Chemical Ens&e&g Science, lD61, Vol. 15, pp.

260 to 26%

The flow of granular solids through orifices

W. A. BEVERLOO, H. A. LENIGER and J. VAN DE VELDE

Technological
Laboratory,Agricultural
University,Wageningen,Netherlands.

(Received 8 Azcgust 1960)

Abetract-The authors have compared the results of their own investigations on the flow of
grarmlar solids (a.~. a number of seeds) with results published by others. The flow of all the seeds
tested through the circular orifices used in the experiments, is represented by the equation

W = 85 pB1/z (D, - 1.4 d)86 (g/min)

RBsum&Les auteurscornparent
lesr&ultatsde leurspropresrecherches
concernant
l’koulement
de ~mat&iaux granulaires (ea. un nombre de semences) aux r&ultats publies par d’autres
auteurs. Le courant de toutes les semences examinees par les auteurs B travers les orifices circu-
laires employees dans la recherche est d&it au moyen de la formule :

W = 85 pB fi (Do - 1.4 d)2.6(g/min)

Zusammenfassung-Die Verfasser vergleichen die Ergebnisse eigener Versuche fiber das

Ausstrcimen von Schfittgut (u.a. einige Samen) mit einer Ansahl von anderer Seite veriiffentlichten
Befunden. Der Durchfluss aller von den Verfassem untersuchten Samen durch kreisformige
Gffnungen konnte durch die Gleichung :

W = 35 pB 2/g (Do - 1.4 d)p5 (g/min)

erfasst werden.

1. INTRODUCTION flow from cylinders with flat bottoms, provided

RECENTLY FOWLER and GLASTONBURY[l] pub- with orifices, the following equation :
lished in this journal results of investigations on w=
the flow of granular solids through orifices. In 1847 ps Do*03
our laboratory also observations have been made (6.288~ + 23.16) (0.394d + 1.889) - 44.90 g/mi”
on this subject, as part of a more comprehensive
BROWN and RICHARDS [P] also studied the
study on the Aow of solids in general. It seems
influence of the shape of the orifice in the flat
desirable to record our results in this article in
bottom of a cylinder. As a general equation they
order to compare them with those of other workers
found for a material with pa = 2.5 g/cmS
and to supplement their findings. FOWLER and
GLASTONBURY[l] have published a comprehensive W = 4870 A D,,“.s a+4
g/nun
review of available literature on the subject, so
and for circular orifices
that we will give only a survey of equations
inferred by various other investigators. For W = 3730 D,8.6 tj g/mm
comparison, the equations have been converted
Finally FOWLERand GLA~TONBURY[l] found the
into the same system of units. Symbols and units
equation
are explained at the end of the paper. NEWTON 0.185
--
et al. [2] found W = 14.16~~ A d2g D,, : g/min
[ sI
W = 213 D,z~ss H”.04 g/min
We will return on these results further in this
FRANKLIN and JOHANSON [a] published for the article.

260
 The flow of granularsolidsthrough orifkm

Cross-section Front-view

-
Bottom-view

I
IO cm

FIG.2. Sketchof apparatusused for the determinationof the angle of repose.

2. EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURE AND MATERIALS Table 1

2.1 Apparatus and Materials Details of orifies used in jlow experiments

For an investigation of the flow of various

cireula7 Square Rectangular Tr-iangulur
materials use was made of three copper cylinders
olijkes oTip%s ale= Ol-ijlCSS
of 30 cm height and with internal diameters of edge: a side: a, 2s aide: a, a, a,
respectively 5, 10 and 15 cm. In the flat bottoms _-
of these cylinders were round openings which DO
A a A a A A
could be closed by means of valves. In these (cm) (cm’) (cm) (cm”) (4 (cm3 @ma)
__
openings fitted copper disks with orifices differing
0.26 0.056 0.22 oTM9 0.16 0.065 0.38 0.064
in size and shape. In the cylinder with D = 5.0 cm 0.50 0.20 0.49 0.24 0.85 024 0.74 0.24
of 0.20, O-50, O-75,
circular orifices with diameters i .oa 0.84 0.89 0.80 0.68 0.80 1.46 0.92
l-00, 1.25 and 1.50 cm could be fitted; in the 1.50 1*76 135 1.84 0*99 1.96 2.06 1.84
cylinder with D = 10.0 cm circular orifices with 2.06 3.24 1.77 8.16 1.25 8.16 2.79 6.86
2.50 4.96 2.22 4.96 1.58 596 8.52 5.86
diameters of 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 2.00,
8.02 726 2.65 7.04 196 7.28 4.02 796
2.50 and 3.00 cm. The largest cylinder (D = 15.0
cm) could be provided with circular, square,
rectangular and triangular orifices of dimensions predict exactly which properties of the materials
as mentioned in Table 1. influence their flow, we determined a number of
The materials used in preliminary tests were characteristic properties, viz. the bulk density of
sand-fractions and various seeds, viz. linseed, packing, the true specific density, the void fraction
spinach (Juliana), watercress, rapeseed, kale, (calculated from 100 [(p, - pn)/p,] per cent), the
swede and turnip. Fig. 1 gives an impression of angle of repose, the number of particles per gramme
the sha.pe and size of the seeds. As we could not and the particle size distributions of the seeds (by
Chcm. Ikzgne. sei. Vol. 151,Nos. 3 and 4. September, 1331.
261
 w. A. BE~BBLOO, H. A. LENIQEB and J. VAN DE VEX&BE

