LEARNER MOTIVATION AND DEVELOPING SELF-ESTEEM 4.1| INTRODUCTION ‘A.common question that is asked by student teachers is: “How can you get school students motivated about ...2 Te would be good if there was a simple answer, but there is not, We probably have impressions about the processes of motivation, about what energises us and ‘what does not, But what causes this flow and direction of energy? Ts it due to instincts, needs, incen- tives, fears or social pressures? 4.2| INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION ‘Various definitions of motivation abound, such as ‘motivation isan internal state that arouses, directs and maintains behaviour’ (Woolfolk 2008, p. 336). Yet this does not tell us very much. What causes 4 person to initiate a particular action isa fascinating question. A useful dichotomy to discuss this is ‘nerinsie and extriasie motivation. 4.2.1 Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation without any apparent external reward ~ for example, the motivation for learning comes entirely from performing a particular task. Stadents will be motivated to undertake a certain cask because of some personal factors ~ these may include needs, interests, curiosity and enjoyment. The activity in itself isthe reward in these circumstances. Intrinsic motivation can be capitalised on by using innovative teaching. For example, if a teacher can create puzzling questions, dilemmas and novel situations, and if this in turn puzzles the students in a clas, they are likely to be intrinsically motivated to find solutions (Gee Figure 4.1). How important is it for students to be emotionally ‘safe’ in a classroom? How might this influence their levels of motivation in wanting to work on a task? Montalvo, Mansfield and Miller (2007) contend that teachers who are liked by students are able to respond better to their needs and so this can also assist levels of intrinsic motivation. McCombs, Daniels and Perry’s (2008) research on early schooling grades (K-3) came up with similar results Not all students will be intrinsically motivated about particular puzzles or dilemmas. ‘Those58 2 aden ang FIGURE 4.1 Strategiss to encourage intrinsic motivation Present a novel situation to the class. Use an anecdote to engage students in a personal response, Use challenging questions, Provide contradictory information about a topic. Produce uniamiliar examples. Use case study accounts. students who are strongly motivated to work on challenging tasks, often on their own, are likely to be students who are confident about their own self-worth and who have developed a strong interest in a particular subject or schooling in general. Different students will find different tasks/actvities that will elicit particular forms of intrinsic motivation. Research evidence about classrooms indicates thet intrinsic motivation is only successful in certain sivvations for particular students (Borich & Tombari 1997). Extrinsic motivation also needs to be used to stimulate students. 4.2.2 Extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation is experienced by students when they receive a reward, or avoid punishment, or in some other way unconnected with the task earn approval for particular behaviour. In technical terms we can refer to reinforcement, which is the extemal stimulus that follows as a result of a certain response. If it is a positive reinforcer then the stimulus or event results in improved learning. Examples of primary reinforcers include those items/events that satisfy our basic physiological needs, such as food and drink. Secondary reinforcers are behaviours or events associated with primary reinforcers, such as the supportive/friendly manner of persons giving out the items of food. It is evident that a lot of teacher behaviours are related to secondary reinforcement such as teachers” gesrures and non-verbal behaviour. Primary reinforcers are also used by teachers, especially in earlier grades, and include items such as lollics, drinks and play-toys A problem for teachers is that we can never be certain which reinforcers will motivate particular students, Farther, students’ preferences for certain reinforcers can change over time. Above all, a teacher needs to have reflected carefully on his/her attitudes towards the use of acceptable and unac- ceptable types of external reinforcers. For example, do you consider that giving a student free reading time is a bewer reinforcer than releasing a student early to go to lunch? Do you place a high or a low value on consumable rewards? Ie is evident that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are used in classtoom learning. The perceptive teacher will always demonstrate why he/she is using external motivation and this can encourage students co become more confident and independent and hence more likely in the long term to become intrinsically motivated Research evidence provides conflicting advice on the use of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Deci, Koestner and Ryan (2001) in a major meta-analysis study conclude that tangible extrinsic rewards (for example, gold stars, best-seudent awards, honour rolls) ‘do significantly and substantially undermine intrinsic motivation’ (p.2). They contend that these forms of motivation attempt to control behaviour and lead to a perception by students of reduced opportunities for self-determination By contrast, Cameron (2001), also using « major meta-analysis study, concludes that the negative effects of extrinsic rewards are minimal