SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

P. BANERJEE
Professor
Amity School of Engineering and Technology
Amity University, Noida
and
Former Scientist
CSIR–National Physical Laboratory
New Delhi

Delhi-110092
2017
 Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................ xi
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................xiii

1. Overview of Satellite Communication................................................... 1–7

1.1 Introduction  1
1.2 Evolution of Satellite Communication   1
1.3 Historical Development of Satellite Communication   2
1.4 Advantages of Satellite Communication   2
1.5 Growth of Satellite Communication   3
1.6 Frequency Allocation for Satellite Systems   4
1.7 Applications of Satellite Communication   5
Summary  6
Review Questions  7

2. Orbital Mechanics............................................................................... 8–34

2.1 Introduction  8
2.2 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion   8
2.3 Description of the Orbit of a Satellite   11
2.4 Kepler’s Equation of Motion   14
2.5 Orbital Elements   16
2.5.1 Definitions of Six Orbital Elements   17
2.5.2 Comparison of Orbital Elements   18
2.6 Look Angles   20
2.6.1 Determination of Elevation Angle   20
2.6.2 Determination of Azimuth Angle   21
2.7 Solar Day and Sidereal Day   25
2.8 Time  26
2.8.1 Atomic Clock   26
2.8.2 Calendar  27
2.8.3 Local Time   27
Summary  27
Review Questions  28
Annexure 2A: Conic Section  29
v
vi  Contents
Annexure 2B: Periapsis and Apoapsis  31
Annexure 2C: General Expression of Velocity of a Satellite in an Orbit  32
Annexure 2D: Few Terminologies Related to an Oribit  33
Annexure 2E: Orbit for Interplanetary Flights  34

3. Orbits................................................................................................ 35–49
3.1 Introduction  35
3.2 Earth’s Oblateness   35
3.3 Atmospheric Drag   37
3.4 Third Body Effects   38
3.5 Radiation Pressure   39
3.6 Earth Coverage   39
3.7 Different Satellite Orbits   41
3.7.1 LEO  41
3.7.2 MEO  41
3.7.3 Geosynchronous Orbits   42
3.8 Highly Eccentric Orbit (HEO): Molniya Orbit   43
3.9 Polar Orbit   45
3.10 Sun-synchronous Orbit   45
3.11 Hohmann Transfer Orbit   46
Summary    47
Review Questions  48
Annexure 3A: Van Allen Radiation Belt  49

4. Launchers.......................................................................................... 50–58
4.1 Introduction  50
4.2 Launch Vehicle   51
4.3 Efficiency of Rocket/Launch Vehicle   52
4.4 Fuel  53
4.5 Launch Sites   53
4.6 Satellite Placement in Geostationary Orbit   54
Summary  55
Review Questions  56
Annexure 4A: Derivation of Ideal Rocket Equation  57

5. Satellite Sub-systems......................................................................... 59–75

5.1 Introduction  59
5.2 Mechanical Structure   60
5.3 Propulsion Sub-system   60
5.4 Thermal Control   60
5.5 Tracking, Telemetry, Command, and Monitoring   62
5.6 Power Sub-system   63
5.6.1 Solar Cells   64
5.6.2 Total Solar Eclipses for Geostationary Satellites   64
5.6.3 Battery  65
 Contents  vii

5.7 Attitude and Orbit Control System   66

5.8 Antenna Sub-system   67
5.8.1 Types of Beam Pattern   68
5.9 Communication Sub-system   70
5.10 Space Specification, Reliability and Redundancy   71
5.11 Lifespan of a Satellite   72
5.12 System Configuration of INSAT   72
Summary  74
Review Questions  74

6. The Space Link.................................................................................. 76–98

6.1 Introduction  76
6.2 Calculation of Received Power   77
6.3 System Noise Considerations   81
6.3.1 Noise Temperature   81
6.3.2 Amplifier Noise Temperature   82
6.4 Noise Figure   84
6.5 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (C/N)  86
6.6 Overall Performance   87
6.7 Antenna Losses   88
6.7.1 Noise Due to Antenna   88
6.7.2 Antenna Pointing Loss   88
6.7.3 Loss Due to Surface Irregularities of Antenna   89
6.8 Propagation Effects   90
6.8.1 Atmospheric Absorption   91
6.8.2 Ionospheric Effects   91
6.8.3 Ionospheric Scintillation   92
6.9 Rain Fade (Rain Attenuation)   92
6.10 Sun Outage   94
6.11 Faraday Rotation   94
Summary  95
Review Questions  95
Annexure 6A: Low Noise Amplifier  96
Annexure 6B: Decibel Units  97
Annexure 6C: Concept of EIRP  98

7. Satellite Access................................................................................ 99–118

7.1 Introduction  99
7.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)   99
7.2.1 Characteristics of FDMA   102
7.2.2 Overall Carrier-to-Noise Ratio   102
7.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)   102
7.3.1 TDMA Frame Structure   105
7.3.2 TDMA Frame Efficiency   106
viii  Contents
7.3.3 TDMA Superframe   107
7.3.4 TDMA Frame Synchronisation   108
7.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)   110
7.4.1 PRN Sequence   111
7.4.2 Maximum Number of Users in CDMA   113
7.4.3 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio in CDMA   114
7.5 Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA)   114
7.6 Assigning Slots in Multiple Access   114
7.6.1 Pre-assigned (Fixed Assigned) Multiple Access (PAMA or FAMA)   115
7.6.2 Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA)   115
7.6.3 Random Multiple Access (RMA)   116
Summary  116
Review Questions  117
Annexure 7A: Processing Gain  118

8. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).................................... 119–142

8.1 Introduction  119
8.2 Global Positioning System (GPS)   120
8.3 GPS Constellation   121
8.4 Working Principle of GPS   122
8.5 Signal Structure   123
8.5.1 Generation of the Course Acquisition (C/A) Code   126
8.6 Navigation Data   127
8.7 Navigation Solution   128
8.8 Design of a GPS Receiver   129
8.9 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio of GPS Signal at the Receiving End   130
8.10 GPS Errors   132
8.11 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)   135
8.11.1 GLONASS   135
8.11.2 Galileo   136
8.11.3 BeiDou   136
8.11.4 IRNSS (India)   136
8.11.5 GNSS Comparison   136
8.12 Some Issues Related to GNSS   137
8.12.1 Interoperability and Compatibility   137
8.12.2 Political Decisions   137
8.12.3 Financial Uncertainty   137
8.13 Applications  137
8.13.1 Navigation   137
8.13.2 Surveying, Mapping   138
8.13.3 Precise Time Reference   138
Summary  138
Review Questions  139
Annexure 8A: Least Square Method  140
 Contents  ix

9. Internet and Satellite Links........................................................... 143–148

9.1 Introduction to Internet   143
9.2 Layered Structure for TCP/IP   143
9.3 TCP Link   145
9.3.1 Flow Control and Congestion Control   145
9.4 Satellite Links and TCP   146
9.4.1 Round Trip Time (RTT) for Satellite Link   146
9.4.2 Bandwidth-Delay Product (BDP)   146
9.5 Solutions to TCP Problems over Long Delays   147
9.5.1 Split TCP with PEP   147
Summary  148
Review Questions  148

