Unit-1 M.tech (Vector Space) Dec. 2017

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Tech (Advanced Mathematics)

UNIT - 1
Vector Space
EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

1.1. Vector Space: [RGPV June 2014 (MMTP)]
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Let (F, +, .) be an arbitrary field whose elements will be called scalar and let V be any
non-empty set whose element will be called vector, then the structure ((F, +, .), (V, + ), . ) or
V (F) is called vector space over the field F if they satisfying following properties as
1. (V, +) is an abelian group
Thought
V11 Closure Law :
If , V such that, V , , V
V12 Associative law :
Do not worry about your difficulties in mathematics, I assure you that
If , , V such that,  ( ) = ()  V , , , V
they are very small.
V13 Existence of vector identity:
FREE STUDY PACKAGE  0 V such that, 0    0  , V

V14 Existence of Vector inverse:
For each V ,  () V such that,  () = ()  = 0
V15 Commutative law:
If , V such that,   , , V
UNIT–1 2. F is closed under scalar multiplication:
If a  F and V such that, a.V , V and a  F
Vector Space, Hash, Heaviside, Error
3.(i). a  F and , V  a.()  a. a.
function
(ii). a, b  F and V  (a  b).  a. b.
Contents
Chapter - 1 Vector Space (iii). a, b  F and V  (a.b).  a.(b.)
Chapter - 2 Linear Transformation (iv). 1 F and V 1. = , V
Chapter - 3 Hash Function where 1 is the unit element of F.
Chapter - 4 Heaviside and Error function Note: 1. R(C) is not a vector space while C(R) is a vector space, because
2  R and i C , then 2 i  R but
2 i C
2. R(Q) is a vector space while Q(R) is not a vector space, because
2 2 2
2  R and Q , then R
3 3
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2 2 Hence, necessary condition is satisfied.
But Q The Sufficient condition:
3

Given: Let W be a non-empty subset of V and hold the condition
3. Q(I) and I(Q) both are not vector space, because I is not field
a, b  F and , W  a. b.W
. To Prove: W is subspace of V(F).

1.2 Vector Subspace space: Proof: (1) Since we have,
Let V any vector space over field F and W  V, then W is said to be a vector subspace a, b  F and , W  a. b.W ….
of V if W is itself a vector space over the same field F with respect to same vector addition (1)
‘+’ and scalar multiplication ‘.’ as defined on V. Taking, a = 1, b = 1 F in (1), we get
Example 1: Let R be the set of all real numbers and let Q be the set of all rational
1.1.W
numbers, then R(Q) is a vector space and Q  R, then Q(Q) is vector
subspace of R(Q) under usual addition and multiplication.   W , , W
 W is closed under vector addition.
Example 2: Let C be the set of all complex numbers and let R be the set of all real (2) Taking, b = 0  F in (1), we get
numbers, then C(R) is a vector space and R  C, then R(R) is vector a.  0. = a.  0 = a.W
subspace of C(R) under usual addition and multiplication
 scalar multiplication is closed in W.
Theorem 1: A non-empty subset W of a vector space V(F) is a subspace if and only if (3) Taking, a = 1, b = 0  F , in equation (1), we get
W is closed under vector addition and scalar multiplication.
1. 0. =  0 = W
Theorem 2: A non-empty subset W of a vector space V(F) is a vector subspace if and  additive inverse of each elements of W is also in W.
only if: (4). Taking, a = 0, b = 0 F , in equation (1), we get
(i). W, W  W (ii). a  F, W  a.W 0.  0. = 0  0 = 0W
Theorem 3: A non-empty subset W of a vector space V(F) is a subspace if and only if  W has additive vector identity.
a, b  F and , W  a. b.W [RGPV March 2010]
As W is non-empty subset of V(F) in which vector addition and scalar multiplication are
Proof: The necessary condition: closed, W is a subspace of V(F).
Given: Let W be subspace of V. Proved
To Prove: a, b  F and , W  a. b.W Theorem 4: If W1 and W2 are subspaces of a vector space V(F), then W1 W2 is also a
Proof: Since W be a subspace of vector space V(F), then W is closed under vector subspaces of V(F)
addition and scalar multiplication. Proof: Let W1 and W2 be any two subspaces of a vector space V(F), then
 a, b  F and , W  a.W, b.W 0 W1 and 0 W2  0 W1 W2 . Thus W1 W2 is a non-empty subset of V(F)
 a.  b.W
Now, let a, b  F and , W1 W2  Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector space V(F) such that W1  W2 or W2  W1
a, bF and , W  and a, bF and , W2  To Prove: W1 W2 is a subspace of V(F).

 a  bW1 and a  bW2 Proof: Since W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector space V(F).
Now, W1  W2  W2 = W1 W2 or W2  W1  W1 = W1 W2

[  A non-empty subset W of a vector space V(F) is a subspace if and only if But W1 and W2 be subspaces, then W1 W2 is also subspace of V(F).
a, b  F and , W  a. b.W ] Hence W1 W2 is also subspace of V(F).
 a  bW1 W2 The Sufficient condition:
Hence, W1 W2 is a subspace of V(F). Proved Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of vector space V(F) and W1 W2 be also subspace of
Note: Union of two subspaces of a vector space need not be a subspace i.e., if W1 and V(F).
W2 are any two subspace, of a vector space V(F), then W1 W2 need not be a To Prove: W1  W2 or W2  W1
subspace of V(F). Proof: Now we shall prove by contradiction, for this we assume that W1  W2 and W2
Example : Let W1 =  a, 0 : a  R and W2 = 0, b : b  R be two subspaces  W1, then  W1 and
of V2(R), but W1 W2 is not a subspace of V2(R). Because

W2 such that W2 and W1 .
W1 and W2  , W1 W2
 a, 0 W1  a, 0 W1 W2 But,
   W1 W2
0, b W2  0, b W1 W2
 W1 W2 is a subspace
But a, 0  0, b = a  0, 0  b
   W1 or   W2
=  a, b W1 W2 if a  0, b  0
Now,   W1 and W1   W1
i.e., ‘+’ is not closed in W1 W2 .
[ Since W1 is subspace of V(F)]
Thus W1 W2 is not subspace of V(F).
 W1
which is a contradiction because W1
Theorem 5: Union of two subspaces of vector space is a subspace if and only if
one is contained in the other. Again,   W2 and W2   W2
OR  W2
If W1 and W2 are subspaces of a vector space V(F), then W1 W2 is a subspace if and
which is a contradiction because W2
only if W1  W2 or W2  W1
Hence, W1  W2 or W2  W1 . Proved
Proof: The necessary condition:
SOLVED PROBLEMS If V , then   V such that,
1. If V is the set of all pairs (x, y) of real numbers and vector addition and scalar    =   = 0

multiplication are defined by V15 Commutative Law:
 x, y   x1, y1 = 3x  3y1, x  y1 If , V    =  

and c x, y = 3cy,  cx 2. Scalar multiplication:
then examine whether V is a vector space or not. For any scalar
Solution: Given R is set of real number and we have a  R and V  a.V ,  a  R and V
 x, y   x1, y1 = 3x  3y1, x  y1
. …… (1) 3 (i). a  R and , V  a  a a ,
and c x, y = 3cy,  cx …… (2)  a  R and , V
Let  = 1, 2,  =  2, 3 V , then (ii). a, b  R and V  a  b   a b ,
 = 1, 2   2, 3 = 31 3 3,1 3 = 12,  2  a, b  R and V
and  =  2, 3  1, 2 = 3 2  3 2, 2  2 = 12, 0 (iii). a, b  R and V  ab

