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1.INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by American aerospace
company SpaceX, providing satellite Internet access coverage to over 53 countries.
It also aims for global mobile phone service after 2023.SpaceX started launching
Starlink satellites in 2019. As of May 2023, Starlink consists of over 4,000 mass-
produced small satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO),which communicate with
designated ground transceivers. In total, nearly 12,000 satellites are planned to be
deployed, with a possible later extension to 42,000. SpaceX announced reaching
more than 1 million subscribers in December 2022and 1.5 million subscribers in May
2023.

The SpaceX satellite development facility in Redmond, Washington, houses the

Starlink research, development, manufacturing, and orbit control teams. The cost of
the decade-long project to design, build, and deploy the constellation was
estimated by SpaceX in May 2018 to be at least US$10 billion.SpaceX expects more
than $30 billion in revenue by 2025 from its satellite constellation, while revenues
from its launch business were expected to reach $5 billion in the same year.

Astronomers have raised concerns about the effect the constellation can have on
ground-based astronomy and how the satellites will add to an already congested
orbital environment.SpaceX has attempted to mitigate astronomy concerns by
implementing several upgrades to Starlink satellites aimed at reducing their
brightness during operation.The satellites are equipped with krypton or argon-
fueled Hall thrusters which allow them to de-orbit at the end of their life.
Additionally, the satellites are designed to autonomously and smoothly avoid
collisions based on uplinked tracking data.

1.2 Necessary
Starlink is a satellite constellation project developed by SpaceX, aimed at providing
global broadband internet coverage. When considering the various aspects of
Starlink, several key points come to mind:

 Global Internet Coverage

 Satellite Constellation

 Internet Speed and Latency

 Advancements in Technology

 Environmental Impact
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 Accessibility and Affordability

 Regulatory Considerations

 Partnerships and Collaboration

 Long-Term Sustainability

 Social and Economic Implications

1.3 Objective
The primary objective of Starlink is to provide global broadband internet coverage.
Here are the key objectives of the Starlink project:

 Global Connectivity: Starlink aims to provide high-speed internet access to

underserved areas and regions with limited or no existing internet
infrastructure. The goal is to bridge the digital divide and ensure that people
worldwide have access to reliable and affordable internet connectivity.

 Low Latency: Starlink aims to deliver low-latency internet service by

deploying a large constellation of satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO). With
satellites positioned closer to Earth, the signal travel time is reduced,
resulting in faster response times and improved internet performance.

 High-Speed Internet: Starlink aims to provide high-speed internet access to

users, offering competitive speeds that can support various online activities
such as video streaming, online gaming, and data-intensive applications. The
goal is to deliver a quality internet experience to users regardless of their
geographic location.

 Improved Reliability: By deploying a vast network of interconnected

satellites, Starlink aims to enhance the reliability of internet connectivity.
The redundancy in the satellite network helps mitigate service disruptions
caused by terrestrial infrastructure failures or natural disasters.

 Expansion of Coverage: The Starlink project envisions continuous expansion

of the satellite constellation to increase coverage and reach more areas
around the globe. By deploying additional satellites, Starlink aims to improve
internet access for users in remote and rural regions where traditional
connectivity options are limited.

 Cost Reduction: Starlink aims to bring down the cost of internet access
through technological advancements and economies of scale. By leveraging
mass production techniques and innovative technologies, SpaceX intends to
make broadband internet more affordable and accessible to a broader
population.
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 Space Exploration Funding: One additional objective of Starlink is to

generate revenue for SpaceX's ambitious space exploration plans. The
revenue generated from Starlink's internet service is expected to fund
projects such as SpaceX's Starship spacecraft and missions to Mars.

Overall, the primary objective of Starlink is to create a global satellite network that
provides reliable, high-speed internet access to users worldwide, particularly in
underserved areas, and contributes to closing the digital divide.

1.4 Theme
The theme of Starlink can be described as "Global Connectivity." Starlink aims to
connect people worldwide by providing high-speed internet access to areas that
currently lack reliable connectivity options. The project focuses on bridging the
digital divide and ensuring that individuals, regardless of their geographic location,
have access to affordable and reliable internet services. The theme encompasses
the goals of expanding coverage, reducing latency, and improving internet speeds
to create a globally interconnected network. Starlink's theme aligns with the vision
of a connected world where information, opportunities, and resources are accessible
to all, fostering socio-economic development and empowering individuals and
communities.

1.5 Organization
Starlink is a project developed and operated by SpaceX, a private aerospace
manufacturer and space transportation company founded by Elon Musk. SpaceX is
responsible for the design, manufacturing, deployment, and ongoing operation of
the Starlink satellite constellation. The organization works on various aspects of the
project, including:

1. Satellite Development: SpaceX designs and manufactures the Starlink satellites.

These satellites are built using advanced technology, including miniaturized
electronics, phased array antennas, and propulsion systems. SpaceX continually
works on improving satellite design and performance.

2. Satellite Deployment: SpaceX launches the Starlink satellites into orbit using
their own Falcon 9 rockets. The company has conducted numerous satellite
deployment missions, releasing batches of satellites into designated orbits. The
deployment process involves precise orbital maneuvers and spacing to establish an
interconnected satellite network.

3. Ground Infrastructure: In addition to the satellites, SpaceX develops and deploys

ground-based infrastructure to support the Starlink network. This includes ground
stations, user terminals, and other related equipment necessary for communication
between the satellites and end-users.