10. Direct Broadcasting Satellite (DBS) Television............................... 149–163

10.1 Introduction  149
10.2 Digital DBS TV   149
10.3 HDTV Transmission   151
10.4 Compression in Digital TV   151
10.4.1 Necessity of Compression   151
10.4.2 Compression Standards   152
10.5 Reduction in Resolution   153
10.5.1 Colour Sub-sampling   153
10.5.2 Motion Estimation   154
10.5.3 Exploiting Spatial Redundancies   154
10.5.4 Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)   155
10.5.5 Quantisation   155
10.6 Exploiting Statistical Redundancies   155
10.7 Hybrid Video Encoder   155
10.8 DBS Receiver   156
10.9 Link Budget for FM-FDMA Television   157
10.10 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis   158
10.11 FM-FDMA Television   159
Summary  160
Review Questions  160
Annexure 10A: Characteristics of Analog TV Signal  161
Annexure 10B: Power Roll-off in dB Scale (dB/Octave)  163

11. Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)............................................ 164–173

11.1 Introduction  164
11.2 Frequency Allocation   165
11.3 Network Architecture   165
11.3.1 One-way System   165
11.3.2 Split Two-way System   165
x  Contents
11.3.3 Broadcast Network   166
11.3.4 Point-to-Point Network   166
11.4 Two-way Network   167
11.5 TDM/TDMA   168
11.6 Trans-receiver in VSAT Network   169
11.7 VSAT or Wireless Local Loop (WLL) Network   170
11.8 Calculation of Link Margin   171
Summary  172
Review Questions  172

12. Special Purpose Satellites.............................................................. 174–178

12.1 Introduction  174
12.2 Globalstar  175
12.3 Iridium  175
12.4 Orbcomm  177
12.5 Landsat  177
12.6 RADARSAT  177
12.7 Indian National Satellite System   177
Summary  178
Review Questions  178

Bibliography......................................................................................... 179–180
Index.................................................................................................... 181–189
 Preface

Communication has pervaded into every sphere of life. With the advent of the satellite,
communication has become more accessible in almost all parts of the globe. Hundreds of
channels we see on our TV are linked through satellites. Mobile phone, e-mail, WhatsApp,
net browsing, googling— all are facilitated by communication satellites. Communications via
satellites are being so extensively used that the subject ‘satellite communication’ is being taught
as one full semester course or at least one or two modules of a semester in electronics and
communication engineering department/space department of almost all universities.
During the course of my teaching the subject in Amity University, I could realise the
difficulties of students in having an in-depth understanding of the subject. I tried to clarify the
doubts in my own way. Further, I observed that students could not comprehensively assimilate
the subject from any one single book out of many well written and widely referred books
available in the market. These observations prompted me to write one compact book, which
would adequately address these issues. My notes for taking classes generated over the years
have actually been transformed into a presentable form in the shape of this textbook. The
contents of the book have also been enriched by my prior research experience of more than
three decades in the related field.
Most of the chapters are supplemented by one or few annexures that cover presentations
of some additional interesting relevant information. These have not been tacitly included in the
main body to avoid digression from the main topic. The annexures may be useful for teachers
as well as for more curious students.
The book starts with an introductory chapter that introduces the evolution of satellite
communication. It covers the orbital mechanics, the perturbation factors of the orbit and
different orbit configuration. It deals with launching mechanism and satellite sub-systems that
configure a complete satellite system. The book elaborates the link calculation to facilitate
the design aspect. Satellite access mechanism is also discussed. Internet linking via satellite
is also outlined for completeness. The book also includes detailed deliberation on navigation
satellites, direct broadcasting satellites, VSAT and other low orbit satellites. INSAT system is
also discussed.
xi
xii  Preface
This book is targeted for the undergraduate and postgraduate students of electronics
and communication engineering/electronics and telecommunication engineering in Indian
universities in particular. The book may also serve as a reference book for the faculty teaching
the subject.
Comments and suggestions from readers and experts would be highly appreciated.

P. BANERJEE
 2 Orbital Mechanics

2.1 INTRODUCTION
1TDKVCNOGEJCPKEUFGCNUYKVJVJGUVWF[QHOQVKQPUQHVJGCTVKſEKCNUCVGNNKVGUCPFURCEGXGJKENGU
6JKU YCU UVCTVGF D[ -GRNGT CPF 0GYVQP CPF YCU HWTVJGT GZRCPFGF CPF GNCDQTCVGF D[ OCP[
GZRGTVUQHVJGQTGVKECNRJ[UKEUKPVJGGKIJVGGPVJCPFPKPGVGGPVJEGPVWTKGU+PEQWTUGQHVKOGVJG
VJGQT[ JCU DGGP UQ TGſPGF VJCV KV KU CDNG VQ FGſPG VJG CUEGPV VTCLGEVQTKGU TGGPVT[ CPF NCPFKPI
CPF KPVGTRNCPGVCT[ VTCLGEVQTKGU #NN VJGUG OC[ DG FQPG YKVJ VJG CEEWTCE[ CPF RTGEKUKQP CU
TGSWKTGF HQT VJG URCEG OKUUKQP 6JKU EJCRVGT RTGUGPVU C RTGNKOKPCT[ DCEMITQWPF QH VJG QTDKVCN
OGEJCPKEU

2.2 KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

,QJCPPGU -GRNGT
Ō C )GTOCP OCVJGOCVKEKCP CUVTQPQOGT CPF CUVTQNQIGT ſTUV
RTQRQWPFGF VJTGG NCYU FGUETKDKPI RNCPGVCT[ OQVKQP -GRNGT FKUEQXGTGF VJGUG NCYU GORKTKECNN[
DCUGF QP NCTIG CPF GZVGPUKXG QDUGTXCVKQPU -GRNGTŏU NCYU CRRN[ IGPGTCNN[ VQ CP[ VYQ DQFKGU
VJCV KPVGTCEV KP URCEG WPFGT VJG HQTEG QH ITCXKVCVKQP 5Q Kepler’s laws are equally applicable
to satellites orbiting around the Earth, irrespective of natural satellite like Moon and man-
made satellites.
-GRNGTŏUſTUVNCY
2CVJUHQNNQYGFD[RNCPGVU
QTUCVGNNKVGUCTQWPFVJG5WP
QT'CTVJCTGGNNKRUG
TGHGTVQ(KIWTG
CPF#PPGZWTG#YKVJVJG5WP
QT'CTVJCVQPGQHVJGVYQHQEK
+P %CTVGUKCP EQQTFKPCVG U[UVGO GNNKRUG KU YTKVVGP CU HQNNQYU
x  y
   
a b
where a is UGOKOCLQT CZKU CPF b is UGOKOKPQT CZKU
6JG GNNKRUG KP RQNCT EQQTFKPCVG KU IKXGP D[
a(1  e )
r=
1  e cos v
where e is GEEGPVTKEKV[ #PING v KU UJQYP KP (KIWTG # CPF (KIWTG 
8
 Orbital Mechanics 9
#P GNNKRVKECN QTDKV JCU KVU apogee
TGHGT VQ #PPGZWTG $ YJKEJ KU VJG HCTVJGUV RQKPV QH
the QTDKVHTQOVJG'CTVJŏUEGPVTGCPFperigeeYJKEJKUVJGPGCTGUVRQKPVQHVJGQTDKVHTQOVJG
'CTVJŏU EGPVTG
UGG (KIWTG 
# circular orbit KU C URGEKCN ECUG QH CP GNNKRVKECN QTDKV 5Q VJG GEEGPVTKEKV[ QDXKQWUN[
DGEQOGU\GTQ6JWUQPGOC[CUUWOGVJCVKPVJGECUGQHEKTEWNCTQTDKVVYQHQEKOGTIGVQIGVJGT
VQ IKXG C UKPING EGPVTCN RQKPV In this case, apogee and perigee do not exist.