.   ab. ,
      a, b  R and V
Thus ‘+’ is not commutative in V. (iv). 1 R and V  1. = .1 =  ,
Hence, V is not vector space.  1 R and V
2. Prove that the set of all vectors in a plane is a vector space over the field of real
numbers with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplication.
3.  
Let W =  a1, a2 , a3  : a1, a2 , a3  F and a1  a2  a3 = 0 . Show that W is a
Solution: Let V be the set of all vectors in a plane and R be the field of real numbers subspace of V3(F). [RGPV March 2010]
1. (V, +) is abelian group. Solution: Let  =  a1, a2 , a3 ,  = b1, b2 , b3  W such that
V11 Closure Law: a1  a2  a3 = 0 …. (1)
Since sum of two vectors is again a vector.
and b1  b2  b3 = 0 …. (2)
If , V  V
Again, let a, b  F , then
V12. Associative Law:
Since vector, addition is associative. a b = aa1, a2 , a3   bb1, b2 , b3 
If , , V      =    =  aa1, aa2 , aa3   bb1, bb2, bb3 
V13 Existence of identity:
=  aa1  bb1, aa2  bb2 , aa3  bb3 
If V and 0V    0  0    
=  aa1  bb1    aa2  bb2   aa3  bb3  [Given]
V14 Existence of inverse:
= a a1  a2  a3   bb1  b2  b3  IMPROVE YOUR SELF
= a0  b0 = 0  0 = 0 [From (1) and (2)]
 

1. Prove that the set W =  a, b, 0 : a, b  F is a subspace of the vector space
Thus, a, b  F and , W  a bW
V3(F).
Hence, W is a subspace of V(F).
a b
2. If W is the set of all elements of M2(F) of the form   , then prove that W is a
4. Let V(R) be a vector space of all real valued continuous function. Show that the set b a
W of solutions y = f(x) of the differential equation subspace of M2(F).
2 3. Show that the set W of the elements of the vector space V3(R) of the form
d y dy
2  9  2y = 0 is a subspace of V(R).
dx2 dx (x  2y, y,  x  3y) where x, y  R is a subspace of V3(R).
 d 2 y dy  4. Let W be the set of vectors of the form (x, 2x, –3x, x) , then prove that W is a sub-space
Solution: Let W = y : 2 2  9  2y = 0 of V4(F). [RGPV June 2013]
 dx dx 
It is clear that y = 0, satisfies the given differential equation therefore W is non-empty 5. Show that the set: [RGPV June 2012]
subset of V(R). W = { (a, b, c): a – 3b + 4c = 0, for all a, b, c R} is a subspace of the 3-tuples vector
Let y1, y2  W such that space V3(R).
d 2y1 dy
2 2
 9 1  2y1 = 0 1.3 Linear Combination (L.C):
dx dx
Let V(F) be a vector space, then a vector V is a linear combination of vectors
d 2y dy 1, 2 , ..... n if  a1, a2 , ...... an  F such that
and 2 22  9 2  2y2 = 0
dx dx
 = a11  a2 2  .....  an n
If a, b  R and y1, y2 W  a y1  b y2 W
1.4 Linear Span (L.S)
S = 1, 2,..... n be a non-empty subset of V(F), then the set of all
2
d d
2 1
Now, 2 a y  b y2   9  a y1  b y2   2 a y1  b y2  Let
dx dx
linear combinations of elements of S is called the linear span of S and is denoted by
2 2
d d d d
2  1
a y  2 2 b y2   9  a y1  9 b y2   2 a y1  2b y2 
L(S) i.e.,
= 2
dx dx dx dx L(S) = a11  a2 2  ....  an n : a1, a2, ...... an  F and 1, 2, ..... n  S 
 d 2y dy   d 2y dy 
= a  2 21  9 1  2y1   b 2 22  9 2  2y2  1.5 Linear independent set (L.I): [RGPV June 2017 (MCSE)]
 dx   dx 
A subset S = 1, 2, ..... n of a vector space V(F) is said to be a linearly
 dx   dx 
= a 0  b0 = 0  a y1  b y2 is a solution of given differential independent set if  a1, a2 , ...... an  F (of all zero) such that
equation, then W is a subspace of V(R). a1 1  a2 2  .....  an n = 0
If S = 1, 2, ..... n is a linearly independent set, then 1, 2 , ..... n are called
SOLVED PROBELMS
linearly independent vectors.
1, 0, 0, 0,1, 0, 0, 0,1 is linearly independent in

1.6 Linear dependent set (L.D): [RGPV June 2017 (MCSE)] 1. Prove that set S =
A subset S = 1, 2, ..... n of a vector space V(F) is said to be a linearly
V3(R).
dependent set if  a1, a2 , ...... an  F (not all zero i.e., at least once non-zero) such Solution: Given: S = 1, 0, 0, 0,1, 0, 0, 0,1 , let a1, a2 , a3  R such
that a1 1  a2 2  .....  an n = 0 that
a11  a2 2  .a3 3  0
If S = 1, 2, ..... n is a linearly dependent set, then 1, 2 , ..... n are called
linearly dependent vectors.  a11, 0, 0  a2 0,1, 0  .a30, 0,1  0
1.7 Basis of a vector space:  a1, 0, 0  0, a2 , 0  0, 0, a3  =  0, 0, 0
A non-empty subset S = 1, 2, ..... n of a vector space V(F) is said to be a
 a1  0  0, 0  a2  0, 0  0  a3  = 0, 0, 0
basis of V(F), if they satisfying following properties as
(i). S is linearly independent  a1, a2, a3  = 0, 0, 0
(ii). L(S) = V i.e., If V , then  = a11  a2 2  .....  an n Equating both sides, we get
Note 1. The standard basis of vector space denoted by e1, e2, …. en a1 = 0, a2 = 0 and a3 = 0
2. The standard basis of vector space V2(R) is S = 1, 0, 0,1 Clearly all scalars are zero, and then S is linearly independent set. Proved
3. The standard basis of vector space V3(R) is

2. Prove that set S = 1, 0,  2, 0is linearly dependent in V (R).
2
S = 1, 0, 0, 0,1, 0, 0, 0,1 Solution: Given: S = 1, 0 ,  2, 0, let a1, a2  R such that
a11  a2 2 = 0
1.8 Method to find the L.I and L.D of a set on the basis of Rank:  a11, 0  a2 2, 0 = 0
Let Vn(F) be any vector space of dimension n and S = 1, 2, ..... n be any
 a1, 0  2a2, 0 = 0
subset of V and A be any coefficient matrix which can be form by the set S, then
1. S is linearly independent (L.I.)  a1  2a2, 0 = 0, 0
If A  0 in other words  A = n Equating both sides, we get
2. S is linearly dependent (L.D.)  a1  2a2 = 0  a1 =  2a2
If A = 0 , in other word  A < n Clearly a1 and a2 are dependent to each other, therefore S is linearly dependent.
Proved
3. Examine whether the system of vectors 1 = (1, 2, 3), 2 = (1, 0, 1) and a11  a2 2  .a3 3 = 0
3 = (0, 1, 0) are linearly dependent or not. [RGPV Feb. 2008]
 a11, 2, 0  a2 0, 3, 0  .a3 1, 0,1 = 0