4. Network Operations: SpaceX operates the Starlink network, including monitoring

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satellite health, managing satellite constellations, optimizing data transmission,

and ensuring overall network performance. The organization employs teams
dedicated to network operations and maintenance to ensure smooth and reliable
internet connectivity for users.

5. Regulatory Compliance: SpaceX works closely with regulatory bodies and

international organizations to comply with various legal and technical requirements.
This includes obtaining necessary licenses, securing frequency spectrum allocation,
adhering to space debris mitigation guidelines, and complying with national and
international space regulations.

6. Partnerships and Collaboration: SpaceX actively engages in partnerships and

collaborations with other organizations and governments worldwide. These
collaborations aim to expand the reach of Starlink, integrate the network with
existing telecommunications infrastructure, and enable greater accessibility and
adoption of the service.

7. Research and Development: SpaceX continues to invest in research and

development efforts to improve the performance, efficiency, and capabilities of the
Starlink system. This involves advancements in satellite technology, antenna design,
laser communication links, and other areas to enhance the network's functionality
and user experience.

Overall, SpaceX is the primary organization responsible for the development,

deployment, and ongoing operation of the Starlink project. The company utilizes its
expertise in aerospace engineering, space technology, and telecommunications to
build and maintain a global satellite network that provides broadband internet
access to users worldwide.
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2.LITERATUR ESURVEY

2.1 History
Origins of the Starlink

Starlink is a satellite constellation project developed by SpaceX, the aerospace

company founded by Elon Musk. The project aims to provide global broadband
internet coverage by deploying thousands of small satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO).
Here are the details of the origin and development of Starlink:

Conception: The idea for Starlink originated within SpaceX around 2014. Elon Musk
recognized the potential of a satellite-based internet system to address the
limitations of existing terrestrial networks, especially in remote and underserved
areas.

Feasibility Study: SpaceX conducted an initial feasibility study to determine the

technical and economic viability of the project. The study examined various factors
such as satellite design, network architecture, launch capabilities, and cost
estimates.

Prototype Testing: In 2015, SpaceX launched two experimental satellites, named

Tintin A and Tintin B, to test the basic technologies and concepts for Starlink. These
satellites successfully demonstrated the ability to communicate with ground
stations and each other.

Regulatory Approvals: To proceed with the project, SpaceX needed regulatory

approval from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and other national
regulatory bodies. The company filed applications with the FCC to deploy and
operate a large satellite constellation.

Initial Deployment: In 2018, SpaceX launched the first batch of operational Starlink
satellites, consisting of 60 satellites, using its Falcon 9 rocket. These satellites were
deployed into an initial orbit at an altitude of around 550 kilometers (340 miles).

Iterative Design: SpaceX followed an iterative design approach, continuously

improving the satellite design, performance, and efficiency. The initial satellites
were relatively large and weighed around 227 kilograms (500 pounds). Later
iterations, known as Starlink v1.5 and v1.5+, reduced the size and weight while
improving performance.

Launch Campaigns: SpaceX initiated a series of regular launch campaigns to deploy

additional Starlink satellites. Falcon 9 rockets were used to deliver batches of 60
satellites into orbit in a single launch. As of my knowledge cutoff in September 2021,
SpaceX has launched over 1,700 Starlink satellites in various launches.
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Network Operation and Optimization: As more satellites were deployed, SpaceX

began testing and optimizing the network's capabilities. This involved testing
internet connectivity, data transmission speeds, and reducing latency through
various measures, such as laser communication links between satellites.

Public Beta Testing: In October 2020, SpaceX launched a public beta testing phase
called the "Better Than Nothing Beta." This allowed selected users in the United
States, Canada, and parts of Europe to access the Starlink internet service while
providing valuable feedback to improve the system.

Expansion and Global Coverage: SpaceX plans to continue launching batches of

satellites until it achieves global coverage. The company aims to have tens of
thousands of Starlink satellites in operation. This extensive coverage will help
bridge the digital divide by providing affordable high-speed internet access to
underserved areas worldwide.

It's important to note that the details mentioned above are accurate up to my
knowledge cutoff in September 2021. For the most up-to-date information on
Starlink, I recommend referring to official sources and SpaceX's announcements.

Background

Constellations of low Earth orbit satellites were first conceptualized in the mid-
1980s as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative, culminating in Brilliant Pebbles,
where weapons were to be staged in orbit to intercept ballistic missiles at short
notice. The potential for low-latency communication was also recognized and
development offshoots in the 1990s led to numerous commercial
megaconstellations using around 100 satellites such as Celestron, Teledesic, Iridium,
and Globalstar. However all entities entered bankruptcy by the dot-com bubble
burst, due in part to excessive launch costs at the time.

In 2004, Larry Williams, SpaceX VP of Strategic Relations and former VP of

Teledesic's "Internet in the sky" program, opened the SpaceX Washington DC office.
That June, SpaceX acquired a stake in Surrey Satellite Technology (SSTL) as part of a
"shared strategic vision".[18] SSTL was at that time working to extend the Internet
into space.[19] However, SpaceX's stake was eventually sold back to EADS Astrium
in 2008 after the company became more focused on navigation and Earth
observation.[20]

In early 2014, Elon Musk and Greg Wyler were working together planning a
constellation of around 700 satellites called WorldVu, which would be over 10 times
the size of the then largest Iridium satellite constellation. However, these
discussions broke down in June 2014, and SpaceX instead filed an ITU application via
the Norway telecom regulator under the name STEAM. SpaceX confirmed the
connection in the 2016 application to license Starlink with the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC). SpaceX trademarked the name Starlink in the
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United States for their satellite broadband network; the name was inspired by the
book The Fault in Our Stars.