FIGURE 2.1 5JCRGQHCV[RKECNGNNKRUGYKVJVJG'CTVJ

YKVJQRGPEKTENGQPVJGHQEWUaKUUGOKOCLQT
CZKU b KU UGOKOKPQT CZKU ra KU CRQIGG TCFKWU CPF rp KU RGTKIGG TCFKWU

-GRNGTŏUUGEQPFNCY
6JG TCFKWU XGEVQT HTQO VJG 5WP
QT 'CTVJ VQ VJG RNCPGV
QT UCVGNNKVG UYGGRU QWV GSWCN CTGC KP
GSWCN VKOG

FIGURE 2.2 'ZRNCPCVKQP QH -GRNGTŏU UGEQPF NCY HQT UCVGNNKVGŏU QTDKV CTQWPF VJG 'CTVJ (Area EAB
equals area ECD and they are swept in the same amount of time. So, the satellite moves
distance AB and distance CD in the same amount of time. The satellite has to move faster
to cover larger distance AB than to cover shorter distance CD. Thus, the satellite moves
fastest when it is nearest to the Earth.)

&KCITCOOCVKECNN[ -GRNGTŏU UGEQPF NCY JCU DGGP GZRNCKPGF KP (KIWTG  +P VJKU ſIWTG
VYQUJCFGFRQTVKQPU
QHGSWCNCTGCQHVJGGNNKRVKECNQTDKVKPYJKEJCUCVGNNKVGOQXGUCTGUYGRV
KP GSWCN VKOG
10 Satellite Communication

1PGOC[PQVG
KP(KIWTGVJCVVJGFKUVCPEG#$KUNQPIGTVJCPVJGFKUVCPEG%&VJQWIJ
VJG[ CTG VTCXGNNGF D[ VJG UCOG COQWPV QH VKOG 5Q VJG UCVGNNKVG OQXGU YKVJ VJG non-uniform
velocityThis very law further infers that when the satellite goes farther away from the Earth
(i.e., around apogee), the satellite slows down (i.e., covers shorter distance CD in the same
time). When the satellite comes closer to the Earth (i.e., around perigee), the satellite moves
faster (i.e., covers longer distance AB in the same time).
When the orbit is circle (as a special case of ellipse with zero eccentricity), the satellite
moves in the orbit with a constant velocity.
-GRNGTŏUVJKTFNCY
6JGUSWCTGQHVJGQTDKVCNRGTKQFQHVJGQTDKVKURTQRQTVKQPCNVQVJGEWDGQHVJGUGOKOCLQTCZKU
QH VJG QTDKV
The ratio T  a3 KU EQPUVCPV HQT CNN RNCPGVU CPF UCVGNNKVGU YJGTG T KU QTDKVCN RGTKQF
VKOG
VCMGP VQ EQORNGVG QPG TGXQNWVKQP CPF a KU UGOKOCLQT CZKU QH VJG QTDKV
and T = (4p/ma3
where m = G Me = ª13 m3/s ª5 MO3/s = -GRNGTŏUEQPUVCPV
*GTG G is ITCXKVCVKQPCN EQPUVCPV
  ª –11 0OMI) and Me
  ª  MI KU
VJG OCUU QH VJG 'CTVJ
Note: 6JG XCNWG QH m IKXGP CDQXG KU XCNKF HQT VJG UCVGNNKVG QTDKVKPI CTQWPF VJG 'CTVJ 6JG
EQTTGURQPFKPI XCNWGU QH m HQT QVJGT RNCPGVU CTG IKXGP KP 6CDNG 

TABLE 2.1 )TCXKVCVKQP 2CTCOGVGTU QH 5GNGEVGF %GNGUVKCN $QFKGU

Body m
MO3/s)
5WP  ª 11
'CTVJ  ª 5
Venus  ª 5
Mars  ª 4
,WRKVGT  ª 6
5CVWTP  ª 7
Moon  ª 3

PROBLEM 2.1: %CNEWNCVG VJG RGTKQF QH IGQUVCVKQPCT[ QTDKV KH m   ª 5 MO3/s and
a   MO
Solution: T = (4pa3)/m;
Ë
 –   Û
T = Ì 5 Ü
–
3    U
Í
 –   Ý
T  U   J  OKP  U
 Orbital Mechanics 11

2.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE ORBIT OF A SATELLITE

5KT +UCCE 0GYVQP
Ō
'PINKUJ RJ[UKEKUV OCVJGOCVKEKCP CUVTQPQOGT VJGQNQIKCP
FGTKXGF -GRNGTŏU NCYU HTQO JKU QYP NCYU QH OGEJCPKEU Satellites orbiting the earth follow
the same laws that govern the motion of planets around the Sun
0GYVQP FKUEQXGTGF VJG NCYU QH ITCXKVCVKQP. *G GZRNCKPGF RNCPGVCT[ CPF UCVGNNKVG QTDKVU
KP VGTOU QH VJG DCNCPEG QH VJG VYQ HQTEGU DCUGF QP JKU NCYU QH OQVKQP CPF VJG EQPEGRV QH
ITCXKVCVKQPCN CVVTCEVKQP
%GPVTKRGVCNCEEGNGTCVKQP
6JG NCY QH ITCXKVCVKQP UVCVGU VJCV VJG ITCXKVCVKQPCN HQTEG QH CVVTCEVKQP
Fin) between two
DQFKGUXCTKGU CU VJG RTQFWEV QH VJGKT OCUUGU CPF KPXGTUGN[ CU VJG USWCTG QH VJG FKUVCPEG
r)
DGVYGGP VJGO +H Me KU OCUU QH VJG 'CTVJ CPF m KU VJG OCUU QH VJG UCVGNNKVG VJGP
Me m Pm
Fin = G 


r r
where G KU ITCXKVCVKQPCN EQPUVCPV CPF m = G Me
Fin KU HQTEG QH CVVTCEVKQP D[ VJG 'CTVJ VQ VJG UCVGNNKVG
UGG (KIWTG  6JKU KU CNUQ ECNNGF

