of the form r β act- Also estimate the escape velocity on a asteroid whose radius
ing on a planet: is 5 km, and whose density is same as that of the Earth.
71
17. A particle of unit mass is moving with a constant speed v on
a curve y = A sin x. Compute the velocity, acceleration, and
force of the particle at x = 0,π /2,π and 3π /2. Take A = 1.
72
Section 3
Collisions
Rutherford Scattering
We consider scattering between two charged particles, which is
mediated by the electric field between the particles. When the
charged particles have opposite signs, then the solution is same
as the parabolic and elliptic orbits discussed in Sec. XXX.
Here we discuss scattering when the charged particles have the Figure:
same sign. For such systems, the method to solve is same as
that discussed in Sec. XXX, except that the potential energy is In terms of u = 1/r, the equation transforms to
α 1/2
dϕ ( Lz )
U(r) = du 2mE 2mα
r = − 2 u − u2
2 Lz
1 ·2 · α
μ(r + r 2ϕ2) + = E
2 r
73
We nondimensionalize the above equation using the scales We sketch the solution in Fig. 1 for a two particle system. The
defined for the Kepler problem. Note however that r = r0 does not centre of the force is at the origin. Contrast the figure with that
correspond to the circle; here r0 just provides a length scale. for Kepler’s problem where the the hyperbola opens its mouth to
the left.
2 ( dϕ )
2 2
1 d ũ ũ
+ + ũ = Ẽ.
2
The solution of the above equation is
y
1
ũ = = 1 + 2Ẽ cos ϕ = e cos ϕ − 1
r̃
r
ELz2
r1
p
= e cos ϕ − 1,
r
where
Lz2
p= = r0,
mα
2ELz2
e= 1+ .
mα 2
74