2.2 Basic Concepts

The basic concept of Starlink revolves around creating a satellite constellation that
can provide global broadband internet coverage. Here are the key aspects of the
Starlink concept:

 Satellite Constellation: Starlink consists of a large number of small satellites,

referred to as microsatellites or smallsats, deployed in low Earth orbit (LEO).
The satellites are interconnected and work together to provide internet
connectivity.

 Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Unlike traditional communication satellites that

operate in geostationary orbit around 36,000 kilometers (22,000 miles) above
the Earth, Starlink satellites are placed in LEO at altitudes ranging from
around 550 kilometers (340 miles) to 1,300 kilometers (800 miles). This lower
orbit reduces latency, resulting in faster internet connectivity.

 Global Coverage: By deploying thousands of satellites, Starlink aims to

achieve near-global coverage, reaching even the most remote areas where
traditional terrestrial networks are impractical or unavailable. The extensive
satellite constellation enables internet access across vast regions, including
areas with limited infrastructure.

 Inter-Satellite Links: The Starlink satellites are equipped with inter-satellite

links (ISLs) that allow them to communicate with each other. These links
enable the transfer of data between satellites, forming a network in space.
By relaying data through interconnected satellites, Starlink minimizes the
need for data to travel through ground-based infrastructure, reducing
latency and increasing efficiency.

 Ground Stations: To provide internet connectivity to users, Starlink relies on

a network of ground stations. These stations communicate with the satellites,
transmitting and receiving data to connect the satellites with the wider
internet infrastructure. Ground stations act as gateways, routing data
between the satellites and the terrestrial internet.

 User Terminals: Users connect to the Starlink network using user terminals,
also known as satellite dishes or phased-array antennas. These devices
communicate with the satellites directly, establishing a link to the Starlink
constellation. The user terminals track the satellites as they move across the
sky, maintaining a continuous internet connection.

 High-Speed Connectivity: Starlink aims to deliver high-speed broadband

internet with low latency, comparable to or even surpassing traditional
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terrestrial networks. The large number of satellites in the constellation helps

distribute internet traffic more efficiently, reducing congestion and
improving overall performance.

 Scalability and Upgradability: The Starlink system is designed to be scalable

and upgradable. SpaceX plans to deploy additional satellites and continually
improve the network infrastructure and technology. This iterative approach
allows for expanding coverage, enhancing performance, and adapting to
changing user demands over time.

The overarching goal of Starlink is to bridge the digital divide and provide affordable,
reliable, and high-speed internet access to underserved areas around the world,
ultimately enabling global connectivity for individuals, communities, businesses,
and institutions.
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3.CONCEPTS

3.1 Starlink Architecture

Starlink is a satellite constellation project developed by SpaceX, the aerospace
company founded by Elon Musk. It aims to provide global broadband internet
coverage by deploying thousands of small satellites into low Earth orbit (LEO). The
architecture of Starlink involves several key components working together to
achieve its goals. Here's an overview of the architecture:

1. Satellites: The Starlink constellation consists of thousands of small satellites

called Starlink satellites. These satellites are relatively lightweight and operate in
LEO, typically at an altitude of around 550 kilometers (340 miles). SpaceX has
already launched hundreds of Starlink satellites and plans to launch many more in
the coming years. These satellites are designed to communicate with each other and
with ground stations to provide internet connectivity.

Fig.3.1.1 Starlink satellites

2. Ground Stations: Starlink relies on a network of ground stations strategically

located around the globe. These ground stations are responsible for communicating
with the Starlink satellites. They receive signals from the satellites and relay them
to the internet backbone, which allows users to access the internet. The ground
stations also transmit signals back to the satellites, enabling two-way
communication.

3. User Terminals: To connect to the Starlink network, users require a user terminal,
also known as a "Dishy McFlatface." The user terminal is a small, phased-array
antenna that can automatically track and communicate with the Starlink satellites
as they pass overhead. It receives the internet signals from the satellites and
provides connectivity to the user's devices, such as computers, smartphones, or
routers.

4. Satellite Constellation: The Starlink satellites are deployed in a coordinated

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constellation pattern, forming a mesh network. This means that the satellites are
interconnected, allowing them to route data signals among themselves. Each
satellite acts as a node in the network, relaying data between other satellites and
the ground stations, improving connectivity and redundancy.

Fig.3.1.2 Satellite Constellation

5. Laser Inter-Satellite Links (ISL): One of the unique features of the Starlink
architecture is the use of Laser Inter-Satellite Links. Some of the newer Starlink
satellites are equipped with laser communication technology that allows them to
establish high-speed data links with adjacent satellites. These ISLs enhance the
efficiency of data transmission within the constellation, reducing the need for
relying solely on ground-based communications.

Fig.3.1.3 Optical laser links

6. Data Routing and Internet Backbone: The data transmitted through the Starlink
network is routed through the satellite constellation and ground stations to reach
the internet backbone. From there, it is connected to the broader internet
infrastructure, allowing users to access online services, websites, and other
resources.

Overall, the architecture of Starlink combines a vast constellation of LEO satellites,

ground stations, user terminals, and advanced communication technologies to
provide global broadband internet coverage. This innovative approach has the
potential to bridge the digital divide, particularly in rural and underserved areas
where traditional internet infrastructure is limited or non-existent. It's important to
note that since my knowledge cutoff is in September 2021, there may have been
advancements or changes in the Starlink architecture that I am not aware of.
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3.2 Working
Key technologies that power the Starlink:-

Starlink is a satellite internet constellation developed by SpaceX, a company

founded by Elon Musk. The goal of Starlink is to provide global broadband coverage,
especially in underserved areas where internet connectivity is limited or non-
existent. The constellation consists of thousands of small, low Earth orbit (LEO)
satellites that work together to create a network capable of delivering high-speed
internet access to users on the ground.