RCTVKEWNCTN[ HQT QTDKVKPI DQF[ centripetal force 6JG EGPVTKRGVCN HQTEG CVVGORVU VQ RWNN VJG
UCVGNNKVG FQYP VQ VJG GCTVJ

FIGURE 2.3 $CNCPEKPI QH EGPVTKRGVCN HQTEG CPF EGPVTKHWICN HQTEG HQT QTDKVKPI UCVGNNKVG

%GPVTKHWICNHQTEG
6JG UGEQPF NCY QH OQVKQP UVCVGU VJCV VJG CEEGNGTCVKQP QH C DQF[ KU RTQRQTVKQPCN VQ VJG HQTEG
CEVKPI QP KV CPF KU KPXGTUGN[ RTQRQTVKQPCN VQ KVU OCUU 6JG HQTEG ECWUGF D[ VJKU CEEGNGTCVKQP KU
called centrifugal force (Fout HQT C QTDKVKPI DQF[ CPF KU IKXGP D[
dv v
Fout = m m¹

dt r
+VJCUDGGPCUUWOGFVJCVVJGUCVGNNKVGKUOQXKPIYKVJCXGNQEKV[v in a circular orbit with radius
r CTQWPF VJG 'CTVJ 6JG EGPVTKHWICN HQTEG FWG VQ VJG MKPGVKE GPGTI[ QH VJG UCVGNNKVG CVVGORVU VQ
VJTQY VJG UCVGNNKVG QWV QH VJG QTDKV
0GYVQP GZRNCKPGF VJCV KH VJGUG VYQ HQTEGU CTG GSWCN VJG UCVGNNKVG YKNN TGOCKP KP C UVCDNG
QTDKV CU UJQYP KP (KIWTG 
 3 Orbits

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Kepler’s laws assume that the Earth is uniform and the only force acting is the centrifugal force
resulting from the satellite motion balancing the gravitational pull of the Earth. But practically,
when the satellite is placed in its orbit, it experiences various perturbing forces that perturb
the orbit with time.
Additional forces that act on the satellite are called perturbing forces, as they change the
motion (orbit) of the satellite. These forces have a variety of causes/origins and effects. The
major perturbations are as follows:
‰Earth’s oblateness, i.e. effect of non-spherical Earth (or asymmetry of the Earth’s
ITCXKVCVKQPCN ſGNF
‰Atmospheric drag
‰Third body effects (i.e., gravitational forces from other bodies like solar and lunar
attraction)
‰Solar wind/radiation pressure
This chapter elaborates on these factors that perturb the orbit.
.CVGT RCTV QH VJKU EJCRVGT FGCNU YKVJ FKHHGTGPV QTDKV EQPſIWTCVKQPU VJCV CTG PQTOCNN[ WUGF
This includes three types of orbits that are based on altitudes like LEO, MEO and GEO. Some
special orbits like Molniya Orbit, Polar Orbit, Sun-synchronous orbit and Hohmann orbit are
also discussed.

3.2 EARTH’S OBLATENESS

The basic assumption that the Earth is a perfect sphere is not true. Earth is neither homogeneous
nor spherical +V KU UQOGYJCV ƀCVVGPGF CV VJG RQNGU CPF DWNIGU CV VJG equator. The shape is
more close to oblate spheroid. The equatorial radius is approximately 6378 km, and the polar
radius is 6356 km (about 22 km smaller). The average density of the Earth is not uniform.
The potential generated by the non-spherical Earth causes periodic variations in all the orbital
elements.

35
 Orbits 41
Case I: .GV WU ſPF QWV VJG maximum coverage of geostationary satellite.
For geostationary satellite, re = 6378 km and h = 35768 km.
amax = 8.72, and bmax = 81.28.
2 amax = 17.44; this is the beam width of the antenna aboard the geostationary satellite
required for the maximum coverage.
2 bmax = 162.56; this indicates the maximum area covered along the equator for geostationary
satellite.
Case II: .GV WU ſPF QWV VJG OCZKOWO EQXGTCIG QH MEO in equatorial plane.
For MEO satellite, re = 6378 km and h = 20183 km.
amax = 13.89; so, in this case, b = 76.11.
2 amax = 27.78; this is the beam width required for the antenna aboard the MEO satellite
for maximum coverage.
bmax = 152.2; this indicates the maximum area covered along the equator.
Case III: .GV WU ſPF QWV VJG OCZKOWO EQXGTCIG QH LEO in equatorial plane.
For LEO satellite, re = 6378 km and h = 1000 km
amax = 59.82, and bmax = 30.18.
2 amax = 119.64; this is the beam width required for the antenna aboard the LEO satellite
for maximum coverage.
2 bmax = 60.34; this indicates the maximum area covered along the equator.

3.7 DIFFERENT SATELLITE ORBITS

Satellites may be categorised based on altitude, KPENKPCVKQP GVE 1PG RQRWNCT ENCUUKſECVKQP KU
based on the altitude of the orbit. These categories are low Earth orbit (LEO), medium Earth
orbit (MEO) and geostationary orbit (GEO).

3.7.1 LEO
A low Earth orbit (LEO)KUIGPGTCNN[FGſPGF CU CP QTDKV DGNQY CP CNVKVWFGQH CRRTQZKOCVGN[
2000 km. The altitude of LEO is usually not less than 500 km because of the orbit decay due
to larger atmospheric drag. An LEO is an orbit around the Earth between the atmosphere and
below the inner Van Allen radiation belt (see Annexure 3A). This region of the belt is not used
for the placement of satellite, as it is full of high energy particles that may harm the satellite.
Iridium, Orbocomm, Globalstar satellites (see Chapter 12) are LEO satellites.

3.7.2 MEO
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) is the region of space around the Earth above the LEO (altitude
of 2000 km) and below the geostationary orbit (altitude of 35786 km). The MEO lies within
outer Van Allen radiation belt (see Annexure 3A). Global navigation satellites in GPS and
GLONASS constellations (see Chapter 8) are MEO satellites.
42 Satellite Communication

3.7.3 Geosynchronous Orbits

A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite in geosynchronous orbit whose orbital period is exactly
one sidereal day (see Section 2.7). This makes the satellite to rotate around the Earth with the
same speed as the rotation of the Earth around its own axis. The Kepler’s laws dictate that
the satellite would necessarily be at approximately 35768 km above the Earth. This orbit is in
safe zone as it is outside the van Allen radiation belt. Normally, geosynchronous satellite has
non-zero inclination and is also a circular orbit. IRNSS constellation (see Section 8.11) has
two geosynchronous satellites.
A special case of geosynchronous satellite is the geostationary satellite, where the
inclination is zero. INSAT, GSAT (see Section 12.3) satellites and satellites used for VSATs
are in the category of geostationary satellite.
The orbit of a geosynchronous satellite is not exactly aligned with the Earth’s equator.
In this condition, the orbit is known as an inclined orbit. In this case, satellite would not
be stationary with respect to the Earth. Instead, the latitude and longitude deviation of the
sub-satellite point (for geostationary circular orbit) would be governed by the following relations:

FIGURE 3.6 Figure of eight of the sub-satellite point for inclined orbit of a geosynchronous satellite.