and can easily be prevented in applied school settings. She argues for the usc of rewards to ‘shape successful performance and to recognise student accomplishment’ (p. 40). Hide and Harackiewicz (2000) take a similar stance to Cameron (2001) when they argue that ‘situational interest’ (external rewards) can have long-term benefits. They conclude that those whochapter 4 loner mawation ard devetoping seesteem 59 ‘argue against external rewards heve been over-reacting to behaviourism, and as a consequence ‘have ended up denying the importance of external influences that may be necessary for all seudents to get a decent, if not equal chance to achieve” (p. 169). ‘Vansteenhiste, Lens and Deci (2006) distinguish between extrinsic motivation which is ‘autono~ ‘mous’ and that which is ‘controlled’, Autonomous motivation involves the experience of volition and choice. In these situations the teacher allows opportunities for self-initiation and choice. Controlled motivation involves the experience of being pressured or coerced. In these situations, the teacher pressures students to think, act or feel in certain ways. According to Vansteenhiste, Lens end Deci, the more autonomy-supportive the classroom context, the more it maintains or enhances intrinsic motivation. louR TURN ‘© When you are observing classrooms, do you see teachers using mainly intrinsic or extrinsic motivation? Which ones are most effective? How can you tell? + Which types of motivation do you intend to use? Why? 43| SELF-ESTEEM ‘A number of educators assert that self-esteem is one of the most basic of human needs and that it is. a powerfol factor in classroom behaviour. ‘Maslow (1954) considered that motivation can be grouped into a hierarchy of needs, and self- esteem is included in this listing (see Figure 4.2). Our low-level needs are our physical needs (food and safety). These needs are fundamental in determining our behaviour, but once they have been met ‘we are stimulated to fulfil higher level needs, namely social needs. Our social needs revolve around self-esteem (being special and different) and belongingness (knowing that others are aware of us and ‘want to be a part of our group). FIGURE 4.2 Maslow's hierarchy of needs Self-actualisation needs (ty fanctionng navi) Aesthetic needs ‘appreciaton) Need to know and understand (access to information; wanting to kno) Estoom needs (osing recognised as unique) Bolongingness and love needs {belng accepted) ‘Security and safety needs (regu, precictable) Survival needs ‘Physicioateah ‘Source: Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Pesonality, rc ed, 1987, Adtcison-Wesley. © Reprinted by permission of Pearson Etcation Inc, Upper Saco Fiver, NJ.GO Pert 2 cert earings Once our social needs are more or less satisfied we will develop our intellectual needs in terms of needing to know and to understand. Beyond this in the hierarchy are aesthetic appreciation needs and, finally, self-accuslisation. The highest need, self-acrualisation, involves striving for the highest level of personel potential. Maslow maintains that the four lower level needs (survival, safety, belonging and self-esteem) are neds that individuals will strive to satisfy. Striving for the three higher needs (intellectual achieve- ment, aesthetic needs and self-actualisation) will only occur if a reasonable level of satisfaction has been atzained with the four lower levels. ‘There are important implications here for teachers. Clearly, students who are on a deficient diet at home and come to school hungry will not be motivated by needs beyond the physiological ones. Students who feel lonely and insecure may be highly motivated to satisfy belongingness needs, rather chan be very interested in intellectual pursuits. The teacher can assist students to satisfy their needs by a sensitive use of praise, recognition and approval An understanding of Maslow's hierarchy is also helpful in realising how conflicts can occur ‘within 8 class. For exemple, a teacher may be aiming at satisfying students’ intellectual, aesthetic ot self-actualisation needs, when the students may be more concerned about lower level needs such as belonging or self-esteem. Of course, it is important to remember that the hierarchy is an idealised model - not all students will behave according to the hierarchy. Perhaps most of us move quite readily between the hierar- chical levels, depending on the situation and the persons with whom we interact. But, as noted by ‘Woolfolk 2008), Maslow’s hierarchy enables us to consider the whole person and how theie physical, emotional and intellecmnsl needs are interrelated. ‘McGrath (2003) notes that the self-esteem movement of the 1970s and 1980s emphasised feelings and everyone’s right to happiness. Lerner (1996) concludes that this approach did not change anti- social behaviour nor improve relationships. Anower self-esteem theory, according to McGrath (2003), ‘stresses that competency achievement of personal goals and “pro-social” behaviour comes first and self-esteem follows’ (p. 16). McGrath contends chat having healthy self-esteem is linked to being resilient ~ being able to bounce back after adversity and disappointment. There are a number of classroom resilience programs that provide strategies to develop resilience (see Figure 4.3): packages available include MindMatters (2000), FIGURE 4.3 Strategigs to develop resins Emphasise pro-social values ~ these include honesty, fairness, support and concern for others, ‘Coping skills ~ how to normalise