Starlink, a satellite internet constellation developed by SpaceX, utilizes several key

technologies to provide global internet coverage. Here are the main technologies
that power Starlink:

 Satellite Design and Manufacturing: SpaceX designs and manufactures its

own satellites specifically for Starlink. These satellites are relatively small
and compact, weighing around 260 kilograms (570 pounds) each. They are
manufactured in high volumes to achieve cost-effectiveness.

 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellite Constellation: Unlike traditional

geostationary satellites that orbit at a fixed position above the Earth, Starlink
uses a constellation of thousands of LEO satellites. These satellites operate
at altitudes ranging from 550 to 1,150 kilometers (340 to 710 miles) above
the Earth's surface. The use of LEO satellites allows for lower latency and
faster data transmission compared to geostationary satellites

Fig.3.2.1 LEO ( low Earth orbit)

 Satellite Communication: Starlink satellites communicate with each other

and with ground stations using high-frequency Ka-band radio waves. The
satellites are equipped with phased-array antennas that can dynamically
steer the beams to establish communication links between satellites and
ground stations.
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 Autonomous Collision Avoidance: With thousands of satellites in orbit,

collision avoidance is crucial. Starlink satellites are equipped with
autonomous collision avoidance systems that use onboard sensors to detect
potential collisions with other satellites or space debris. If a collision risk is
detected, the satellites can adjust their orbits to avoid the potential collision.

Fig.3.2.2 Autonomous Collision Avoidance

 Satellite Deployment and Reusability: SpaceX utilizes its Falcon 9 rockets to

launch batches of Starlink satellites into orbit. The rockets are equipped with
fairings (nose cones) that protect the satellites during launch. Once the
rocket reaches a certain altitude, the fairings separate, and the satellites are
deployed into their designated orbits. SpaceX has also been working on
making the rockets reusable, which significantly reduces the cost of satellite
deployment.

 Ground Stations and User Terminals: Starlink relies on a network of ground

stations located around the world to communicate with the satellites. These
ground stations establish the link between the satellites and the internet
backbone infrastructure. Users connect to the Starlink network using small,
user-friendly terminals installed at their premises. The terminals have
phased-array antennas that automatically track and communicate with the
satellites.

 Satellite Constellation Management: Starlink's satellite constellation is

managed by sophisticated software systems. These systems handle tasks
such as satellite tracking, orbit determination, and optimizing satellite
coverage to ensure seamless connectivity and efficient data transmission
across the network.

These key technologies work together to provide global broadband internet

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coverage via the Starlink satellite

How Starlink works ?

1. Satellite Deployment:

SpaceX launches batches of Starlink satellites into space using its Falcon 9 rockets.
Each rocket carries multiple satellites, which are released into orbit at an altitude of
around 550 kilometers (340 miles). As of my knowledge cutoff in September 2021,
hundreds of Starlink satellites have already been deployed, and SpaceX plans to
launch thousands more.

2. Satellite Communication:

Once deployed, the Starlink satellites orbit the Earth in a constellation formation,
forming a mesh network. They communicate with each other using radio frequency
links, allowing them to transfer data between satellites as well as with ground
stations on Earth.

3. User Terminals:

To connect to the Starlink network, users on the ground require a user terminal, also
known as a Starlink dish or phased-array antenna. The user terminal is a small, flat
dish that receives and transmits signals to communicate with the Starlink satellites.
It is designed to track and establish a connection with the satellites as they pass
overhead.

Fig.3.2.3 User Terminal

4. Satellite-User Communication:

When a user wants to access the internet, the user terminal communicates with the
nearest Starlink satellite in its line of sight. The satellite acts as a relay between the
user terminal and the ground stations. The user's data is transmitted to the satellite,
which then relays it to the appropriate ground station.
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5. Ground Stations:

Ground stations are strategically located facilities that act as the gateway between
the Starlink satellites and the internet backbone on Earth. These stations receive
data from the satellites and route it to the internet. Similarly, they transmit data
from the internet to the satellites, which then relay it back to the user terminals.

6. Internet Connectivity:

The ground stations are connected to the internet backbone through fiber optic
cables, allowing for high-speed data transmission. Once the user's data reaches the
ground station, it can access the internet and retrieve the requested information.
The data is then relayed back through the same process to the user terminal,
providing internet connectivity to the user.

7. Satellite Constellation and Coverage:

The large number of Starlink satellites in orbit, coupled with their low Earth orbit,
enables global coverage and reduced latency. By having satellites in close proximity
to each other and to the ground, Starlink can provide faster internet speeds and
lower latency compared to traditional satellite internet systems, which typically use
higher orbits.

8. Network Optimization:

SpaceX actively manages the Starlink network to optimize performance. The

satellites are equipped with advanced propulsion systems that allow them to adjust
their orbits and avoid collisions. Additionally, SpaceX continuously improves the
network's capacity, reliability, and latency by upgrading the satellites and ground
infrastructure over time.