i2
sin O  sin 2Q
4
and sin q  i sin n
where l is longitude deviation of sub-satellite point, q is latitude deviation of sub-satellite
point, n is true anomaly and i is inclination.
It will appear (when viewed by someone on the ground) that the sub-satellite point traces
a ſIWTG QH GKIJV (Figure 3.6) CTQWPF C ſZGF RQKPV QP VJG GSWCVQT 6JG sub-satellite point
reaches a maximum latitude of ±i. As inclination of the orbit decreases, the magnitude of this
oscillation becomes smaller. But, when the orbit lies entirely over the equator in a circular orbit
as the case of a geostationary satellite, the satellite remains stationary relative to the Earth’s
surface. Hence, there is permanent visibility of a geostationary satellite within its coverage
area. Geostationary satellites, thus, are widely used for communication.
Limit of visibility, i.e., the maximum value of b for geostationary satellite is 81.3° as
shown in Case I of Section 3.6. This implies that the satellites cover up to 81.3° (practically
70° excluding elevation lower than 10°) of latitude. In other words, geostationary satellite
does not have coverage in higher latitude near poles. This very fact prompted Russia to design
 Orbits 43
highly eccentric orbit (HEO) like Molniya orbit (see Section 3.8) for better coverage of higher
latitude region of northern hemisphere.
Along the longitude, the satellite covers the span of around 160° degree. Thus, minimum
three satellites are required to cover the globe (i.e., 360°).
Most commercial communications satellites, broadcast satellites and satellite based
augmentation system (SBAS) satellites operate in geostationary orbits. But, for communication
VJTQWIJCIGQUVCVKQPCT[UCVGNNKVGUKIPCNUVTCXGNCNQPIFKUVCPEGECWUKPICUKIPKſECPVFGNC[(QT
geostationary satellite, the one hop (i.e., transmitted to satellite and satellite to receiver) delay
lies between 238 ms to 275 ms. For example, one may calculate the delay by using Figure 3.5
[also refer to Eq. (2.27)]. The delay d (delay from transmitter to receiver via geostationary
satellite) may be calculated as
2
d (OP 2  OG 2  2OP * OG cos E )
c
where, c is the velocity of light.
Let us assume b = 45°. For geostationary satellite, let us assume OP = 42164.17 km,
OG = 6378.137 km. d comes out to be around 269 ms.
This large value of delay may pose a problem for latency-sensitive applications or interactive
communication like for voice communication. This issue does not make any difference in case
of non-interactive systems such as television broadcasts.
Table 3.2 describes comparison of characteristics of LEO, MEO and GEO.

TABLE 3.2 Major Differences between LEO, MEO and GEO Satellite Systems

Parameter LEO MEO GEO

Satellite Height (h)
200–2000 5000–25000 35768 km
(SP in Figure 3.5) (km)
Orbital period 95–130 min 3–12 h 23 h 56 min 4.09 s
Surface coverage (ȕ) 59.82° 76.11° 81.28°
(see Figure 3.5) (for h = 1000 km) (for h = 2083 km)
Orbital speed (km/s) 7.6–6.9 6–3.8 3.07
Visibility time <15 min 2–4 h Always
One hop delay
3–6 30–135 235–275
(approximately) (ms)

3.8 HIGHLY ECCENTRIC ORBIT (HEO): MOLNIYA ORBIT

Highly eccentric, inclined and elliptical orbits are used to cover higher latitudes, which are
otherwise not covered by geostationary orbits. A practical example of this type of orbit is the
Molniya orbit. It is widely used by Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union
to provide communication services. Molniya orbits are designed so that the perturbations in
argument of perigee are zero. So, typical eccentricity and inclination of the Molniya orbits are
0.75 and 65° (or 116.6°), respectively (see Section 3.2). The apogee and perigee points are
about 40000 km and 400 km, respectively, from the surface of the Earth.
 5 Satellite Sub-systems

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Passive satellites being obsolete, the active version has grown with advancement of technology
and with its wide applicability.
The cost of an active satellite is very high. Further, the launching of a satellite is a quite
expensive project. The technology is so advanced that the life of a communications satellite
may range from 10 to 15 years. A typical large geostationary satellite is estimated to cost
around $125 million. In order to support the successful operation of a satellite and to serve
the purpose of the respective objective during the intended lifespan, the total system has to
be carefully designed and engineered. The entire satellite may be divided into different sub-
systems for convenience of design.
The particular application of the satellite system, for example, ſZGFUCVGNNKVGUGTXKEGOQDKNG
service, or broadcast service, or a weather forecasting satellite or even a remote sensing satellite,
FGVGTOKPGU VJG URGEKſE GNGOGPVU QH VJG U[UVGO $WV C IGPGTKE UCVGNNKVG U[UVGO KTTGURGEVKXG QH
the intended application, may broadly be divided into following functional sub-systems. This
is shown in functional block diagram in Figure 5.1.

FIGURE 5.1 Schematic block diagram of satellite system consisting of few sub-systems (excluding
mechanical structure and thermal control sub-systems that cannot be shown as separate
block).
59
 Satellite Sub-systems 63
The current orbit status of the spacecraft needs to be determined regularly. This is actually
the tracking function. The beacon signal is very widely used for tracking a satellite. The
Doppler shift of the beacon (or the telemetry carrier) is monitored to determine the location of
the satellite. Acceleration and velocity sensors on the satellite can be used to monitor orbital
location and changes in orbital location.
The telemetry and monitoring part of the sub-system monitors health of all sub-systems.
Its function involves the collection of data from sensors onboard the spacecraft. It relays
VJKU KPHQTOCVKQP VQ VJG ITQWPF UVCVKQP QP VJG 'CTVJ 6JGTG CTG C HGY UGPUQTU KP VJG UCVGNNKVG VQ
assess the respective health status. The telemetry data most commonly include data from few
sensors like
‰Pressure sensor in fuel tank to determine the amount of fuel available
‰Voltage sensors to know the voltage of different electronic unit and battery
‰%WTTGPV UGPUQTU VQ CUUGUU VJG EWTTGPV ƀQYKPI KP FKHHGTGPV UGEVKQP QH VJG RC[NQCF
‰Temperature sensors to know the temperature of critical sub-systems
‰Status of switches and relays in the communications and antenna sub-systems
‰Attitude control sensor status, and
‰Velocity and acceleration sensors data
The telemetry carrier modulation is typically frequency shift keying (FSK) or phase shift keying
(PSK), with the telemetry channels transmitted in a time division multiplex (TDM) format.
Telemetry channel data rates are low (usually 1500–100 bps).
Command is the complementary function to telemetry. The command system transmits
URGEKſE EQPVTQN CPF QRGTCVKQPU KPHQTOCVKQP HTQO VJG ITQWPF VQ VJG URCEGETCHV RTKOCTKN[ DCUGF
on telemetry information received from the spacecraft. Following parameters are mostly studied:
‰Changes and corrections in attitude control and orbital control
‰Antenna pointing and control
‰Transponder mode of operation
‰$CVVGT[ XQNVCIG EQPVTQN
Normally, the command signals are encrypted with a secure code format to maintain the health
and safety of the satellite so that it may protect from intentional unauthorised commands or
unintentional signals that may malfunction the satellite operation. Command data are at low
TCVG HTQO 'CTVJ UVCVKQP TGSWKTKPI PCTTQY DCPFYKFVJ
Tracking of satellite is necessary to monitor the orbit status to ensure that orbit parameters
TGOCKP YKVJKP URGEKſGF NKOKVU; otherwise, necessary action may be taken to correct the orbit.
Doppler shift measurement determines the range rate. Multi-tone method of ranging is used
VQ ſPF TCPIG 6JG C\KOWVJ CPF GNGXCVKQP QH 'CTVJ UVCVKQP CPVGPPC FGVGTOKPGU VJG CPIWNCT
QTKGPVCVKQPQHVJGUCVGNNKVG$[VJGEQODKPCVKQPQHVJGUGOGCUWTGOGPVUQPGOC[VTCEMCUCVGNNKVG
quite precisely.