events in one's life rather than personalise them. ‘Courage ~ to persevere even when there are many difficulties. Optimistic thinking ~ focusing on the positive aspects of a nagative situation. Managing feelings how to manage ‘bad’ feelings. Social skils - develop social skills and positive relationshios. Goal achievement ~ applying sell-ciscipline in setting goels ane achieving them. Evidence-based self-knoviledge - awareness of strengths and limitations based upon evidence. ‘Source: After McGrath 2008, 4.4; ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION Achievement motivation is a matter of considerable importance to many students and teachers. ‘Writers have noted that family and cultural group motives appear to influence students who have developed high or low levels of achievement motivation (McMillan & Hearn 2008).I l chapter lescarmatiton ad developing stance 641 Classroom tasks offer students various opportunities for experiencing success or failure (Givvin et al. 2001). Those stadents who have a high achievement motivation will show greater persistence ‘and effort and they typically perceive themselves as having 2 high ability and self-esteem. By contrast, students with low achievement motivation have feelings of inadequacy and are not willing to stick at task until itis completed satisfactorily (see the case study on page 62). Select two or three students to interview the next time you visit @ school. Invite them to talk about ‘their aspirations and goals. Where appropriate and with necessary tact, explore their answers in ‘greater depth. ‘The explanations that students give for their successes and failures usually focus on ability, effort, task difficulty and luck. For example, students’ likelihood of high achievement may be attributed to such factors as ability or effort. These are controls internal to the student and which they can do something about. External controls are those that students cannot influence, such as test difficulty (set by external experts) or mere luck or chance in terms of the items included in a test. Turney et al. (1992) state that students with low achievement tend to explain failure in terms of external attributions, such as luck and ability (a stable internal attribute), but which in torn tends to perpetuate failure. ‘Then there are other external factors such as state systems. Marks and Cresswell (2005) undertook a stady of achievement levels in Reading, Mathematics and Science in different Australian states and territories. Their results provide alarming news for some states, especially Queensland, Victoria ‘and Tasmania, where students scored much lower in proficiency levels in Reading compared with scudents in other states, By contrast, New South Wales students scored highest among all states in Reading, Mathematics and Sciences. Marks and Cresswell suggest that the states with the highest scores may provide better services to low achieving students. ‘As indicated in Figure 4.4, there are important considerations for the teacher desiring to increase students’ achievement motivation levels, Establishing a classroom climate where students know that they can make mistakes without being ridiculed is an important consideration for a teacher. Some research studies have also revealed that it is possible to train teachers to encourage their students to take more personal responsibility for their achievements (internal control) rather than blaming external factors Hattie & Fletcher 2005). FIGURE 4.4 A checklist for teachers about achievement motivation 4. Do you sat tasks that are attainable and that build upon students’ current levels of skill? 2 Do you create a psychologically safe class environment where wrong answers and mistakes are accepted? Do you encourage students to assume more personal responsibility for goal seiting? Do you use activities/exercises to improve students’ self-esteem? Do you have high level of achievement motivation about excellence in teaching? Have you considered any steps you might take to reciuce the competitive nature of your classroom? How might individual learning and cooperative learning approaches assist students with their ‘motivation levels? Then again, it may be possible to reduce the level of competition within a class by using forms of instruction that emphasise individual mastery or cooperative learning, Cooperative learning in particular enables low-ability students to be members of cooperative groups that achieve success (see Chapter 8). (Of patticular concem within education systems in Australia are the levels of achievement of Aboriginal students and their associated motivational factors. Mclnerney’s (1991) study noted that significant motivational variables were:62 Part 2 suientlearring case | Achievement motivation study Helen very seldom completes her maths exercises, She is often ditracted during maths lessons, She complains that maths is boring. “The class teacher ies to make her maths lessons more interesting by developing everyday problems for students to solve that involve maths calculations. Although this strategy seems to work with meny of the other students, tle noticeable Improvement Is displayed by Helen. ‘The teacher decides to have an exploratory interview with Helen to ty to find out what is the problem, In this discussion Helen reveals that sho feels bored with maths because she is unsure of what to do; she lacks confidence in her ablity to complete the maths exercises, What might be done to assist Helen? Explain why you would use