screening with a perforated plate with circular
openings and movement in a horizontal plane),
from which the average screen size was calculated
graphically. For the coarser materials the
determination of the average screen size is less
accurate than for the finer ones. For the deter-
mination of these properties current techniques
were used. It should be mentioned only that the
determination of the angle of repose at first
presented many difficulties. The best results
ultimately were obtained with the apparatus
pictured in Fig. 2.
As we expected that also the shape of the
particles influences the flow through orifices an
attempt was made to express that shape into a
“ shape-factor.” For this purpose the specific
surface of the various materials was calculated
from measurements of the resistance to the viscous
flow of air through the materials according to
Carman-Kozeny. Assuming that the particles
were spherical, their “ spherical diameter,” d,,
was calculated from the specific surface and the
void fraction. We defined the shape factor h as
the ratio of the average screen size of the particles
to their LLspherical diameter,” i.e.
The properties determined of the materials are
presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Phwical properties of the vzakrkls used in the .IRow expcrimmts

I Numlwr
TIW I Bdk Void Auemge Spherical Shape Angleof ctfparticles
MaleriUlS -Y dMSity fraction screen diameter factor of repose F
PS PB (%I sized 4 x 48 log
(t3/cm3) Wcm3) (cm) (4 (degree4 N

Sand 2.62 1.50 42.7 0445 0.038 0.85 31.7 -

Linseed 1.16 0.69 40.5 0.25 0.12 048 30.9 1780
Spinach 1.19 0.57 52.1 0.30 0.16 0.54 31.3 1160
Watercress 1.22 0.71 42.6 0.16 0.11 0.71 30.4 374a
Rapeseed 1.12 0.67 40.2 0.17 0.15 0.91 28.1 4520
Kale 1.13 0.70 38.0 O-18 0.15 0.82 25.7 3250
Swede 1.09 0.66 39.4 0.18 0.14 0.75 25.6 3350
Turnip 1.12 0.68 39.3 0.17 0.13 0.79 25.8 4290

L -

Table 3. Repeatability of the 9mcw.suremcnts

I
Milt&d I ol-@ce I Obserued W Average W De&lion
(=4 (g) (fz/mW WmW (%I

Sand 0.021 circular 2402 112 28.0

-0*030 D, = 0.26 cm 240.0 111 27.8 27.8 f 0.2 * 0,7
cm 239.6 111 27.7
_
square 17.8 2768 9330
Watercress A = 7.04 cmz 16.8 2620 9357
16.8 2639 9425
-
circular 37.0 2327 3773
Spinach D,, = 2.5 cm 38.3 2436 3816 3790 Ifr 25 f 0.7
37.0 2329 3777

circular 61.2 2469 2421

Linseed D, = 2.0 cm 60.7 2452 2424 Ml0 f 25 f I.0
60.4 2402 2386
-

262
 The flow of granular scdida through orilkes

The flow-rates W in g/min were determined
three times by catching material during a definite
time, after the flow had become stationary, and
weighing the quantity caught. The examples
given in Table 3 may be demonstrative for the
repeatability of the results.
2.2 Experimental results
From Table P it appears that the head, within
the range investigated (H = 10-30 cm), has no
influence on the flow-rate. Also the diameter of
the cylinder does not have an influence on the
flow-rate; this can be seen from Table 5.
Tests with sand fractions showed (Fig. 3) that
the particle size has only a slight influence on the
flow, which influence decreases as D,/d increases.
When Do/d amounts to about 20 or more the
influence is negligible. The results mentioned