Solution: Given: 1 = (1, 2, 3), 2 = (1, 0, 1) and 3 = (0, 1, 0) and let a1, a2, a3  R,
 a1, 2a1, 0  0, 3a2, 0  a3, 0, a3  = 0
such that
a11  a2 2  .a3 3 = 0  a1  a3, 2a1  3a2, a3  = 0, 0, 0
 a11, 2, 3  a2 1, 0,1  .a3 0,1, 0 = 0 Equating both sides, we get
a1  a3 = 0
 a1, 2a1, 3a1  a2, 0, a2   0, a3, 0 = 0
2a1  3a2 = 0
 a1  a2, 2a1  a3, 3a1  a2  = 0, 0, 0
and a3 = 0
Equating both sides, we get
a1  a2 = 0 Solve above equation, we get a1 = 0, a2 = 0 and a3 = 0
 The given set of vectors is linearly independent set. Proved
2a1  a3 = 0
and 3a1  a2 = 0 5. Find whether the set of vectors v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (3, 1, 5) and v3 = (3, –4, 7) is
The coefficient matrix of above system is, linearly independent or dependent. [RGPV March 2010]
1 1 0 Solution: Given: v1 = (1, 2, 1), v2 = (3, 1, 5) and v3 = (3, -4, 7) and let a1, a2, a3  R,
A = 2 0 1 such that
3 1 0 a11  a2 2  .a3 3 = 0
1 1 0  a11, 2,1  a2 3,1, 5  .a33,  4, 7 = 0

 A = 2 0 1 = 10 1 10  3  0 2  0 = 2  0  a1, 2a1, a1  3a2, a2, 5a2   3a3,  4a3, 7a3  = 0
3 1 0
 a1  3a2  3a3, 2a1  a2  4a3, a1  5a2  7a3  = 0, 0, 0
 (A) = 3; i.e., equal to the number of unknowns a1, a2, a3
 a1 = 0, a2 = 0 and a3 = 0 a1  3a2  3a3 = 0
Hence, the given set of vectors is linearly independent set.
2a1  a2  4a3 = 0
4. Show that the vectors (1, 2, 0), (0, 3, 0) and (–1, 0, 1) are linearly dependent in the and a1  5a2  7a3 = 0
vectors space V3 of real numbers R. [RGPV Dec. 2010] The coefficient matrix of above system is,
Solution: Let S = 1, 2, 0 ,  0, 3, 0 ,  1, 0,1 1 3 3 
Say: 1 = (1, 2, 0), 2 = (0, 3, 0) and 3 = (–1, 0, 1) and let a1, a2, a3  R, A = 2 1 4
such that 1 5 7 
1 3 3 a11  a2 2  .a3 3 = 0
 A = 2 1 4 = 17  20  314  4  310 1 = 0  a11, 0, 1  a2 1, 2,1  .a3 0,  3, 2 = 0

1 5 7
 a1, 0,  a1  a2, 2a2, a2   0,  3a3, 2a3  = 0
 (A) < 3; i.e.,the number of unknowns a1, a2, a3

Therefore the system of given equations has a non-zero solution.  a1  a2, 2a2  3a3,  a1  a2  2a3  = 0, 0, 0
Hence, the given set of vectors is linearly dependent set. Equating both sides, we get
a1  a2 = 0
6. Prove that S = 1, 0, 0, 0,1, 0, 0, 0,1 is a basis in V (R).
3 2a2  3a3 = 0
Solution: Given: S = 1, 0, 0 , 0,1, 0, 0, 0,1 and a1  a2  2a3 = 0
First we shall prove S is linearly independent. The coefficient matrix of above system is,
Let a1, a2 , a3  R such that 1 1 0

a11  a2 2  .a3 3 = 0 A =  0 2 3
1 1 2 
 a11, 0, 0  a2 0,1, 0  .a30, 0,1 = 0
1 1 0
 a1, 0, 0  0, a2 , 0  0, 0, a3  =  0, 0, 0  A = 0 2 3 = 1 4  3 10  3  00  2 = 10  0
 a1  0  0, 0  a2  0, 0  0  a3  = 0, 0, 0 1 1 2
 a1, a2, a3  = 0, 0, 0  (A) = 3; i.e., equal to the number of unknowns a1, a2, a3
 a1 = 0, a2 = 0 and a3 = 0  a1 = 0, a2 = 0 and a3 = 0
Clearly all scalars are zero, and then S is linearly independent set.  The given set of vectors is linearly independent set and dim [V3] = 3 = Number
Again for a1, a2, a3  V3,  a1, a2, a3 R such that of elements in S, therefore V3 = L(S).
Hence, S is a basis of V3(R). Proved
a1, a2, a3  = a11, 0, 0  a2 0,1, 0  .a30, 0,1
 L S  = V3 8. Prove that the vectors (1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 0) and (1, –1, 2) form a basis of R3.
[RGPV Dec. 2010]
Hence, S is basis of V3(R). Proved
Solution: Let S = 1, 2,1 ,  2,1, 0 , 1,  1, 2
7. Prove that the vectors 1 = (1, 0, –1), 2 = (1, 2, 1) and 3 = (0, –3, 2) form a Say: 1 = (1, 2, 1), 2 = (2, 1, 0) and 3 = (1, -1, 2) and let a1, a2, a3  R,
basis of V3(R). [ RGPV Feb. 2009] such that
Solution: Given: 1 = (1, 0, -1), 2 = (1, 2, 1) and 3 = (0, -3, 2) and let a1, a2, a3  R, a11  a2 2  .a3 3 = 0
such that
 a11, 2,1  a2  2,1, 0  .a31, 1, 2 = 0 a + c = 0, a + b = 0 and b + c = 0
The coefficient matrix of these equations is,
 a1, 2a1, a1  2a2, a2, 0   a3,  a3, 2a3  = 0 1 0 1

 a1  2a2  a3, 2a1  a2  a3, a1  2a3  = 0, 0, 0 A = 1 1 0
Equating both sides, we get 0 1 1

a1  2a2  a3 = 0 1 0 1
2a1  a2  a3 = 0  A = 1 1 0 = 11  0  01  0 11  0 = 2  0
and a1  2a3 = 0 0 1 1
The coefficient matrix of above system is,  (A) = 3; i.e., equal to the number of unknowns a, b, c
1 2 1   a = 0, b = 0 and c = 0
A = 2 1 1  The given set of vectors is linearly independent set and dim [V] = 3 = Number of
1 0 2  elements in S, therefore V3 = L(S).
Hence, S is a basis of V(F). Proved
1 2 1
10. Prove that the set of vectors (2, 3, 5), (4, 9, 25) is linearly independent but not form
 A = 2 1 1 = 1 2  0  2 4 1 10 1 =  9  0 a basis of V3(R).
1 0 2 Solution: Given: S =  2, 3, 5 ,  4, 9, 25
 (A) = 3; i.e., equal to the number of unknowns a1, a2, a3 Say: 1 = (2, 3, 5), 2 = (4, 9, 25) and let a1, a2 R, such that
 a1 = 0, a2 = 0 and a3 = 0 a11  a2 2 = 0
 The given set of vectors is linearly independent set and dim [V3] = 3 = Number of  a12, 3, 5  a2 4, 9, 25 = 0
elements in S, therefore V3 = L(S).  2a1, 3a1, 5a1  4a2, 9a2, 25a2  = 0
Hence, S is a basis of V3(R).
9. If , ,  are linearly independent vectors of V(F) where F is the field of
 2a1  4a2, 3a1  9a2, 5a1  25a2  = 0, 0, 0
complex numbers, then prove that  + ,  + ,  +  are also form a basis of Equating both sides, we get
V(F). 2a1  4a2 = 0  a1  2a2 = 0
Solution: Given: S = ,  ,   3a1  9a2 = 0  a1  3a2 = 0
Let a, b, c R such that and 5a1  25a2 = 0  a1  5a2 = 0
a  b    c   = 0 The coefficient matrix of these equations is,
 a  c a  b b  c  =0 …. (1)