these strategies. «their lack of confidence and self-reliance in the school setting «their low level of goal-directed behaviour + the level of parental support and encouragement for schooling. He concluded that ‘the cluster of influential variables determining the Aboriginal child’s moziva~ tion at school, and ultimately his or her decision to continue with school beyond the minimum school leaving age, revolves around a sense of self: self-reliance, confidence and goal direction. These in their turn are influenced by facilitating conditions: first, parental support and help; secondly, school support through teachers and peers; and thirdly, general affect [like or dislike] towards schooling” (McInerney 1991, p. 167). + What activities can a teacher use to encourage students to achieve at their highest levels? *+ From your classroom observations, why do some students want or not want to achiove at their highest levels? What would you do about it as a classroom teacher? 4.5| ATTRIBUTION THEORY OF MOTIVATION Achievement motivation is critical to effective teaching. In an endeavour to find out how and why i operates, various theories have been developed. The attribution theory (Weiner 1986) states that people inevitably seek to explain why they have succeeded or failed. These explanations are called attributes. Explanations might include: «lack of effort + lack of ability + the teacher did not help me «difficulty of the task ‘+ other chance factors, According to Weiner (1986), these explanations or attributes include emotional reactions regarding future performance and expectations for success or failure. Specifically, students make attributions or explanations based on: 1 Situational cues @) A student’s past experience with a similar task (for example, consistent success or failure in the past).chapter 4 losrner moivation and develpirg setesteem 63. (®) A student's performance compared with peers. (©) Time-on-task (for example, whether they spent a weekend preparing for a test or did no preparation at al) (@ How much help they received during the task (for example, did another person help them do a project or did they cheat?), Prior beliefs Students have enduring beliefs about success and failure (enduring beliefs can be developed from reading or listening to parents). 3. Seif perceptions Students with high self-esteem will consider that reasons for their success are due to effort or ability and not due to luck. ‘Taken together, these factors inform us about the level of motivation of students and what drives them. These various factors also demonstrate how complex motivational dispositions can be. There is xno simple uni-dimensional bass for what motivates students. Bach student's motivation to do a task can be very different — some may be eager and successful; some may demonstrate anger, guilt or shame. Borich and Tombari (1997) suggest that ceachers supporting an attribution theory approach should be doing everything in their power to ensure that students attribute their classroom accom- plishments and failures in ways that bring out effort rather than discouragement. For example, chey list the following as worthwhile strategies for teachers to adopt: + Bevery aware of how and what you communicate to each student ~ use encouragement rather than praise, For example: ‘Your answers show thought! not ‘You are a good thinker’, «Try to get students to think about the leaming processes they use as well 2s the product they are trying to achieve. ‘+ Use small groups that are heterogeneous in terms of ability. Do not allocate students to groups based on ability, es this suggests that a teacher values ability over effort (Gallagher, Millar & Ellis 1996). + Use cooperative learning arrangements where possible with students, rather than activities that are perceived to be competitive. (For examples of cooperative learning see Chapter 8.) ‘+ Develop goals for each student that are realistic. If students keep on failing because they are ‘aiming too high, they are likely to doubt their abilities (Page 1998). Proponents of attribution theory argue that a learner's motivation for achievement is based on their attributions or reasons for success or failure. The task for teachers is therefore to convince students that factors of success are under their control. The attribution theory has been modified and refined by others such as Dweck and Elliott (1983) and Cobington (1984), Although there are many other theories of motivation, the attribution theory is widely supported in the literavure, 4.6| SOCIAL MOTIVATION ‘As noted earlier with regard to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, social needs are a major consideration for all students. Many students actively seek out support and attention from the teacher and from other students. Support from the teacher is clearly a major management strategy ~ it can be used to reinforce desired behaviour by the teacher 2s well as build self-esteem and generally more positive relationships between the teacher and students ina class. Some research studies highlight how certain students are able to solicit far more support from a teacher than other students because of such factors as their high ability, confidence and social behaviour. By reacting positively to their teacher, these students are rewarding the teacher! The interaction patterns between teacher and students can indeed be very complex and sophisticated. Tn the classroom situation, the use of support is very important for students and for the