Table 4. Injluence of had of pack@

-
Mass jlow-rate W
Mflierifd D “0 Wmin)
(cm) (cm)
IZ=6Ocm If = 20 cm If = 10 cm

Sand 5.0 0.25 64.7 643 64.~8

040984~021 cm 5.0 0.50 248 252 245
10.0 0*50 248 250 249
10.0 la0 1544 1548 1548
--
Sand 5.0 0.25 28.0 27.8 27.7
0*021-0*060 cm 5.0 0.50 217 220 218
10.0 0.50 226 227 226
10.0 0.75 648 647 650
10.0 la0 1497 1509 1524
15.0 0.25 24.5 24.4 243
15.0 Om 288 2a3 268
15.0 0.75 685 664 664
15.0 la0 1514 1515 1512

Sand 15.0 0.25 19.0 19.7 19.6

0480-0~059 cm 15.0 0.50 208 204 208

Table 5. Injiuence of container diameter

-

DiamefeT i%fflSS jbW-Tote w g/UliU

of -
circular Sand Rupeseed
fJM= Container diameter contaiw diameter
DO I-

(cm) D=5cm I- D=lOcm D=Mcm D=Scm D=lOcm D=15cm

--
0.25 27.8 - 24.4 -
0.50 218 226 288 - - -
0.75 662 648 664 159 150 150
lal 1492 1510 1508 699 4Q6 1105
1.25 2626 2622 2698 764 765 779
I*50 4823 4414 4260 1817 1876 1817
2.00 - 9072 - 8082 8166
2.50 - 16580 - 5844 5849
3aO - - 9721 9822

CYwm. En&!ng. Sci. Vol. 16, Nos. 9 and 4. September, 1991.

 W. A. BEVERLOO, H. A. LENIGER and J. vm DE;VELDE

IO.0
B
6

Mass flaw-rate, W, ghin

Fm. 8. Influence of orifice area on flow-rate of sand fractions.

above, are in agreement with those of earlier
workers.
A large number of observations were made on
the influence of the shape of the orifice. This
influence was analogous with all materials in-
vestigated. Suffice therefore to give two examples,
viz. of rapeseed and watercress (Figs. 4 and 5).
It can be seen that with orifices of the same area
the flow decreases in the order circle, square,
rectangle and triangle. For mutual comparison
of the materials circular orifices with diameters
of at least six times the particle size were applied.

“E
0

d 45

x
b
8
E 3.0
6 Ropeseed
- Circular orifices
--- Square orifices
-o._ Rectanqulor orifices
-_+-_ Triangular orifices
I.5

II I I I
0 2000 4000 6000 6000 10.000
Moss flow- rote,W. g/min

FIQ. 4. Influence of orifice area on flow-rate of rapeseed.

264
 The flow of granular soUs through orifices

7.5.

6.0.

Watercress
-Circular orifices
-,a.- Square orifices
--- Rectangularorifices
--*--‘hiangular orifices

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 tO,ooo

Mass flow rote,W, g/min

Pm. 6. Influence of orifire area on flow-rate of watercress.

The results of many observations have been found that W plotted double logarithmically as a
presented in Fig. 6. function of the area of the circular orifice A gives
straight lines (Fig. 6). The same holds true for
3. DIMXJSSION non-circular orifices.
In agreement with earlier investigations we A dimensional analysis suggests that W should

“E
”

d
8
b

-----3. Rooeseed
T-1
-----4. W&cress
I -5. Swede
I I I II /I I ---6 Kale

Moss flow rote,W, g/min

FIG. 6. Influence of orifke area on How-rate of various materials.

Che?n.Jhgng. Sci. Vol. 15, NOS. 8 and 4. September. 1tN.
265
 W. A. BEVFSRLOO,
H. A. LENIGER and J. vm DE VELDE