5.6 POWER SUB-SYSTEM

Power sub-system supplies power to all sub-systems required for their operation. Mainly, solar
cells are used to convert sunlight into electric power that is used for the operation of sub-systems.
64 Satellite Communication

There are also batteries essentially needed to serve as electric power when the energy from
the Sun is absent. The solar panels also charge the batteries whenever they need it. The power
sub-system (PS) mainly consists of solar cells, batteries, battery charger and power conditioning
unit, as shown in Figure 5.3.

FIGURE 5.3 Arrangement of power supply in a satellite.

5.6.1 Solar Cells

Solar cells convert incident sunlight into electrical energy. Gallium arsenide-based multi-
junction photovoltaic solar cells have higher GHſEKGPE[ CPF UQ CTG V[RKECNN[ WUGF KP UCVGNNKVG
systems. 'HſEKGPE[ QH VJG CXCKNCDNG UQNCT EGNNU KU CDQWV Ō At the beginning of life,
power up to 220 W/m2 OC[ DG CXCKNCDNG HTQO UWEJ UQNCT EGNNU #XGTCIG RQYGT ƀWZ QH VJG
incident sunlight (about 1.4 kW/m2 OC[ RTQFWEG CDQWV  9 DC RQYGT $WV VJKU RQYGT
OC[PQVTGOCKPEQPUVCPVDWVOC[TGFWEGFWGVQVJGFTQRKPGHſEKGPE[QHUQNCTEGNNUYKVJVKOG
because of aging and etching of the surface.
Solar panels need to have a large surface area to collect the maximum possible amount of
sunlight. Large numbers of cells (close-packed solar cell rectangles) are connected in serial-
RCTCNNGNCTTC[UVQFGNKXGTUWHſEKGPVRQYGT6JGURKPUVCDKNKUGFUCVGNNKVGWUWCNN[JCURCPGNUCTQWPF
KVU E[NKPFTKECN DQF[ $WV KV DGKPI E[NKPFTKECN KP UJCRG KVU GPVKTG DQF[ UWTHCEG FQGU PQV CNYC[U
receive the sunlight. It depends on the portion of the surface facing the Sun. So, this type of
system requires more number of solar cells than the VJTGGCZKU UVCDKNKUGF UCVGNNKVG YJGTG ƀCV
panels may receive solar energy round the clock.
In many satellites, a pair of long wings of solar panels extending from the sides of the
main body has been in use. The solar panels may extend to few tens of feet. In that case, solar
RCPGNUCTGHQNFGFFWTKPINCWPEJVQſVKPUKFGVJGNCWPEJKPIXGJKENGVJQWIJFGRNQ[OGPVQHUQNCT
panels later in orbit is critical.

5.6.2 Total Solar Eclipses for Geostationary Satellites

All satellites in space have to undergo a period during which its solar power is blocked/eclipsed
D[ VJG UJCFQY QH VJG 'CTVJ QT VJG /QQP 6JKU KU ECNNGFeclipse QH VJG UCVGNNKVG 'ENKRUG QEEWTU
YJGP VJG 'CTVJ QT VJG /QQP CTG DGVYGGP VJG 5WP CPF VJG UCVGNNKVG
 6 The Space Link

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of a satellite link is very important, as it gives the estimate of the power that would
be received by the Earth station when the power is transmitted by the satellite transponder.
Also, it gives the estimate of the power that would be received by the transponder when the
power is transmitted by the Earth station. For the case of satellite link, it is quite reasonably
assumed that a signal propagates in line-of-sight (LoS) mode. It also takes into account the
gains and losses that are encountered due to various factors like propagation, antenna gains, feed
line and miscellaneous losses. Some of their contributions may be assessed through standard
formula and some may be evaluated through experiments.
Link analysis is basically the estimation of power that is to be transmitted from an Earth
station to the satellite (uplink) and from the satellite to the receiver (downlink), as seen in
Figure 6.1, so that optimum performance is achieved.

FIGURE 6.1 Uplink and downlink system between the Earth station and the satellite.

The characteristics of the radio terminals (like transmitter, receiver and antenna) and the
propagation medium should be known well for proper evaluation of link parameters.
76
 Global Navigation
8 Satellite System (GNSS)

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Humans have always been curious for exploration of land. In past years, some sailing was done
only for the sake of exploration of land. Missionaries were interested for religious reasons.
Some were interested for gold or other valuable goods. Trades were another good reason for
exploration. Traders wanted to make money, and so, wanted to know faster and newer routes
VQ EQWPVTKGU VQ VTCFG YKVJ +P VJG RTKOKVKXG FC[U ſPFKPI TQWVGU YCU FQPG VJTQWIJ NCPFOCTMU
like mountains, trees, stones structure, ponds, rivers, etc. But, this only worked within a local
area. These landmarks get changed due to environmental factors such as natural disasters. In
course of time, attention was drawn to celestial bodies. Sailors could determine the latitude
by measuring the angle of Pole star or Sun against the horizon. The Sun was most commonly
used, but navigators could also use the Moon, a planet or one of 57 navigational stars whose
coordinates are tabulated in the Nautical Almanac and Air Almanacs.
9KVJVJGCFXCPEGOGPVQHUEKGPEGCPFVGEJPQNQI[UEKGPVKſEVGEJPKSWGUYGTGGXQNXGF6JWU
the ‘navigation’—a science of determining the position of a vehicle relative to the position of
its destination—emerged. Navigation is the science of maneuvering from one point to other.
(In Latin, ‘navis’ means boat and ‘agire’ implies guide). Navigation was originally coined for
ship or any watercraft. But now, navigation is used for the determination of a body’s position,
velocity and direction of the course of motion relative to some reference coordinate system so
that destination is reached.
Breakthrough in navigation was the radio navigation using the transmission of time signals
around the period of 1920. Radio navigation is based on the measurement of arrival time of
VKOGRWNUGUYKVJTGURGEVVQCKTVTCPUOKVVGT&GRGPFKPIQPVJGV[RKECNVGEJPKSWGVJGVTCPUOKUUKQP
OGVJQFQNQI[ FKHHGTU RCTVKEWNCTN[ KP UGNGEVKQP QH HTGSWGPEKGU V[RG QH OQFWNCVKQP CPF TGRGVKVKQP
HTGSWGPE[ QH RWNUGU
&KUVCPEG OGCUWTKPI GSWKROGPV
&/' YCU DCUKECNN[ WUGF VQ OGCUWTG VJG VKOKPI QH VJG
propagation delay of radio signals in a slant range direction. It was operated in VHF or UHF
TCPIG 6JG CEEWTCE[ QH &/' ITQWPF UVCVKQPU YCU  O
During World War II, .14#0 PCXKICVKQP VGEJPKSWG YCU FKUEQXGTGF YJKEJ YQTMGF
based on the hyperbolic navigation method. Hyperbolic navigation refers to a class of
navigation systems based on the difference in timing between the receptions of signals from two