teaches. Both teachers and students need to be accepted and both seek out as well as react to praise’64 pertz sudertiesmning (Sinclair & Hatton 1992, p. 100). The development of a positive climate within the classroom is dependent on this accepting behaviour, which may be achieved relatively painlessly or may be a very protracted process. Notwithstanding, itis up to classroom teachers to reflect on how and when they tse support (and criticism), and to develop strategies to use it systematically and selectively, depend~ cent on the needs of individual students (5) How important is It for teachers to be goad role models if student motivation is to be fostered? ‘Hiarmin (1994) suggests that itis the role of the teacher to inspire new growth in dignity, energy, self-management, community and awareness (DESCA). Harmin provides some sound practical ideas for inspiring DESCA (Table 4.1) and strategies for motivating students beyond praise and rewards Figure 45). ‘TABLE 41 Teacher messages to inspire new growth in digrity, energy, selfmanagement, community and awareness (DESCA) “lAppreciate’ messages that inspire DESCA Dignity really like the way you just spoke up for yours Like the way you defended your friend. ‘appreciate the way you look straight into people's eyes. Energy ike it when you pace yourself. Like it when you speak with eneray. {ke it when you go one mare step when you are ready to give up. Self-management [ike it when you make a time plan, [ike it when you think i out for yoursel Community Ike it when you respect the differences in others. [ike it when you find something to appreciate in people 0 different from you. ice ft when you listen so well to others. ‘Awareness Thank you very much far bsing so alert. ‘Thank you very much for reading with an open rin. ‘Source: Based on Harmin 1994, pp. 74-6. ‘Vm With You’ messages that inspire DESCA Dignity | can imagine how you felt efter speaking up that way. | think | know how you felt when you insisted on your rights. ‘There was a time when |, to0, could not get all the courage | wanted, Energy need rest too. \'o like you when it comes to taking initiative Ik’'s not easy 30 eat well all the time, is it? ‘Self-management |, too, have trouble knowing when to speak up and when to say nothing, lunderstand how you knew when you had had enough. ‘Sometimes we need to look twice to see what must be done, don’t we? |, too, must sometimes remind myself not to be negative. Community |lunderstand how you felt about cleaning up & mess you didn't make. W's fun to cheer people on, isn’t it? You fee! good when you reach out to newcomers, don't you? Ik feels good to me, too, when | can stand up for our class. Awareness 1, t00, sometimes do net manage myself as well as | want te |, 100, sometimes go too fast without noticing it. I. to0, sometimes wonder about my feelings,chapter 4 lerner motivation snd developing sattesteem 65) FIGURE 4.5 Strategies for encouraging beyond preise and rewards Strategy Description: A statement that communicates something honestly appreciated about students. Appreciate! message Purpose: To remind students that at least one adult appreciates them, Examples: Hike the way you said that “Thanks for giving that a try. Strategy 2: 'm With You" message Description: A message that communicates an empathetic acceptance or understanding of a student Purpose: To help students understand that they are not alone. Examples: Lots of us feel that way. loan see how you would do that. | think | understand how you feet. Pd be proud to be in your shoes. Strategy 3: Atte Description: ion without praise ving ful attention to a student, as by Iistening carefully, without offering praise. Purpose: To support and encourage students without making them overdependent on approval from others. Examples: Physical touch, Eye contact. Greetings after an absence. Strategy 4: Plain corrects Description: Straightforwardly informing a student that an answer is correct and then moving on. Purpose: To confiem correctness without eliciting a distracting emotion Examples: Yes, that's right Okay, ‘Yes, that's just what | wanted. Just right. Comrect Yes, thank you. Strategy 5: Plain incorrects Description: Stralghtforwardly informing a student that an answer is not correct and then moving on. Purpose: To inform students that an enewer is incorrect without eliciting any distracting emotion. ‘continued66 Part 2eudon esming FIGURE 45 (continued) Examples: No, the correct answeris ‘You had the fist name right. The correct answer is Strategy 6 Description: Niaking a mental note of a student error or problem, but leaving until later a consideration of what, If anything, is to be done about it. Purpose: To avoid responding in unproductive ways to students’ mistakes. lent response Strategy 7: Praise and rewards for all Description: Praise or rewards offered to the group as a whole. Purpose: To encourage group without slighting any student and to build group unity, Examples This group is making great progress. It's a pleasure for me to work with you. Let's give ourselves a hand for the way we handled today's lesson. ‘You are ell working so well together! | told the principal today how special you are. Strategy 8: Honest delight Description: A statement expressing spontaneous delight with a student Purpose: To allow oneself to be spontaneously expressive. Also, to demonstrate the reality that people: have the ability to delight others Examples: ‘That was a really great paper you wiote yesterday, Lois. ‘What @ good initiative you took, Jim, | was delighted to see how you stuck with your friend, Bly. You were truthful, and that was not easy, Sam. was very happy to see that, Great answer, Gloria, Very creative. ‘Source: Based en Harmmin 1984, pp. 63-73, OF course, teacher support and criticism is also an important means for students to receive feedback on their performance. According to Bloom and Bourdon (1980), few teachers (8 per cent in their research study) noticed consistent student errors and informed the students. Effective Feedback for students should inchude specific details about errors, together with positive comments about ways: to improve. 