It's worth noting that the information provided here is based on the knowledge
available up until September 2021, and SpaceX may have made advancements or
changes to the Starlink system since then.
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4.FUNCTIONAL AND TECHNICAL DETAILS

4.1 Features of Starlink

Starlink utilizes several key technologies to enable its satellite internet
constellation. Here are some of the technologies used in Starlink:

 Small Satellites: Starlink satellites are relatively small, weighing around 260
kilograms (570 pounds) each. They are designed to be compact and cost-
effective for mass production and deployment. The satellites are equipped
with solar panels to generate power and have onboard propulsion systems
for orbital adjustments and deorbiting.

Fig.3.2.4 Small Satellite

 Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Unlike traditional satellite internet systems that
operate in geostationary orbit (GEO), Starlink satellites are deployed in low
Earth orbit (LEO) at an altitude of around 550 kilometers (340 miles). LEO
offers several advantages, including lower latency due to shorter signal
travel distances and the ability to provide global coverage with a large
constellation of satellites.

 Mesh Network: The Starlink constellation forms a mesh network, where the
satellites communicate with each other and act as relays for data
transmission. This approach enables data to be routed efficiently through the
network, improving reliability and coverage. If one satellite loses
connectivity, the network can dynamically route traffic through other
satellites.

 Phased-Array Antennas: Starlink user terminals, also known as phased-array

antennas or "dishes," play a crucial role in connecting users to the satellite
network. These antennas use electronically steered beams to track and
communicate with the satellites as they move across the sky. They can
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dynamically adjust their orientation to maintain a connection with the

satellites, even while in motion, such as on moving vehicles.

Fig.3.2.5 Antennas

 Radio Frequency Communication: Starlink satellites communicate with user

terminals and ground stations using radio frequency (RF) links. They operate
in the Ka-band frequency range, which allows for high-speed data
transmission. The RF signals are used to transmit data between satellites,
from satellites to user terminals, and from user terminals to the satellites.

 Ground Stations: Ground stations are essential components of the Starlink

system. They serve as the interface between the satellite network and the
internet backbone on Earth. These stations receive data from the satellites
and route it to the internet, and vice versa. Ground stations are strategically
located around the world to ensure global crage and facilitate seamless
connectivity.

 Advanced Propulsion Systems: Starlink satellites are equipped with electric

propulsion systems that use ion thrusters to adjust their orbits, maintain
proper spacing, and perform collision avoidance maneuvers. Electric
propulsion offers efficiency and precise control, allowing SpaceX to optimize
the satellite positions and minimize the risk of collisions in the congested
LEO environment.

 Data Processing and Management: The Starlink system incorporates

advanced data processing and management capabilities. Onboard computers
on the satellites handle tasks such as routing, packet forwarding, and
encryption to ensure efficient and secure data transmission. Additionally,
SpaceX's ground-based infrastructure processes and manages the massive
amount of data flowing through the network.

These technologies work together to create a global satellite internet network that
aims to provide high-speed, low-latency internet access to users worldwide,
particularly in areas with limited or no existing internet infrastructure. SpaceX
continues to refine and improve these technologies as they deploy and expand the
Starlink constellation.
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4.2 TECHNICAL DETAILS

Satellite hardware

The Internet communication satellites were expected to be in the smallsat-class of

100 to 500 kg (220 to 1,100 lb)-mass, and were intended to be in low Earth orbit
(LEO) at an altitude of approximately 1,100 km (680 mi), according to early public
releases of information in 2015. In the event, the first large deployment of 60
satellites in May 2019 were 227 kg (500 lb) and SpaceX decided to place the
satellites at a relatively low 550 km (340 mi), due to concerns about the space
environment. Initial plans as of January 2015 were for the constellation to be made
up of approximately 4,000 cross-linked satellites, more than twice as many
operational satellites as were in orbit in January 2015.

The satellites will employ optical inter-satellite links and phased array beam-
forming and digital processing technologies in the Ku and Ka microwave bands
(super high frequency [SHF] to extremely high frequency [EHF]), according to
documents filed with the U.S. FCC. While specifics of the phased array technologies
have been disclosed as part of the frequency application, SpaceX enforced
confidentiality regarding details of the optical inter-satellite links. Early satellites
were launched without laser links. The inter-satellite laser links were successfully
tested in late 2020.

The satellites will be mass-produced, at a much lower cost per unit of capability
than previously existing satellites. Musk said, "We're going to try and do for
satellites what we've done for rockets. In order to revolutionize space, we have to
address both satellites and rockets. "Smaller satellites are crucial to lowering the
cost of space-based Internet and communications".

In February 2015, SpaceX asked the FCC to consider future innovative uses of the Ka
-band spectrum before the FCC commits to 5G communications regulations that
would create barriers to entry, since SpaceX is a new entrant to the satellite
communications market. The SpaceX non-geostationary orbit communications
satellite constellation will operate in the high-frequency bands above 24 GHz,
"where steerable Earth station transmit antennas would have a wider geographic
impact, and significantly lower satellite altitudes magnify the impact of aggregate
interference from terrestrial transmissions".

Internet traffic via a geostationary satellite has a minimum theoretical round-trip

latency of at least 477 milliseconds (ms; between user and ground gateway), but in
practice, current satellites have latencies of 600 ms or more. Starlink satellites are
orbiting at 1⁄105 to 1⁄30 of the height of geostationary orbits, and thus offer more
practical Earth-to-sat latencies of around 25 to 35 ms, comparable to existing cable
and fiber networks.The system will use a peer-to-peer protocol claimed to be
"simpler than IPv6", it will also incorporate end-to-end encryption natively.
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Starlink satellites use Hall-effect thrusters with krypton or argon gas as the
reaction mass for orbit raising and station keeping.[242] Krypton Hall thrusters tend
to exhibit significantly higher erosion of the flow channel compared to a similar
electric propulsion system operated with xenon, but krypton is much more
abundant and has a lower market price.SpaceX claims that its 2nd generation
thruster using argon has 2.4x the thrust and 1.5x the specific impulse of the krypton
fueled thruster.