But , ,  are linearly independent, therefore from (1), we get
1 2  a1  a2  2a3  3a4, 2a1  3a2  5a3  a4, 5a1  a2  7a3  4a4   0, 0, 0
A  1 3 Equating on both sides, we get
1 5

a1  a2  2a3  3a4  0
Applying, R3  R3  R1, R2  R2  R1 2a1  3a2  5a3  a4  0

1 2 5a1  a2  7a3  4a4  0
A 0 1 The coefficient matrix of above equations is,
0 3 1 1 2 3
Applying, R3  R3  3R1 A  2 3 5 1
1 2 5 1 7 4
A 0 1 Since Matrix A is not square matrix, then we will apply operations
0 0 Applying R2  R2  2R and R3  R3  5R1
 (A) = 2 = number of unknowns a1, a2 1 1 2 3 

Therefore these equations have only solution a1 = 0, a2 = 0. A ~ 0 1 1 5 
Hence, the given set of vectors is linearly independent. 0 4 3 11
Again, let   a, b, c V3 and x, y  R such that Applying R3  R3  4R2
a, b, c = x2, 3, 5  y4, 9, 25 1 1 2 3 
 a, b, c = 2x  4y, 3x  9y, 5x  25y A ~ 0 1 1 5 
0 0 1 31
 2x  4y = a, 3x  9y = b and 5x  25y = c
 (A) = No. of known zero rows = 3 < 4 (No. of unknown constants i.e. a’s)
The above equations cannot be solve for x and y, which satisfy the equation (1),
Therefore set S is L.D.
then L(S)  V3. Thus, the set S is not form a basis for V3(R).
11. Determine whether or not of the following vector in R3 is linearly dependent.

u1  1, 2, 5, u2  1, 3,1, u3  2, 5, 7, u4  3,1, 4 [RGPV June 2017(MCSE)]
Solution:  
Let S  1, 2, 5 , 1, 3,1 ,  2, 5, 7 ,  3,1, 4
Since u1  1, 2, 5, u2  1, 3,1, u3  2, 5, 7 and u4  3,1, 4 and let a1, a2, a3, a4 R
such that
a1u1  a2 u2  a3 u3  a4u4 = 0
 a11, 2, 5  a2 1, 3,1  a32, 5, 7  a4 3,1, 4 = 0
(ii). T a = a T  , U, a  F
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
It is also called linear mapping or Vector space homomorphism. In other words

T : U V is a linear transformation if
1. Examine whether the system of vectors 1 = (1, 2, 3), 2 = (1, 0, 1) and 3 = (0, 1, 0)
are linearly dependent or not. [Ans: L.I] [RGPV Jan. 2008] T a b = aT   bT  , , U, a, b  F
2. Define LI and L.D sets. Check whether the vectors are (2, 1, 1), (0, 5, –1), (–1, 2, –1)
are linearly independent or linearly dependent. [RGPV Feb. 2009]
2.2 Kernel of Linear Transformation:
3. Examine whether the system of vectors 1 = (1, 2, 3), 2 = (1, 0, 1) and
Let T : U V is a linear transformation from a vector space U (F) to a vector space
3 = (0, 1, 0) are linearly dependent or not. [RGPV Feb. 2008]
V(F), then kernel of T is denoted by ker(T) and it is defined as
4. Prove that four vectors 1 = (1, 2, 3), 2 = (1, 0, 0), 3 = (0, 1, 0) and 4 = (0, 0, 1)
in V3(R) form a linearly dependent set. [RGPV June MMTP 2015]
ker T   U : T   0
Prove that the vectors (1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 0) and (1, –1, 2) form a basis of R3.
U F V F
5. T :U V
[RGPV Dec, 2010]
6. Show that the vectors (2, 1, 4), (1, –1, 2), (3, 1, –2) form a basis for R3. 1 T (1 )
[RGPV June MCSE 2015]
2
7. Show that the vectors (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1) from a basis for R3? 0 0
[RGPV June MMTP 2015] 3
CHAPTER – 2 T (4 )
ker T  4
LINEAR TRANSFORMATION, KERNEL, RANGE, RANK AND NULLITY
2.1 Linear Mapping , Vector Space Homomorphism or Linear Figure No. 2

Transofmation: [RGPV June 2017 (MCSE)]
U F V F 2.3 Range of Linear Transformation:
T :U V
Let T : U V is a linear transformation from a vector space U(F) to a vector space
V(F), then Range of T is denoted by R(T) and it is defined as
 T (  )
R T  =  = T  V : for some U 
a aT () U F T :U V V F
Figure No. 1    T ()

Let U(F) and V(F) be any two vector spaces over the same field F, then a mapping
T : U V is called a linear transformation if,
(i). T  = T  T  , , U RT 
Figure No. 3
2.4 Rank of Linear Transformation:  = ac1  bc2, (aa1  ba2 )  (ab1  bb2 ) [From
Let T be a linear transformation from a finite dimensional vector space U(F) into
(1)]

a vector space V(F), then the dimension of R(T) is called rank of T and is denoted by
(T) and it is defined as  = ac1  bc2, a(a1  b1)  b(a2  b2 )
T  = Rank T  = dim R T   = ac1, a1  b1   bc2, a2  b2  = aT   bT 

2.5 Nullity of Linear Transformation: [From (2) and (3)]
Let T be a linear transformation from a finite dimensional vector space U(F) into  T is linear. Proved
a vector space V(F), then the dimension of N(T) ( = ker(T)) is called nullity of T and is
denoted by (T) and it is defined as 2. Show that the mapping T : V2 (R) V3 (R) be defined by
 T  = Nullity T  = dim  N T  T a, b  a  b, a  b, b  a, b R, is a linear transoformation from V2(R) to

V3(R). [RGPV June MMTP 2015]
2.6 Rank nullity theorem or Silvester law of Nullity:
Let T be a linear transformation from a finite dimensional vector space U(F) into a Solution: Given the mapping is, f : V2  R V3  R such that
vector space V(F), then f  a, b = a  b, a  b, b …. (1)
Rank T   Nullity T  = dimU 
Let  =  a1, b1   f  = f  a1, b1  = a1  b1, a1  b1, b1  …. (2)
T   T  = dimU 
 =  a2 , b2   f  = f  a2 , b2  =  a2  b2 , a2  b2 , b2  …. (3)
i.e.,
and
SOLVED PROBLEMS Let a, b  R and , V2(R) , then
1. Show that the mapping T: V3(R)  V2(R), defined as: f  a  b = f a a1, b1   b a2 , b2 
T(a, b, c) = (c, a + b) is linear. [RGPV June 2013]
= f  aa1  ba2 , ab1  bb2 
Solution: Given the mapping is, T :V3  R V2  R such that = (aa1  ba2 )  (ab1  bb2 ), (aa1  ba2 )  (ab1  bb2 ), ab1  bb2 
T  a, b, c = c, a  b
[From (1)]
…. (1)
= a(a1  b1)  b(a2  b2 ), a(a1  b1)  b(a2  b2), ab1  bb2 
Let  =  a1, b1, c1   T  = T a1, b1, c1  = c1, a1  b1  …. (2)
= a a1  b1, a1  b1, b1   b a2  b2, a2  b2, b2 
and  =  a2 , b2 , c2   T  = T  a2 , b2 , c2  = c2 , a2  b2  …. (3)
= a f   b f  [From (2) and (3)]
Let a, b  R and , V3(R) , then