4.7) MOTIVATION - INFLUENCING FACTORS ‘Student motivation is variable and complex and interrelated with many other factors such as anxiery, need for achievement, che need to be accepted, curiosity, and other needs outlined by Maslow. ‘Ata school level, it is interesting to note some of the research on how student motivation is affected by che gender of teachers, the level of schooling (especially the problems in middle years) and the levels of school structure,chapter 4 loner notation and devipingafentiem 67 a From classes you have observed do cooperative classrooms enable more student leaming than compstitive ones? Give points for or against this assertion ‘Martin and Marsh (2005) studied middle and high school students in five Australien schools and concluded that ‘boys and girls are no less or more motivated or engaged in classes taught by males than they are in classes taught by females’ (p. 330). They demonstrated that the bulk of vatiance in motivation occurs atthe student level and not because of the gender of the teacher. ‘Yeung and Mcinerney (2005) noted in their research that there is a decline in motivation of students during adolescence. In particular, there is a decline in effort motivation from Grade 7 10 9 jn the Australian schools they studied. However, there is a rise again in Grade 11, when career aspirations appear to be 2 major motivating factor. Black, Swann and Wiliam’s (2006) study of UK students found that their opinions of Tearning in school declined between Years 6 to 9. ‘Anderson, Hattie and Hamilton (2005) concluded from their study that the structure of a school affects students’ levels of motivation and achievement. Their results demonstrated that the ideal structure of a school is one that is sufficiently structured to be predictable but not so structured as to limit action alternatives for students. To pinpoint factors that assist with motivating students is rather hazardous because of different ‘motivational states of students, but some general factors are worth noting + Warmth and enthusiasm: Teachers who ace enthusiastic about a subject and who can present the material in a sensitive, caring way are likely to strongly motivate their students. + Meaningful goals: Teachers who set goals that are meaningful, realistic and achievable by students are likely to get their support In these cases, students will become highly motivated because they can see how these instructional goals are relevant to their personal goals. This is especially the case if students perceive that they can achieve the goal or task and that they will not fal + Fustering climate: Teachers need to use a number of strategies to develop and maintain a positive social and psychological climate in the classroom. For example, they may need to develop cooperative team projects; they will want to initiate challenges that can be aired in a ‘safe’ environment; they will want to provide opportunities for students to enhance their self-aetvalisation. Fostering a positive climate is not only desirable for the students but also for the teacher, who also needs to receive sapport, recognition and acceptance. + Maintsining equity: As moted above, students have well-developed skills in attracting particular kinds of teacher responses. To be fair and accepting to all students of varying levels of ability, commitment, personality and friendliness isa difficale task for any teacher and one that has co be monitored constantly. It is very easy to be selective in our praise and support and, pethaps unknowingly, ostracise certain stadents. Students are very aware of equity and will be quick to point out teacher behaviours or actions that do not appear to be even-handed and far. ‘Some more specific principles for teachers to concentrate on are included in Figure 4.6. Several have been referred to earlier in the chapter, but itis useful to consider them as a complete lst. A good ‘time to review your strategies is at the beginning or end of each school term. Some of the strategies (for example, simulations and games) may need to be incorporated into your progrem for the foilow- ing term, Other strategies may be used from time to time to add variety to your lessons (for example, the use of novel stimuli), Finally, Figure 4.7 highlights some undesirable practices that a teacher should endeavour to avoid in order to keep students in the class highly motivated. Some situations are obvious (for example physical discomfort) but others (Guch as equity issues about students being tested on material not covered in class) can easily occar unknowingly. The lst in total provides some timely reminders about situations that should be avoided whenever possible (see also Chapter 5).6B pare? der FIGURE 4.6 General principles for motivating students 1. Use spoken and written support. Spoken support is particulary affective but go too are written comments. 