119
 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 135
Total standard error
'CEJ EQORQPGPV QH VJG UCVGNNKVG GTTQTU FKUEWUUGF KP VJG RTGXKQWU UGEVKQPU KU CUUWOGF VQ DG
WPEQTTGNCVGFCPFQH\GTQOGCP'TTQTUEQPVTKDWVGFD[KPFKXKFWCNHCEVQTUCTGPQTOCNN[RTGUGPVGF
in terms of standard deviation (1s5QVQVCNGTTQTOC[DGHQWPFCUVJGTQQVUWOUSWCTGQHCNN
these components. The estimates corresponding to the errors in the ranging values are tabulated
KP 6CDNG  PQVKPI VJCV GCEJ TGEGKXGT JCU KPJGTGPV FGNC[

TABLE 8.3 5VCPFCTF 'TTQT /QFGN . %#

Source Errors (V ) m
Satellite clock 2.1
'RJGOGTKU 2.1
Ionosphere 10
Troposphere 2
Multi-path 1.2
Receiver noise 1
Total 5.1

Let us take into account the effect of satellite geometry.

(QT 8&12   VQVCN GTTQT KU  O
For HDOP = 2.0, total error is 10.2 m.

8.11 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (GNSS)

6JG INQDCN PCXKICVKQP UCVGNNKVG U[UVGO
)055 KU C IGPGTKE VGTO VJCV GPEQORCUUGU )NQDCN
2QUKVKQPKPI5[UVGO
)25QH75#).10#55QH4WUUKC)CNKNGQQH'WTQRGBeiDou (Compass)
of China and also few regional satellite systems and satellite augmentation systems. All systems
QH )055 CTG KP FKHHGTGPV RJCUGU QH FGXGNQROGPV
%WTTGPVN[)25CPF).10#55CTGHWNN[QRGTCVKQPCN%JKPCKURNCPPKPIVQJCXGVJGINQDCN
PCXKICVKQP U[UVGO PCOGF CU %QORCUU
$GK&QW QRGTCVKQPCN D[  6JG 'WTQRGCP 7PKQPŏU
)CNKNGQ U[UVGO KU CNUQ UEJGFWNGF VQ DG HWNN[ QRGTCVKQPCN D[  (TCPEG +PFKC CPF ,CRCP CTG
KP VJG RTQEGUU QH FGXGNQRKPI TGIKQPCN PCXKICVKQP U[UVGOU )25 JCU CNTGCF[ DGGP GNCDQTCVGF KP
previous sections.

8.11.1 GLONASS
).10#55 CNOQUV HQNNQY VJG VGEJPKSWG UKOKNCT VQ VJG )25 GZEGRV VJCV VJG ).10#55 WUGU
VJG VGEJPKSWG QH FDMA, not CDMA. GLONASS has antipodal satellites, implying that two
satellites in the same orbital plane, but are separated by 180o (i.e. in true anomaly). As the pair
of satellites cannot be simultaneously viewed at the same place, they may use same frequency
for transmission. 5Q KP URKVG QH WUKPI (&/# ).10#55 EQPUVGNNCVKQP FQGU PQV TGSWKTG 
HTGSWGPEKGU DWV TGSWKTGU QPN[  HTGSWGPEKGU HQT  UCVGNNKVGU
136 Satellite Communication

6JG).10#55EQPUVGNNCVKQPYCUEQORNGVGFKP*QYGXGTHQNNQYKPIEQORNGVKQPVJG
U[UVGO FGITCFGF YKVJ VJG EQNNCRUG QH VJG 4WUUKCP GEQPQO[ ).10#55 YCU TGXKXGF D[ 
and now operational with full constellation.

8.11.2 Galileo
)CNKNGQ KU 'WTQRGŏU INQDCN PCXKICVKQP U[UVGO +V RNCPU VQ JCXG UCVGNNKVGU KP  QTDKVCN RNCPGU
It is suitable for applications where safety is crucial such as air and ground transportation.
)+18'# CPF )+18'$ VGUV UCVGNNKVGU CTG CNTGCF[ KP QTDKV %WTTGPVN[ UKZ UCVGNNKVGU CTG
CXCKNCDNG )CNKNGQ OC[ DG HWNN[ QRGTCVKQPCN D[ 

8.11.3 BeiDou
BeiDou is China’s global navigation system. BeiDou or compass will be fully operational
by 2020 with the constellation of 35 satellites (mixture of 5 IGQUVCVKQPCT[
)'1 UCVGNNKVG 
inclined IGQU[PEJTQPQWU
+)51 UCVGNNKVGU CPF  /'1 UCVGNNKVGU A few of its satellites are
planned for only regional service.

8.11.4 IRNSS (India)

IRNSS is a regional service over Indian sub-continent. Its constellation has three geostationary
UCVGNNKVGU CV NQPIKVWFGU QH u ' u ' CPF u ' +V JCU  UCVGNNKVGU KP IGQU[PEJTQPQWU
QTDKV CV KPENKPCVKQP QH u YKVJ VJG UCVGNNKVGU ETQUUKPI CV NQPIKVWFGU QH u ' CPF u '
The constellation is so designed that all seven satellites would always be visible with Indian
control stations.

8.11.5 GNSS Comparison

6JG6CDNGUJQYUCEQORCTKUQPQHUQOGQHVJGMG[HGCVWTGUQHVJGUGFKHHGTGPVINQDCN)055
systems.

TABLE 8.4 %QORCTKUQP QH -G[ (GCVWTGU QH 5QOG )NQDCN )055 5[UVGOU

Parameters GPS GLONASS GALILEO

Number of satellites 21 + 3 21 + 3 27 + 3

Number of orbital planes 6 3 3

5GOKOCLQT CZKU
MO 26600 25440 29600
Orbital revolution period  *  *  *
Inclination (in degree) 55 64 56
2
Solar panel area (m ) 14 23 13
 Direct Broadcasting
Satellite (DBS)
10 Television

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Around 1870s, television (TV) started in analog form. Though there were regular broadcasts,
people at large did not adopt television until after World War II.
Digital television (DTV), an advanced broadcasting technology, has revolutionised the
television viewing experience. A digital signal can carry more information than the old analog
network, implying better quality service. Service providers (i.e., broadcasters) may offer more
channels and a range of new services. All-digital broadcasting opens up the valuable broadcast
URGEVTWO HQT RQNKEG ſTG FGRCTVOGPVU CPF TGUEWG USWCFU #NUQ UQOG QH VJG URGEVTWO OC[ DG
leased to companies to provide consumers with advanced wireless services.
The old analog television (see Annexure 10A) network is being progressively switched off
and replaced with a digital TV signal in course of time by most of the countries across the globe.