T  a b = T a a1, b1, c1   b a2 , b2 , c2 
f is a linear transformation. Proved
3. Examine linearity of the mapping T : V2  R V2  R defined by
= T  aa1, ab1, ac1    ba2 , bb2 , bc2 
 

T  x, y = x3, y3 ,   x, y V2  R
 = T aa1  ba2 , ab1  bb2 , ac1  bc2 
Solution: Given the mapping is, T : V2  R V2  R such that  = aT   bT  [From (3)]

T  x, y = x3, y3  …. (1)  T is a linear transformation.

(ii). Kernel of Transformation
 = ( x1, y1)  T  = T ( x1, y1) ker T   T  = 0, 0
Let = ( x13 , y13 ) …. (2) Let
and  = ( x2 , y2 )  T  = T ( x2 , y2 ) = (x23, y23 ) …. (3) ker T   T  = 0, 0 [ By definition of kernel of T]
Let a, b  R and , V2(R) , then  T  a, b, c = 0, 0
T  a b = T a(x1, y1)  b(x2 , y2 )  a, b = 0, 0
= T (ax1  bx2 , a y1  by2 )  a = 0 and b = 0
=  ax  bx 3 ,  a y  by 3 
 1 2 1 2   ker T  = a, b, c V3 : T a, b, c  0, 0
 aT   bT   ker T  =  a, b, c  V3 : a = 0 and b = 0
 T is not linear. Ans.  ker T  =  0, 0, c V3 : c  R Ans.
4. Show that the mapping T : V3(R)  V2(R), defined by [RGPV Feb. 2009]
T (a, b, c) = (a, b) is linear transformation. What is the kernel of this 5. Show that the mapping T: R2  R3 be defined by
transformation? T(a, b) = (a – b, b – a, –a),  a, b R is a linear transoformation from R2 into R3.
Solution: Given the mapping, T :V3  R V2  R such that Find the range, rank, null space and nullity of T.
[RGPV Feb. 2009, , June 2014 (MCSE)]
T  a, b, c =  a, b ….. (1)
Solution: Given the mapping, T : R  R such that
2 3
T  a, b = a  b, b  a,  a
(i). T is linear transformation
…. (1)
Let  =  a1, b1, c1   T  = T  a1, b1, c1  = a1, b1  ….. (2)
(i). T is a linear Transformation:
And  =  a2 , b2 , c2   T  = T a2, b2, c2  = a2, b2  ….. (3) Let  = (a1, b1)  T  = T a1, b1  = a1  b1, b1  a1,  a1  …. (2)
Let a, b R , ,   V3(R), then
and  = (a2, b2)  T  = T  a2 , b2  =  a2  b2, b2  a2,  a2  …..(3)
T  a b = T a a1, b1, c1   b a2 , b2 , c2 
 = T  aa1  ba2 , ab1  bb2 , ac1  bc2  Let a, b  R and , R2 , then a  + b   R2.
a  b = a a1, b1   ba2 , b2 
 = aa1  ba2, ab1  bb2  [From (1)]
Now,
 = a a1, a2   b a2 , b2  [From (2)]

 = aa1, ab1  ba2, bb2 
 = aa1  ba2, ab1  bb2   Nullity T  = 0
Taking L.T., on both sides, we get (iv). Range of T:

T  a b = T  aa1  ba2 , ab1  bb2 
RT  =   T R3 :for some R2
 = (aa1  ba2 )  (ab1  bb2 ), (ab1  bb2 )  (aa1  ba2 ),  (aa1  ba2 )
 = a(a1  b1)  b(a2  b2 ), a(b1  a1)  b(b2  a2 ),  aa1  ba2   = T a, b : a, bR2
[From (1)]  =  a  b, b  a,  a : a, b  R
 = a a1  b1, b1  a1,  a1  b a2  b2, b2  a2,  a2  Since the standard basis of R2 is e1 = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1), then
[From (2) and (3)] T 1, 0 = 1 0, 0 1, 1 = 1, 1, 1
 = aT   bT  and T 0,1 = 0 1,1 0, 0 =  1,1, 0
 T is a linear transformation.
 R T  = 1, 1, 1,  1,1, 0
(ii). Null space of T. (v). By Rank-nullity theorem, we have
By definition null space, we have
Rank T   Nullity T  = dim R2  

N T  =  R : T   0  R
2 3
  Rank T   0 = 2
 =  a, b  R2 : T  a, b  0  R3
 Rank T  = 2
 =  a, b  R2 :  a  b, b  a,  a  0, 0, 0 6. Show that the translation mapping f : V2 (R) V2 (R) defined by
=  a, b  R2 : a  b  0, b  a  0 and  a  0
f (x, y) = (x  2, y  3) is not linear.

Solution: Given the mapping is, f :V2 (R) V2 (R) such that
 =  a, b  R2 : a  0, b  0 f (x,y) = (x  2, y  3) …. (1)
 = 0, 0 If f is linear mapping, then it will satisfy the condition f (0) = 0, where 0 = (0, 0)V2(R)
Now, f (0) = f (0, 0) = (0  2, 0  3) = (2, 3)  0
Thus, N T  =  0, 0 Clearly, f is not linear.
(iii). Nullity of T.
Let F be a subfield of complex numbers and let T be the function from F3 to
0, 0
7.
We have, N T  =
F3 defined by
T  x1, x2, x3  =  x1  x2  2x3, 2x1  x2,  x1  2x2  2x3 
2
There exist only one element, viz, zero vector of R in the null-space of T.
 Nullity of T = (T) = dim[N(T)] = 0
(a). Verify that T is a linear transformation. (b). Range of T and Rank of T .
(b). If (a, b, c) is a vector in F3, what are condition on a, b and c that the vector be Let (a, b, c) F3, then   =  x1, x2 , x3   F3 such that
T  x1, x2, x3  = a, b, c

in the range of T? What is the rank of T?
(c). What are condition on a, b and c that (a, b, c) be in the null space of T? What
is the nullity of T? [RGPV March 2010]

  x1  x2  2x3, 2x1  x2,  x1  2x2  2x3  = a, b, c
Solution: Given the mapping, T : F3  F 2 such that
x1  x2  2x3 = a
T  x1, x2, x3  =  x1  x2  2x3, 2x1  x2,  x1  2x2  2x3  .... (1)
2x1  x2 = b
(a). T is linear Transformation
x1  2x2  2x3 = c
Let  =  x1, x2, x3   T  = T  x1, x2 , x3 
The augmented matrix is,
=  x1  x2  2x3, 2x1  x2,  x1  2x2  2x3  .. (2) C   A B
And  =  y1, y2, y3   T  = T  y1, y2, y3 
 1 1 2 a
=  y1  y2  2y3, 2y1  y2,  y1  2y2  2y3  ….. (3) 
=  2 1 0 b