2. Provide challenging and varied learning activities ~ there needs to be sufficient variety to maintain Interest. ‘Attempt to match the instructional needs and interests of each student in your class, Use short-term goals that are achievable - there is a higher sense of mastery of short-term goals, 5. Select reinforcers that are likely to be effective ~ this requires @ teacher to monitor those reinforcers that are successful with particular stucients or groups. 6 Have clear outcomes ~ students will be more energised if they have been informed about the specific student outcomes required, 7 Use novel stimuli as springboards ~ students will be highly motivated by novel, complex or ambiguous stimu use this curiosity as a springboard into the lesson. @ Use simutations and games ~ the research literature Indicates that these are very motivating for students and promote student/teacher interaction (Marsh 2006). 9 Use familiar materials as stepping stones ~ any teaching situations should build upen persons, objects or events that are familiar to students. FIGURE 4,7 Situations likely to bring about low levels of motivation ‘+ Physicat discomfort ‘+ Excessive demands from a teacher. ‘+ Ateacher conveys (knowingly or unknowingly) low expectations about individuals or groups, + Students ete assessed on material that has not been covered in class. ‘+ A student's request for assistance from a teacher goes unanswered, ‘+ Students have to work et @ pace that is too fast for them. + Students have to listen to an uninteresting presentation by the teacher. ‘+ Failure (which may be publicly announcedireferred to by the teacher + Loss of self-esteem due to falling to understand @ topic or process. + The teacher appears uninterested in the subject matter. ‘+The teacher uses criticism and sarcasm to motivate students. your TURN «What techniques have you used with students who have low levels of motivation? * Explain wy you chose these techniques. Were they successful? Did you have a chance to follow up the issue of low motivation with the students concerned? 4.8| PASTORAL CARE Pastoral care is closely related to the above sections on motivation. The term refers to all aspects of work with students in a schoo! other than pure teaching (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2004), ‘Teachers and administrators tend to portray pastoral care in terms of altruistic commitment and include such elements as + concemn for the total welfare of the student + schools providing a learning environment that is sensitive, warm and humanechapter 4 lenrsarmtiaton and eave sees OF creating feelings of belonging for students + enhancing the formation of positive relationships between the teacher and a student. However, there are a number of research studies which reveal that a school's pastoral care struc- rures are dysfunctional (Cruickshank, Jenkins & Metcalf 2009). House, year and sub-school systems and tutoring groups are just some of the structures used, especially in secondary schools, yet surveys of secondary school students reveal that many students do not perceive their schools to be caring institutions (Dynan 1980). In many cases, schools use these pastoral care structures for administra- tive expediency rather than for attending (o the pastoral care needs of students (Lang & Hyde 1987). ‘There is increasing concern over the quality of school life and the negative effects on students of organisational and administrative practices. ‘Lang and Hyde (1987) contend that pastoral care matters that need to be considered for students (and especially for secondary students) inchide: ‘provision of specific actions to support the welfare of students ‘+ giving support and guidance in coping with study, career choices, and personal and social problems + helping stadents to acquire skills, understandings and aptitudes that will enable them to relate effectively to others. CONCLUDING COMMENTS Motivation is a very important force that affects and directs our behaviour. As @ consequence, it is a vital factor for teachers to understand and to apply in their teaching, 5 By understanding different motivational needs of students and different forms of motivation, such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, we are better placed to provide classroom enviror ments that are amenable to student learning. There ate motivational techniques that we can se in the classroom. To a certain extent this involves us in trial and error andl monitoring those: strategies that are highly motivational with a particular class and those that are not. As nated by Gage and Berliner (1992, p. 381) ag Make your teaching experience cumulative. Don't be afraid to experiment but be sure to leam from the experience. Keep records, If something works, use it again; if it doesn't motivate your students, drop it. Teaching is a process that demands constant and cafeful revision a Pastoral care needs of students are important but structures in many schools do litle 10 service this need ~ many are based simply on administrative expediency. a KEY ISSUES RAISED IN THIS CHAPTER L 2 Motivation energises, directs and sustains behaviour. It is possible to intrinsically motivate students some of the time through innovative _ methods. ee 3. In classroom leaming both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is used. eae Achievernent motivation is especially important to many students and their families: 5) Many students actually seek out support and attention from the teacher and from students.