he proportional to pB & D,*.h. However, from and d, so that in our opinion it is admissable to
Fig. 6 we find exponents of D, greater than 2.5, drop the shape-factor.
particularly with larger d’s, viz. : Calculations with this equation show for all
W + &9.77 the seeds within the scope of our investigations
sand rapeseed W + Do”87
W + DOS.09 W 2 42.85 deviations of about 5 per cent. If we compare
linseed kale
W + D,~.95 W ; DO%96 the coefficient in the general formula with the
spinach Swede
coefficients in the formulae given for the various
watercress W + D,-,z.gO turnip W + Doz.87
materials separately it seems that the maximum
This might be explained by assuming that along deviation is 10 per cent. It should be considered,
the margin of the orifice a zone is useless or less however, that the formulae given for the various
fit for use for the flow. The size of that zone is materials do not describe the observations pre-
proportional to d, so that the equation cisely, either, so the mutual deviation between
W f pB & (Do-k d)2.5 may be valid. In the formulae is greater than the deviation between
this equation k is a dimensionless constant. the general formula and the observations.
By plotting Do against W”‘4 we found the follow- Using the effective hydraulic diameter D,,’ so
ing values for k : that Dhr = D,, - 1.4d and the effective orifice
area A’, calculated from D,,‘, we find for the flow
sand k = 2.9 rapeseed k = 1.4 of rapeseed through orifices of various shapes the
linseed k = 1.5 kale k = 1.4 following equations :
spinach k = 1.4 Swede k = 1.5
watercress k = 1.3 turnip k = 1.4 circle W = 45.0 pB A’ dgx
square W = 46.6 pB A’ &T
For all the seed samples examined we can rectangle (1 : 2) W = 44.4 pB A’ &j
therefore assume for k an average value of 1.4. triangle (1 : 1 : 1) W = 45.7p, A’ dg D,,’
The variations in k are probably related to the
surface properties, but no correlation with the It follows that the equation
angle of repose could be established.
When we now introduce the factor pB and 42
the following equations result : may be applied for orifices of various shapes.
The slight influence of the particle size on the
sand W = 38.8 pB 42 (Do - %9d)*5 flow found for sand fractions (Fig. 3) is in agree-
linseed W = 33.2 pB d (D, - 1.4d)= ment with the introduction of (D, - k d) instead
spinach W = 35.7 PB d/g (Do - l.4d)s.5 of Do.
watercress W = 38.5 pB d (D, - l.4d)2.5 We cannot offer an explanation for the value
rapeseed W = 35.1 pB 4% (Do - 1.4d)s.s of k for sand, which is somewhat different from
kale W = 36.3 pB &j (Do - 1-4d)“‘s 14 ; however, this value could not be calculated
Swede W = 33.2 pB &f (D, - l.4d)2.s very accurately.
turnip W = 34.1 pB d/g (D, - 1.4d)e.s After having derived the general formula for
seeds, mentioned above, we checked this formula
This shows that the coefficients in these equations
with some other materials. For this purpose we
are sufficiently constant to use for all the seed
used :
samples and for circular orifices the general
formula wheat (d = 0.5 cm, pe = OBO g/cm”)
crystallized sugar (n = 0.09 cm, pB = 0.33 g/cm”)
W = 35 pe d/s (Do - 1.4d)z.h
polystyrene
At first it seems remarkable that in the above globules (d = O-10 cm, pB = 0.63 g/cm”)
equation the shape-factor does not appear at green peas (d = O-70 cm, pB = O-84 g/cm”)
all. However, the influence of the shape finds soybeans (d = O-66 cm, pB = O-75 g/cm”)
expression more or less in the values of both pR lupin (d = 0.65 cm, pB = O-70 g/cm”)

266
 The flow of granular solids through or&es

From these data we calculated W with the W = 35 PB 42 (D,, - 1.4 d)ps

equation (or W = 45 pe A’ dg7)
W = 35 PB d/g (D, - 1.4 d)e*s
with that inferred by other workers it proves that
The following Table (6) shows the calculated and our equation agrees best with the one according
observed figures. to FOWLERand GLASTONBURY[l], except for the

Table 6. Comparison between calculated and observed rate of $ow forvarious granular mute&h

1*5o - -
2.08 179o 1806
2.51 8820
a.02 7210 6781 - -
4.0 - -
5.0 -
6.0 - -

The differences between the experimental and
the predicted flow rates in Table 6 amount to
5 per cent (average) and 12.5 per cent (maximum).
From this we conclude that our formula can be
used to make “ calculated estimations ” for the
majority of materials with a bulk density pn of
about 0.7. If in any case the flow rate is to be
known exactly, experiments will have to be made.
If we compare our equation
exponent. However, since the graphic representa-
tions cross each other in the field investigated
(Fig. 7) the deviations within this field are not
very great. In FOWLER’S equation the influence
of a useless zone along the margin of the orifice
is expressed by multiplication with the dimension-
less group ( D,,/ds)o’les and in our equation by the
term 1.4 d, subtracted from D,,.
Attention is drawn to a discrepancy between