Let a, b F , ,   F3, then a  + b   F3 and 1 2 2 c 
a b  a x1, x2, x3   b y1, y2, y3  Applying, R2  R2  2R1 and R3  R3  R1
  ax1  by1, ax2  by2, ax3  by3  1 1 2 a 
 
Now, by definition of T, we have  0 3 4 b  2a
T a b  T ax1  by1, ax2  by2, ax3  by3  0 3 4 c  a 
   ax1  by1    ax2  by2   2 ax3  by3  , 2 ax1  by1  Applying, R3  R3  R2
 ax2  by2 ,   ax1  by1   2 ax2  by2   2 ax3  b y3  [Fro (1)] 1 1 2 a 
 
 0 3 4 b  2a 
  a x1  x2  2x3   b y1  y2  2y3  , a 2x1  x2   b 2y1  y2  0 0 0 b  c  a
a x1  2x2  2x3   b y1  2y2  2y3  Thus, the necessary and sufficient conditions for (a, b, c), in the range of T is:
  a x1  x2  2x3, 2x1  x2,  x1  2x2  2x3  bca = 0  a = bc
b y1  y2  2y3, 2y1  y2,  y1  2y2  2y3   R T  = b  c, b, c  : b, c  F Ans.
  aT   bT  [From (2) and (3)] It is observe that (1, 1, 0) and (1, 0, 1) are two linearly independent vectors which span range
 T is a linear transformation. Proved of T i.e., R(T).
 Rank(T ) = dim[R(T )] = 2 Ans.
(c). Null space and Nullity of T  2 4  
 N T  =   c, c, c  : c  F 
Let a, b, c ker T   T a, b, c  0  3 3  
Ans.

 a b  2c, 2a  b,  a  2b  2c = 0, 0, 0 It is observe that (-2, 4, 3) span N(T).
Equating both sides, we get  Nullity(T) = dim[N(T)] = 1

a  b  2c = 0
IMPROVE YOUR SELF
2a  b = 0
1. Let F be the filed of complex number and let T be a function from F 3 into R3 defined by
a  2b  2c = 0
T (x, y, z) = (x – y + 2z, 2x + y – z,  x – 2y ) .Verify that T is a linear transformation.
The coefficient matrix of above system is,
[RGPV Aug. 2008]
 1 1 2
A   2 1 0 2. Let F be a subfield of a complex numbers and let T be the function from F 3 to F3
1 2 1 defined by T (x, y, z) = (x – y + 2z, 2x + y, x – 2y + 2z).
Applying, R2  R2  2R1 and R3  R3  R1 Verify that T is a linear transformation. [RGPV March 2010]
3. Show that the mapping T: V3(R)  V3(R), defined as: [RGPV June MCSE 2015]
1 1 2
 T  x1, x2, x3    x1  x2  x3,  x2 ,  x1, x2, x3  R , is a linear transformation.
 0
 3 4
4. Define the linear operator. Show that the mapping T: V 3(R)  V2(R), defined as:
0 3 4
T (x, y, z) = (x – y, x – z) is a linear transformation. [RGPV June 2012]
Applying, R3  R3  R2 5. If f is a mapping from V3 (F) into V2(F), defined as f (x, y, z) = (y, z), then show that f
1 1 2 is linear. [RGPV June 2012, June 2014 (MMTP)]

 0 3 4
 CHAPTER – 3
0 0 0
HASH FUNCTION
R
Applying, R1  R1  2
3 3.1 Definition of Hash Function:
A hash function H is a transformation that takes a variable-size input m and returns a
1 0 2/ 3
 0 4 
fixed-size string, which is called the hash value h (that is, h = H(m)). Hash functions with
3
just this property have a variety of general computational uses.
0 0 0 
In other words a hash function is any well-defined procedure or mathematical function
Clearly the system having infinite solution, such that which converts a large, possibly variable-seized amount data in a small datum.
2 2 Examples 1: Hash functions are used to data comparison tasks-such as finding items in a
a c = 0  a =  c
3 3 database, detecting duplicate or similar records in a large file and so on.
4 Examples 2: A hash function may map two or more keys to the same hash value. Hash
and 3b  4c = 0  b = c
3 function are related to checksums, fingerprints, randomization functions,
error correcting codes and
Keys Hash Function Hashes as geometric hashing or the grid method. Geometric hashing is also used
Deepak in telecommunications (usually under the name vector quantization)
00
to encode and compress multi-dimensional signals.

01
Reena 02
03 3.3 Perfect Hash function:

Ritu 04
A perfect hash function for a set S is a hash function that maps distinct elements in S to
05
a set of integers, with no collisions. A perfect hash function has many of the same
John 15 applications as other hash functions, but with the advantage that no collision resolution has
to be implemented.
A hash function that maps names of integers from 0 to 15. Example:
There is a collision between “Deepak and Ritu.
Keys Hash Function Hashes
3.2 Application of Hash function: Deepak 00
1. Hash tables: 01
Hash functions are primarily used in hash tables, to quickly locate a data record given Reena 02
03
its search key (the headword). Specifically, the hash function is used to map the search key Ritu 04
to the hash. The index gives the place where the corresponding record should be stored. Hash 05
tables, in turn, are used to implement associative arrays and dynamic sets.
John 15
2. Caches:
Hash functions are also used to build caches for large data sets stored in slow media. A
A hash function that maps names of integers from 0 to 15.
cache is generally simpler than a hashed search table, since any collision can be resolved by
There is no collision between them.
discarding or writing back the older of the two colliding items. This is also used in file
comparison.
CHAPTER – 4
3. Bloom filters HEAVISIDE (UNIT STEP FUNCTION)
Hash functions are an essential ingredient of the Bloom filter, a compact data structure
that provides an enclosing approximation to a set of them.
4. Finding similar substrings 4.1 Heaviside or Unit Step function:
The same techniques can be used to find equal or similar stretches in a large collection The Heaviside step function u t  a is defined as u(t-a)
of strings, such as a document repository or a genomic database. In this case, the input
1 ; for t  a
strings are broken into many small pieces, and a hash function is used to detect potentially u t  a    , where a  0
0 ; for t  a 1
equal pieces, as above.
5. Geometric hashing or Grid Method
In these applications, the set of all inputs is some sort of metric space, and the hashing In particular case, when a = 0, t
O a
function can be interpreted as a partition of that space into a grid of cells. The table is often 1 ; for t  0
u t   
an array with two or more indices (called a grid file, grid index, bucket grid, and similar 0 ; for t  0
names), and the hash function returns an index tuple. This special case of hashing is known
Now equation (1) multiplying by F(t – a), then we get
F t  a ; for t  a

F  t  a  u t  a    , where a  0 CHAPTER – 5

0 ; for t  a ERROR FUNCTION

The function F(t – a) u (t – a) represents the graph of F(t) shifted
through a distance ‘a’ to the right. 5.1 Error Function: [RGPV Feb. 2008, Dec. 2010]
The error function is a special function (Gauss error function) of sigmoid shape which
occurs in probability, statistics and partial differential equation; it is denoted by erf(x) and
4.2 Laplace Transform of Unit step function:
 t  
2 t  x2
1 ; for t  a eap defined as erf e dx
Statement: If u t  a    , where a  0 , then Lu t  a   0
0 ; for t  a p
The graph of error function is,
Proof: We know that by the definition of Laplace transform F(t) is,