10.2 DIGITAL DBS TV

The satellite broadcasting has the following advantages over the terrestrial broadcasting:
‰Wide area coverage with a nationwide broadcasting using a single broadcasting
frequency.
‰Economical for not requiring terrestrial relay stations.
‰A large capacity due to the availability of wide frequency band.
‰Not affected by terrestrial disaster, etc.
Thus, satellites are gradually being preferred for video and data delivery in addition to the
telephone service due to their effectiveness and economical viability. Direct broadcast satellite
(DBS) is also known as direct-to-home (DTH). In digital television, signals are broadcast
in digital format at microwave frequencies. Geostationary satellites are used for majority of
services. DBSTV is very popular, as it is directly accessible. This is also very attractive for the
area which is not served by the cable TV. Pay-television services are quite common these days.
So, some type of encryption is incorporated into the signal so that conditional access is achieved.
&$5 UGTXKEGU CTG RTQXKFGF D[ UCVGNNKVG KP URGEKſE
FQYPNKPM HTGSWGPE[ DCPFU VJCV CTG
allocated for this purpose. The bands are as follows:
149
 Direct Broadcasting Satellite (DBS) Television 151
antenna has normally a narrow beam pointing to a particular geostationary satellite without
interfering with the adjacent satellites. The down link antenna should have wide beam to cover
the assigned locations on the Earth.
A number of companies provide DBS and DTH services throughout the world.

10.3 HDTV TRANSMISSION

With initiation of digital television, JKIJFGſPKVKQP 68
*&68 emerged. The objective of
HDTV is to enhance particularly picture resolution and clarity. In HDTV, both the video and
VJG CWFKQ UKIPCNU OWUV DG FKIKVKUGF D[ #& EQPXGTVGTU CPF VTCPUOKVVGF UGTKCNN[ VQ VJG TGEGKXGT
Because of the very high frequency of video signals, special techniques must be used to transmit
the video signal over a standard 6 MHz bandwidth TV channel. After much deliberation, the
(GFGTCN %QOOWPKECVKQP %QOOKUUKQP
(%% JCU ſPCNKUGF VJG UVCPFCTFU QH *&68 6JG *&68
sets can now be purchased by the consumer. Initially, they were expensive, but with the
increasing use of digital television, the cost of HDTV receiving sets has eventually dropped
down to a reasonably affordable value.
In digital technique unlike analog one (see Annexure 10A), TV picture is made up of
thousands of tiny dots of light, called pixels. Each pixel can be of any colour (total 256 colours
are there). These pixels can be used to create any image. The greater the number of pixels on
VJG UETGGP VJG ITGCVGT KU VJG TGUQNWVKQP CPF VJG ſPGT KU VJG FGVCKN VJCV ECP DG TGRTGUGPVGF 6JG
format of an HDTV screen is described in terms of the numbers of pixels per horizontal line
and by the number of vertical pixels.
In HDTV, progressive scanning is preferred to interlaced scanning. This makes the video
signals compatible with computer video monitors so that it is possible to display HDTV on
computer screens as well. Further, it may be noted that KPVGTNCEGF UECPPKPI OKPKOKUGU ƀKEMGT
but complicates the video compression process.
Some of the most common HDTV formats are shown in Table 10.1.

TABLE 10.1 Most Common HDTV Formats

Standard Aspect ratio Horizontal line Vertical pixel

720 p 16 : 9 1280 720
1080 i & p 16 : 9 1920 1080
(Note: ‘p’ stands for progressive and ‘i’ for interleaving)

10.4 COMPRESSION IN DIGITAL TV

10.4.1 Necessity of Compression

It is obvious from the following calculation that an uncompressed digital video requires an
enormous amount of storage space:
For *KIJFGſPKVKQP VGNGXKUKQP
*&68 A resolution of 1920 * 1080 pixels (HDTV), with
a refresh rate of 30 frames per second (FPS). and 8-bit colour depth, would require
 Very Small Aperture
11 Terminal (VSAT)

11.1 INTRODUCTION
There is continuous development taking place in the telecommunications industry to cope
with the changing needs of the users. Through new technologies, telecommunications service
providers can
‰Expand the network coverage to new areas
‰Improve the quality of basic communications services
‰Reduce the costs of services to allow more users
‰Add new services to increase the value of telecommunications services to users
To start with, satellite technology was meant for long distance communication with large and
expensive Earth terminal. With the rapid development and advancement of satellite technology,
a few remarkable developments have been seen. There has been increase in transponder output
RQYGT#PVGPPCYKVJUGXGTCNURQVDGCOUJCUDGGPKPVTQFWEGF$GVVGTNQYPQKUGCORNKſGTUJCXG
been developed. All these technological breakthroughs have gradually changed the satellite
communication scenario. Thus, satellite communication can now be planned for regional
systems requiring smaller coverage with affordable smaller even portable Earth station. Very
small aperture terminal (VSAT) has, thus, been evolved as an important recent development
KP VJG ſGNF QH VGNGEQOOWPKECVKQPU
The VSATs operate through a satellite for the distribution and/or exchange of voice, data
and compressed video between the users. The VSAT systems have the capability of addressing
the issue related to point-to-multi-point communication, which is the feature that cannot be
handled easily in traditional terrestrial system. Because of these merits, VSAT systems have
rapidly advanced technology, and thus, their applications have been expanding. So, this has
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VSAT network is an assemble of a large number of small and inexpensive Earth stations
(VSATs). Each one of them is located at the respective location of customers affecting point-to-
multi-point communication. Mostly, customers establish a link with a central large Earth station
called the hub station, which also has the facility to communicate with the relevant terrestrial
network. The entire network is organised by the hub station via the network management
system (NMS). The network management system (NMS) is a software package, which is

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170 Satellite Communication

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which establishes a link between a terrestrial protocol and the satellite link protocol.

11.7 VSAT OR WIRELESS LOCAL LOOP (WLL) NETWORK

Public switched telephone network (PSTN) (or broadband) may also be accessed though Internet
through a wireless technology without using the copper cable network. This scheme is called
 Special Purpose
12 Satellites

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Satellites used for communication are mostly geostationary satellites. The International
Telecommunication Satellite organisation (ITSO), previously known as INTELSAT, operates for
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satellite is INMARSAT, which is also used for modern communication services, including
mobile communication. INMARSAT has also leased satellite service. The geostationary orbit
around the equator is overcrowded because of its wide coverage and their nearly static position
within the coverage area. Nevertheless, the low orbit (LEO and MEO) satellites have their own
importance and application due to the following features:

‰Each low orbit satellite may have limited coverage, but a few such satellites taken
together, i.e., in constellation, have global coverage in true sense, even covering higher
latitudes beyond 80°, i.e., the area which is, otherwise, not covered by geostationary
satellites.
‰Path length between the satellite and the Earth is less. So, propagation delay and free
space path loss are smaller.
‰The antenna pattern need not be highly directive. So, antenna size is smaller.

Lower orbit satellites are specially used for navigation purposes, remote sensing applications,
and mobile communication. Navigations satellites like GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and Beiduo
have been amply discussed in Chapter 8.
A few satellite constellations are already in operation for mobile communications and
satphones. Some of them are Globalstar, Orbocomm, Iridium, etc. RADARSAT is a remote
sensing satellite of Canadina Space Programme and Landsat series is an effort of National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for remote sensing. There are around 10
operational lower orbit Indian remote sensing satellites.
This chapter covers a few lower orbit satellites in more detail. This chapter also includes
Indian National Satellite (INSAT), which is in geostationary orbit, but has multi-purpose
objectives other than just communication.

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