User terminals

SpaceX board member Steve Jurvetson holding a Starlink user terminal in June
2020

The system does not directly connect from its satellites to handsets (like the
constellations from Iridium, Globalstar, Thuraya and Inmarsat). Instead, it is linked
to flat user terminals the size of a pizza box, which have phased array antennas and
track the satellites. The terminals can be mounted anywhere, as long as they can
see the sky. This includes fast-moving objects like trains. Photographs of the
customer antennas were first seen on the internet in June 2020, supporting earlier
statements by SpaceX CEO Musk that the terminals would look like a "UFO on a stick.
Starlink Terminal has motors to self-adjust optimal angle to view sky". The antenna
is known internally as "Dishy McFlatface".

In October 2020, SpaceX launched a paid-for beta service in the U.S. called "Better
Than Nothing Beta", charging $499 for a user terminal, with an expected service of
"50 Mbps to 150 Mbps and latency from 20 ms to 40 ms over the next several
months". From January 2021, the paid-for beta service was extended to other
continents, starting with the United Kingdom.

A larger, high-performance version of the antenna is available for use with the
Starlink Business service tier.

In September 2020, SpaceX applied for permission to put terminals on 10 of its ships
with the expectation of entering the maritime market in the future.

Ground stations

SpaceX has made applications to the FCC for at least 32 ground stations in United
States, and as of July 2020 has approvals for five of them (in five states). Till
February 2023 Starlink used the Ka-band to connect with ground stations. with the
launch of v2 mini they added frequencies in the E band range.

A typical ground station right now[when?] has nine 2.86 m antennas in a 400 m2
fenced in area.

According to their filing, SpaceX's ground stations would also be installed on-site at
Google data-centers world-wide.
 19

Satellite revisions

MicroSat

MicroSat-1a and MicroSat-1b were originally slated to be launched into 625 km (388
mi) circular orbits at approximately 86.4° inclination, and to include panchromatic
video imager cameras to film images of Earth and the satellite. The two satellites,
"MicroSat-1a" and "MicroSat-1b" were meant to be launched together as secondary
payloads on one of the Iridium-NEXT flights, but they were instead used for ground-
based tests.

Tintin

At the time of the June 2015 announcement, SpaceX had stated plans to launch the
first two demonstration satellites in 2016, but the target date was subsequently
moved out to 2018. SpaceX began flight testing their satellite technologies in 2018
with the launch of two test satellites. The two identical satellites were called
MicroSat-2a and MicroSat-2b during development but were renamed Tintin A and
Tintin B upon orbital deployment on 22 February 2018. The satellites were launched
by a Falcon 9 rocket, and they were piggy-pack payloads launching with the Paz
satellite.

Tintin A and B were inserted into a 514 km (319 mi) orbit. Per FCC filings, they were
intended to raise themselves to an 1,125 km (699 mi) orbit, the operational altitude
for Starlink LEO satellites per the earliest regulatory filings, but stayed close to
their original orbits. SpaceX announced in November 2018 that they would like to
operate an initial shell of about 1600 satellites in the constellation at about 550 km
(340 mi) orbital altitude, at an altitude similar to the orbits Tintin A and B stayed in.

The satellites orbit in a circular low Earth orbit at about 500 km (310 mi) altitude in a
high-inclination orbit for a planned six to twelve-month duration. The satellites
communicate with three testing ground stations in Washington State and California
for short-term experiments of less than ten minutes duration, roughly daily.

v0.9 (test)

The 60 Starlink v0.9 satellites, launched in May 2019, have the following
characteristics:

Flat-panel design with multiple high-throughput antennas and a single solar array

Mass: 227 kg (500 lb)

Hall-effect thrusters using krypton as the reaction mass, for position adjustment on
orbit, altitude maintenance, and deorbit

Star tracker navigation system for precision pointing

 20

Able to use Department of Defense-provided debris data to autonomously avoid

collision

Altitude of 550 km (340 mi)

95% of "all components of this design will quickly burn in Earth's atmosphere at the
end of each satellite's lifecycle". v1.0 (operational)

The Starlink v1.0 satellites, launched since November 2019, have the following
additional characteristics:[citation needed]

100% of all components of this design will completely demise, or burn up, in Earth's
atmosphere at the end of each satellite's life.

Ka-band added

Mass: 260 kg (570 lb)

One of them, numbered 1130 and called DarkSat, had its albedo reduced using a
special coating but the method was abandoned due to thermal issues and IR
reflectivity.

All satellites launched since the ninth launch at August 2020 have visors to block
sunlight from reflecting from parts of the satellite to reduce its albedo further.v1.5
(operational)

The Starlink v1.5 satellites, launched since 24 January 2021, have the following
additional characteristics:

Lasers for inter-satellite communication

Mass: ∼295 kg (650 lb)

Visors that blocked sunlight were removed from satellites launched from
September 2021 onwards.Starshield (operational)

These are satellites buses with two solar arrays derived from Starlink v1.5 and v2.0
for military use and can host classified government or military payloads.v2.0 (initial
deployment)

SpaceX was preparing for the production of Starlink v2.0 satellites by early 2021.
According to Musk, Starlink v2.0 satellites will be "... an order of magnitude better
than Starlink 1" in terms of communications bandwidth.