LF (t )  0 e pt F(t) dt  f ( p) ----- (1)
Now the given function G (t) can be written as,

1 ; for a  t  
u t  a   
0 ; for   t  a

 Lu t  a   0 e pt u t  a dt 5.2 Types of Error functions:
  pt
 0 dt  
a  pt
 e e .1 dt There are three types of error function such as
0 a 1. Complementary Error function: [RGPV Dec. 2014 (MCSE)]

 e pt  The complementary error function is denoted by ertc(x) and it is defined as
 0   2  t 2
  p a erfc(x)  1 erf (x)  
e dt
 x
ap
1   ap  e
 e e  2. Imaginary Error function:
p  p The imaginary error function is denoted by erfi(x) and it is defined as
eap eap erfi (x) =  ierf (i z)

Thus L u t  a   p
or Lh t  a 
p 3. Complex Error function:
Taking a = 0 The complex error function is denoted by w(x) and it is defined as
w(x) = ex erfc(i x) = ex 1 ierfi (x)

2 2
Lu t   or Lh t  
1 1

p p
5.3 Properties of Error function: 2    1 1 1.3 1 1.3.5 1 
1. erf (0) = 0 2. erf ()  1 3. erfc()  0   3/ 2  1  .  . 2  . 3  ...
  2. p  2 p 2.4 p 2.4.6 p 
erfc(0)  1 erf (x)   erf (x) 6. erf (x)  erf (x)  0

4. 5. 1/ 2
1  1  n  n 1 2 
erfc(x)  erfc(x)  2 erf () =  erf ()  3/ 2 1   1 x n  1 n x  x  ...
7. 8. 
p  p  2 
5.3 Laplace Transform of Error Function:
 t  and it is defined as
1/ 2
The Error function of variable t is denoted by erf  p 1
1 1
   
p p p  p p 1
 t   2 0
t  x2
erf e dx
  t   p
Thus L erf
1
p 1
t   y 
Now, erf  t   2 0 
x2 x4 x6
1     ... dx
1 2 3  
y y2 y3
 e  1     ...
1 2 3  SOLVED PROBLEMS
d
erf (x) =
2 x2
t
2  x3 x5 x7  Example 1: (i). e
 x     ... dx 
  3 1 5 2 7 3 0
  
(ii).
d
erf (ax) =
2a a2x2
e
2  t3/ 2 t5/ 2 t 7/ 2  dx 
 t1/ 2     ...  0
 
 31 5 2 7 3 
  Proof: (i). Since we have,
 1/ 2 t3/ 2 t 5/ 2 t 7 / 2  2  x3 x5 x7 
 erf  
t 
2

t 


31 5 2 7 3
  ...

erf ( x)   x     ...
  3 10 42 
….. (1)
Differentiating with respect to x, we get

Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get
2  x4 x6 
  t           erf ( x) 
 1/ 2 1 3/ 2 1  d
L erf 
2
 Lt
1
 L t5/ 2  L t 7/ 2  ... 1  x2    ......
 L t 3 10 42  dx   2 6 
  3
    
5
  
7
   
9  2  x2 ( x2 )2 ( x2 )3 
  1     ......
  2   2 
2 1 1  2 1  2  
   ... 1 2 3 
p 3/ 2 3 p 5/ 2 10 p7/ 2 42 p9/ 2 
  
2 x2
e [By Exponential series]

1  31 5 31 7531 
2 2 122  1 2 22
 1
2 2 2 2
  d
erf ( x) =
2 x2
  3/ 2     ... Thus, e Proved
 p 3 p5/ 2 10 p7/ 2 42 p9/ 2

dx 
  (ii). Replacing x by ax in equation (1), we get
2  a3 x3 a5 x5 a7 x7 
erf (ax)  ax     ......
  3 10 42 
2a  a x a x a x
2 3 4 5 
6 7 Taking, x  a = y  dx = dy
 x     ......
  3 10 42  Upper limit, +a = y  y = 

Differentiating with respect to x, we get Lower limit. 0 + a = y  y = a, we get

a ey
2 2 2
2a  a4 x4 a6 x6    ea dy = ea erfc(a)
d
 erf (ax)  1 a2 x2    ......
dx   2 6 
 2  t 2  t 2  

2a  (a2 x2 )1 (a2 x2 )2 (a2 x2 )3
1   

 ......
 erfc(x) =
  x
e dt 
xe dt 
2 
erfc(x)

  1 2 3  
1 erf (a)  R.H.S.  erfc(x)  1 erf (x)
2
 ea
2a a2x2 2
 e

CHAPTER – 6
Thus,
d
erf (ax) =
2a a2x2
e Proved HERMIT POLYNOMIAL
dx 
6.1 Hermite’s Equation:
Example 2: Compute erf (0.5) correct to five significant digit.
The hermite’s equation of nth order is,
Solution: Since we have,
d 2y dy
2  x3 x5 x7   2x  2ny = 0 …… (1)
erf ( x)   x     ...... dx 2 dx
  3 10 42 
where n is constant or order of differential equation. The solution of (1) is known as
Taking, x = 0.5, we get
Hermite’s polynomial and it is denoted by Hn(x).
2  (0.5)3 (0.5)5 (0.5)7 
erf (0.5)  0.5     ...
  3 10 42  6.2 Generating Function of Hermite’s Equation
The Hermite’s polynomial, denoted by Hn(x) , is the solution of the Hermite’s

2
0.5  0.041666  0.003125  0.0001860 differential equation and it is defined as



Hn ( x) n 2 xt  t 2

2
0.461273  0.5204908 n
t =e
 n=0
Hence the value of erf (0.5) = 0.52049 (Correct to five significant digit) 6.3 Rodrigue’s Formula:
 x2 2ax  a2 If Hn(x) be Hermite’s polynomial, then
Example 3: Prove that:
0 
e dx =
2
e 1 erf (a) [RGPV June 2012]
d n   x2 
Hn ( x)   1n ex
2
  x2 2ax e 
dxn  
Solution: L.H.S.  0 e dx

  x2 2axa2 a2  dx  ea2   x  a2
 0 e 0 e  dx
2
d   x2
e  2x2 ex 
2 2
   2 ex 2 
dx 
Example 1: Find the value of H0(x), H1(x), H2(x), H3(x) and H4(x) .

2 d  2 
2xex  2 2xex  2x3ex 
2 2
[RGPV June 2015 (MMTP), Dec. 2014 (MCSE)]    2 ex 
dx   
Solution: We know that by Rodrigues formula for Hn(x) is,

d
6xex  4x3 ex 
2 2 2
d n   x2     2 ex
Hn ( x)   1n ex
2
e  …. (1) dx  
dxn  
2 2 
  2 ex 6 ex  2x2 ex   4 3x2 ex  2x4 ex 
2 2 2
Taking, n = 0 in equation (1), we get 
    
H0 (x)   10 ex ex   H0 (x)  1 i.e.
2 2
H0 (x) =1
    12  24x2  24x2 16x4 = 16x4  48x2 12
Taking, n = 1 in equation (1), we get
 H4 (x) =16x4  48x2 12
d 2
H1(x)   1 e  ex  =  11 ex 2xex  = 2x
1 x2 2 2
 dx    Example 2: Express x4  2x3  2x2  x  3 , in terms of Hermite’s polynomial.