I
-ttt+t i

Moss flow- rate,l, g/min

Fro. 7. Comparison of observed flow-rate of rapeseed with FOWLER’R

formula.
Chem. Engn& Sci. Vol. 15, Nos. 9 and 4. Septcmher. 1961.
267
 W. A. BEVERLOO,H. A. LRNICER and J. VAN DE VELDE

our shape factors )r (smaller than unity) and those # = 1.00 is used and the average ratio pB/pa is
according to FOWLER and GLASTONBUKY[l] (above taken as 058 (as for our seeds), this formula for
unity). In a following paper FOWLER and mass flow becomes.
CHODZIESNER [5], however, use shape factors
smaller than unity 1 All papers give the same W -7 31.7 p. 42 (D - Ic~)~~~
g/min *
definition of h. For the formulae proposed above,
however the discrepancy is immaterial as they which is some 10 per cent below our formula.
do not contain h. LUK’YANOV et al. [7] gave a formula for the
NEWTON, et al. [2] have given an empirical volumetric flow of spherical catalyst particles
formula for catalyst and found an exponent for through a circular orifice. They corrected in a
11, of 2.96, which corresponds to the slope of the slightly different way for the inaccessible area at
lines in our Fig. 6, e.g. for Swede W = 548 P~D,,~.@~. the edge of the apertnre, their formula being
NEWTON et al. found a very slight influence of the
height, but this has not been confirmed, neither V=57301/R(R2-1.9dR+
by us (Table 4) nor by others. Nor has an influence + 1.66 d2) cm3/min.
been found of the internal diameter of the con-
tainer (Table 5). The numerical values according to this formula
According to FRANKLIN and JOHANSON [3] the are about 7 per cent below ours.
exponent of D, should be 2.93. The correction for
the particle diameter is incorporated in the *It should be noted that the symbol k in BROWNand
RICHARDS’ paper has the same meaning as kd in our
denominator of their formula.
formulae.
BROWN and RICIIARDS’ [k] correlation for
sand with a specific gravity of 2.5 reads
Acknowlea@ent-Thanks are due to Sluis en Groat’s
W = 3730 D02.5 $ g/min (circular orifices). In N. V. Koninklijke Zaadteelt en -Handel, Enkhuizen,
the range of variables considered their reduced Netherlands, for the seeds they placed at our disposal.
velocity # can be written Furthermore we wish to express our gratitude to Ir. A.
HARMENS,who made valuable suggestionsas to the method
of correlation of our experimental data.
* = 0.044 4 o6c
( )

Consequently the flow rates measured are pro- NOTATION

A = area of orifice cm2
portional to Do3’l, a particle diameter correction
D = container diameter cm
again being incorporated in the denominator.
D,, = hydraulic diameter = 4 x A/perimeter of orifice
cm
ADDENDA D, = diameter of circular orifice cm
d = average screen size of particles cm
After the completion and revision of the present
ds = spherical diameter of particles cm
paper two recent articles came to our attention. g = gravitational constant cm/sect
BROWN and RTCIIARDS [6] found that the local H = head of packing above orifice cm
flow density is a function of the distance as k = an empirical coefficient
measured from the edge of the effective aperture, X = shape factor of particles h = d.Jd
this function being independent of the form of N = number of particles/lo g
the aperture (circle or slot). This fact has been pB = bulk density of packing K/cm3
used implicitely in our correlations ; we used a ps = true density of solid K/cm3
slightly different definition of the effective aper- p = tangent to internal kinetic angle q$
ture. C& = angle of repose
BROWN and RICIIAILDS’ [6] equation for the local $ = reduced velocity
flow density may be integrated over a circular V = volume discharged/unit time cm3/min
area to give the total mass flow. If an average W = weight discharged/unit time g/min

268
 The flow of grauuler solids through ortices

[l] Fowmm R. T. and GLAST~NBUIIY J. R. Chm. Engng. Sci. 1959 10 150.

[2] NEWTON R. H., DIJNHAMG. S. and SIMPSON T. I’. Truns. Amt. In&n. Clmtb. Engm. 1945 41 215.
[8] FRANKLIN F. C. and JOHANSONL. N. Chem. Engprg. Sci. 1955 4 119.
[4] B~ovm R. L. and RICHARDSJ. C. Trans. Instn. Chem. Engrs. 1959 37 108.
[5] FOWLER R. T. and CHODZIESNERW. B. Chepn.Engng. Sci. 1959 10 157.
[6] BROWN R. L. and RICHARDSJ. C. Trans. In&t. Ckm. Engrs. 1960 38 243.
[7] LUK’YANOV P. I., GUSEV I. V. and NIKITINA N. I. Khim. Tekh. Top. Mus. 1900 5 45.

Chem.Engng.Sci. Vol. 15, Nos. 8 and 4. September,

1961.
269