SpaceX hoped to begin launching Starlink v2.0 in 2022. As of May 2022, SpaceX had
said publicly that the satellites of second-generation (Gen2) constellation would
need to be launched on Starship, as they are too large to fit inside a Falcon 9 fairing.
However, in August 2022, SpaceX made formal regulatory filings with the FCC that
indicated they would build satellites of the second-generation (Gen2) constellation
 21

in two different, but technically identical, form factors: one with the physical
structures tailored to launching on Falcon 9, and one tailored for the launching on
Starship. Starlink v2.0 is both larger and heavier than Starlink v1 satellites.

Starlink second-generation satellites planned for launch on Starship have the

following characteristics:

Lasers for inter-satellite communication

Mass: ∼1,250 kg (2,760 lb)

Length: ∼7 m (23 ft)

Further improvements to reduce its brightness, including the use of a dielectric

mirror film.

On 2,016 of the initially licensed 7,500 satellites: Gen2 Starlink satellites will also
include an approximately 25 square meter antenna that would allow T-Mobile
subscribers to be able to communicate directly via satellite through their regular
mobile devices. It will be implemented via a German-licensed hosted payload
developed together with SpaceX's subsidiary Swarm Technologies and T-Mobile.
This hardware is supplemental to the existing Ku-band and Ka-band systems, and
inter-satellite laser links, that have been on the first generation satellites launching
as of mid-2022.[citation needed]

Further, in October 2022, SpaceX redefined some early v2.0s so there are 3 different
busses of v2.0s:

Bus F9-1 (planned), 303 kg mass, having roughly the same dimensions and mass as
the current V1.5 satellites.

Bus F9-2 (initial deployment) (sometimes called "V2 mini"), 800 kg mass and
measuring 4.1 m (13 ft) by 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) with a total array of 120 m2 (1,300 sq ft).
The Solar arrays are 2 in number. It could offer around 3-4 times more usable
bandwidth per satellite.[ They are smaller than Starlink's original ones (and so can
be launched from existing rockets), have four times the capacity to the ground
station to increase speed and capacity. This is due to a more efficient array of
antennas and the use of radio frequencies in the E band range.

Bus Starship (planned), 2000 kg mass.

 22

5.APPLICATION

 Providing high-speed internet to remote and rural areas: Starlink can provide
reliable and high-speed internet access to areas where traditional internet
infrastructure is not available or is too expensive to install.

 Supporting disaster response efforts: In areas affected by natural disasters or

other emergencies, Starlink can provide first responders and affected
communities with internet and communication capabilities.

 Supporting military and government operations: Starlink can support

military and government operations by providing secure and reliable internet
and communication capabilities.

 Enabling global e-commerce and digital services: Starlink can provide global
access to e-commerce and other digital services, enabling people in remote
areas to participate in the global economy.

 Connecting transportation systems: Starlink can enable high-speed internet

and communication capabilities for transportation systems, including
airplanes, ships, and self-driving cars.

 Providing internet access on airplanes and cruise ships: Starlink can provide
high-speed internet access on airplanes and cruise ships, enhancing the
passenger experience.

 Supporting scientific research: Starlink can support scientific research by

providing high-speed internet and communication capabilities to remote
research stations and observatories.
 23

6.ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

6.1 ADVANTAGES
1. Low Latency and High Bandwidth

Starlink uses and deploys small communication satellites in low Earth orbit or so-
called LEO satellites. They have lower latency than geostationary orbit or GEO
satellites because they are placed at lower altitudes. Note that latency is the time it
takes for data carried by electromagnetic radiation to travel from one point to
another. GEO satellites have a latency of around 477 milliseconds while LEO
satellites have less than 27 milliseconds.Furthermore, these LEO satellites transmit
data using high-frequency bands within the K-under band with specific frequencies
ranging from 12 GHz to 18 GHz and the Ka band with frequencies above 24 GHz.
These frequencies are within the radio wave and microwave territories of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Higher frequencies in the upper limits of radio waves and within the range of
microwaves have shorter wavelengths and they cannot travel long distances
without signal repeaters and amplifiers than frequencies at the lower portion of the
spectrum. However, higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths translate to better
data transmission quality or more specifically, wider bandwidth, lower latency, and
faster transmission speed.

2. Real-World Performance of Starlink

The initial data transmission speeds of Starlink are at 100Mbps downstream and
20Mbps for upstream but SpaceX has a long-term goal of achieving and providing a
data transmission speed of 1Gbps for downstream. Several tech reviewers and
consumers have tried and tested the capabilities and performance of their Starlink
kits.

Nilay Patel of The Verge noted that his kit exceeded the promised data transmission
speeds on several occasions with speeds topping 222Mbps for downstream and
24Mbps for upstream though his average downstream speed hovered between
30Mbps and 90Mbps. John R. Quain of Tom’s Guide experienced download speeds
under 90Mbps during the initial testing period but saw the download speed spiking
up to 200Mbps.

Data collated and presented by Ookla showed that Starlink hit more than 100Mbps
of download speed in 15 countries during the fourth quarter of 2021. It was also the
fastest satellite internet service provider in the United States and it demonstrate
triple the speed compared with wired or fixed broadband services in Australia
during the same quarter.Downstream speeds below 20Mbps are insufficient
 24

nowadays. The promised data transmission speed and possibilities for faster speeds
allow current-generation and next-generation broadband applications. These
include support for seamless streaming of 4K videos or playing on-demand or cloud-
based video games. Video conferencing services such as Zoom, Google Meet, and
Microsoft Teams can also benefit from faster internet connection speed.