 H1(x) = 2x [RGPV June 2013]
Solution: We know that
Taking, n = 2 in equation (1), we get
H0 (x) =1, H1(x) = 2x, H2 (x) =  2  4x2, H3(x) = 8x3 12x and
 d 2 x2  2 d   x2 
H2 ( x)   1 e2 x2
 2 e  = ex 2 xe
 dx  dx   H4 (x) =16x4  48x2 12
Given, f (x) = x4  2x3  2x2  x  3
  2ex ex  2x2 ex  =  2  4x2
2 2 2

  Suppose, f (x) = AH4 (x)  BH3 (x)  CH2 ( x)  DH1( x)  EH0 ( x) …. (1)
 H2 (x) =  2  4x2 Putting the values of H0(x), H1(x), H2(x), H3(x) and H4(x), we ge =
Taking, n = 3 in equation (1), we get      

x4  2x3  2x2  x  3  A 16x4  48x2 12  B 8x3 12x  C 2  4x2  D 2x  E 1
2  d3 2 2 d2   x2   16 Ax4  8 B x3  x2  48A  4C   x  12B  2D 12A  2C  E
H3 ( x)   13 ex  3 ex  =  ex  2 xe 
 dx  dx2  Equating the coefficients of like powers of x, we get
d  x2 2 2 
e  2x2 ex  = 2ex 2xex  2 2xex  2x3ex 
x2 2 2 2 1 1
  2e  16 A  1  A= and 8B  2  B=
dx      16 4
   4x  8x  8x3 = 8x3 12x 1  48  5
 48A  4C  2  C = 2  =
4  16  4
 H3 (x) = 8x3 12x
1 12 
12B  2D  1  D =  1  =1
Taking, n = 4 in equation (1), we get, 2 4
2  d4 2 2 d3  12  5 
H4 ( x)   14 ex  4 ex  = ex 2xex 
2 5
3 
12A  2C  E   3  E =  3   2  = 
 dx  dx  16  4  4
Putting in equation (1), we get (i). a1  a2  (b1  b2 )(mod m) (ii). a1  a2  (b1  b2 )(mod m)
x4  2x3  2x2  x  3 =
1 1 5 5
H (x)  H3(x)  H2 (x)  H1(x)  H0 (x) Ans. Example :Since 50  2(mod6) and 38  14(mod6) , then clearly
16 4

4 4 4 (i). 50  38  (2 14)(mod6)  88 – 16 = 72, is divisible by 6.
CHAPTER – 7 (ii). 50  38  (2 14)(mod6)  12 + 12 = 24, is divisible by 6.

MODULAR MATHEMATICS (iii). 50  38  (214)(mod6)  1900 – 28 = 1872, is divisible by 6.
7.1 Introduction:
In mathematics, modular arithmetic (sometimes called clock arithmetic) is a system
of arithmetic for integers, where numbers "wrap around" after they reach a certain value—
the modulus.
In other words, Modular math is similar to division. Think about division. Do all
numbers divide evenly? No, they do not. What happens when a number does not divide Visit YouTube Channel
evenly? A remainder is left over.
Example: 17 divided by 4 is 4 with a remainder of 1. Modular mathematics uses these
remainders. Consider our example 17 divided by 4. Our number is 17 and 4 is
called our mod. The mod is the number that we divide by. What is 17 in mod 4?
The answer is our remainder. 17 in mod 4 is equivalent to 1.
7.2 Congruence Relation
Dr. Sonendra Gupta
If a and b are two integer and m be positive integer, then congruence of a and b
under modulo m is written as (Read as a congruence b under modulo m)
a  b (mod m) i.e. a  b is divisible by m
Example 1: 50  2(mod12)  50 – 2 = 48, is divisible by 12.
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCUiEPaoUe-yVZxz_QWJgbUA
2. 7  8(mod5)  7 – 8 = 15, is divisible by 5.
3. 3  2(mod5)  3 – 2 = 5, is divisible by 5.
4. 3   8(mod5)   3 + 8 = 5, is divisible by 5.
When a and b are either both positive or both negative, a  b (mod m) can also be thought of
as asserting that both a / m and b / m have the same remainder.
For Example: 38  14(mod6)
Because both 38/6 and 14/6 have the same remainder 2. It is also the case that 38 – 14 = 24 is
an integer multiple of 6, which agrees with the prior definition of the congruence relation.
Properties of Congruence Relation
If a1  b1 (mod m) and a2  b2 (mod m) , then

Unit-1 M.tech (Vector Space) Dec. 2017

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SONENDRA GUPTA: 9893455006, 9329443789 (1) M.

Tech (Advanced Mathematics)

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

FREE STUDY PACKAGE  0 V such that, 0    0  , V

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

. To Prove: W is subspace of V(F).

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

Now, W1  W2  W2 = W1 W2 or W2  W1  W1 = W1 W2

of V2(R), but W1 W2 is not a subspace of V2(R). Because

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

 x, y   x1, y1 = 3x  3y1, x  y1 If , V    =  

and  =  2, 3  1, 2 = 3 2  3 2, 2  2 = 12, 0 (iii). a, b  R and V  ab

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

3. The standard basis of vector space V3(R) is

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

1 1 0  a11, 2,1  a2 3,1, 5  .a33,  4, 7 = 0

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

 (A) < 3; i.e.,the number of unknowns a1, a2, a3

Let a1, a2 , a3  R such that 1 1 0

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

Equating both sides, we get 0 1 1

 a  c a  b b  c  =0 …. (1)

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

Applying, R3  R3  R1, R2  R2  R1 2a1  3a2  5a3  a4  0

 (A) = 2 = number of unknowns a1, a2 1 1 2 3 

11. Determine whether or not of the following vector in R3 is linearly dependent.

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

2.1 Linear Mapping , Vector Space Homomorphism or Linear Figure No. 2

Figure No. 1    T ()

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

T  = Rank T  = dim R T   = ac1, a1  b1   bc2, a2  b2  = aT   bT 

 T  = Nullity T  = dim  N T  T a, b  a  b, a  b, b  a, b R, is a linear transoformation from V2(R) to

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

Let = ( x13 , y13 ) …. (2) Let

 = a a1, a2   b a2 , b2  [From (2)]

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

is the nullity of T? [RGPV March 2010]

b y1  y2  2y3, 2y1  y2,  y1  2y2  2y3   R T  = b  c, b, c  : b, c  F Ans.

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

Equating both sides, we get  Nullity(T) = dim[N(T)] = 1

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

03 3.3 Perfect Hash function:

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

Now the given function G (t) can be written as,

w(x) = ex erfc(i x) = ex 1 ierfi (x)

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

Differentiating with respect to x, we get

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

Solution: We know that by Rodrigues formula for Hn(x) is,

 dx    Example 2: Express x4  2x3  2x2  x  3 , in terms of Hermite’s polynomial.

Taking, n = 3 in equation (1), we get      

EKLAVYA ACADEMY: B-191, NEW ASHOKA GARDEN, BPL.

CHAPTER – 7 (ii). 50  38  (2 14)(mod6)  12 + 12 = 24, is divisible by 6.

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