3. Easy-To-Setup User Terminal or Kit

The Starlink satellite internet constellation does not connect directly to handsets
but communicates via a terminal the size of a 12-inch square box that can be
mounted on any flat surface such as on the ground or the roof of a house. The
terminal has phased array antennas that pinpoint and track the position of a
particular LEO satellite and it is part of an entire kit that includes a 100-foot cable
for connecting to the included Wi-Fi router.

Patel described his experience of setting up the terminal and the entire kit as hassle
-free. It is as simple as placing the terminal in an ideal location and placing the
included Wi-Fi router inside the house. The process can take less than 30 minutes.
The terminal takes a couple of minutes to configure itself as it downloads the
satellite schedule to keep it aligned.

The review of Quain also emphasized the fact that there is even no need to plug
things in because everything is already connected out-of-the-box. The company did
not even bother including a user manual or detailed instructions because the setup
process is highly intuitive. However, the kit includes a poster board with a large 3-
step infographic guide. Be reminded that users need to download the Starlink app
on their devices to complete the setup process.

4. Reachability Even in Remote Areas

Another advantage of Starlink and other providers of satellite internet services is

that they do not depend on physical and conventional telecommunication
infrastructures. There is no need for a nearby base station unlike wireless or cellular
networks or long lines of cables running through underground or above-the-ground
transmission lines.

The terminal is essentially wireless similar to a handset such as a smartphone or a

wireless router. However, it is not dependent on a nearby base station. Remember
that the terminal connects and communicates wirelessly to the LEO communication
satellites. This general telecommunication architecture has specific advantages. The
most notable one is that it allows the provision of internet services to remote areas.

Millions of people in the United States and around the globe either do not have
access to advanced telecommunication infrastructure or remain trapped with old-
generation telecommunication networks. Most providers are not interested in
expanding and improving their services to remote areas because of the small
potential customer base.
 25

It is also important to highlight the fact that the independence from physical
conventional telecommunication infrastructures makes satellite internet services
resilient from natural disasters and human-made calamities that normally affect
most communities. Starlink can work even when telecommunication lines are down
or there are network outages affecting the nearest base station. The terminal can
also work in off-grid electricity sources.

6.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. Intermittentness Due To Obstructions

One of the main disadvantages of Starlink is that its service reliability depends on
the fact that the terminal should be positioned in an area that has an unobstructed
view of the sky. This means that it cannot be placed near trees or tall structures
such as tall houses and buildings. It works best when placed on open ground or top
of the roof.

The review of Quinn noted that he received notifications that obstructions were
blocking his internet connection around 9 hours each day. The app guides users in
the specific direction of the obstructions. Quinn found out that his connection
problem came from trees that are hundreds of feet away from the terminal but still
obstructed the transmission of signals. This limitation can be a problem in forested
areas, mountainsides, and dense urban cities.

Patel had similar problems. His terminal was placed 60 feet away from his house but
his connection was obstructed for two hours each day. The obstructions came from
the top-most portion of his house and the trees behind. The experiences of these
two reviewers collectively represent the fact that the performance of Starlink is
limited by line of sight.

The aforesaid drawback of Starlink is also the disadvantage of mmWave 5G

networks. Wireless connections using high frequencies have a line-of-sight
limitation and susceptibility to obstructions. Take note that these frequencies
cannot travel over long distances unlike frequencies in the middle and lower ranges
of the radio wave spectrum. They cannot also pass through physical obstructions
and can be limited by weather interferences.

2. Expensive than Other Broadband Services

In the United States and other countries, the cost of connecting to Starlink has
increased across the board. The introductory price for the entire kit was USD 499.00
but it jumped to USD 549.00 and further to USD 599.00 in 2022. Of course, aside
from the first cash-out cost, subscribers need to pay a monthly fee of between USD
99.00 to USD 110.00.

The cost is relatively expensive compared to other fixed broadband services

providers and even cellular network providers. The average monthly cost of fixed
 26

broadband in the U.S. is around USD 68.38 for plans with a data transmission speed
of around 100Mbps. Cellular network plans with access to 4G and 5G networks
range between USD 60.00 to USD 70.00. Note that 5G networks in the U.S. have an
average speed of 100Mbps.

For individuals that can be reached either by fixed broadband or cellular network
services, especially those living in dense urban cities or areas with natural
obstructions such as trees and mountains, switching to satellite internet service
might not provide them with substantial benefits or a noticeable network
performance gains in consideration of cost.

3. Problematic Hardware installation.

Hardware installation can be problematic for many users. A typical cable company
or satellite internet company provides equipment installation services. However,
Starlink does not have such equipment installation services.

So users will have to install Starlink plates themselves or hire someone else.
Depending on the location, obtaining the installer can be difficult.

Starlink also needs a clear view of the sky to get a seamless internet connection. If
you live in a condominium or high-rise building, installing Starlink plates can be a
daunting task. Depending on your location, you may need to install equipment on
the roof of your home.

In the city, this may not be possible because if you are a tenant and your landlord
does not allow you to install the plate.
 27

7.CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

7.1 CONCLUSION
 In conclusion, Starlink is a revolutionary satellite internet constellation
developed by SpaceX. By deploying thousands of small satellites in low Earth
orbit (LEO), Starlink aims to provide global broadband coverage and bridge
the digital divide. The key technologies employed in Starlink, including small
satellites, LEO deployment, mesh networking, phased-array antennas, radio
frequency communication, ground stations, advanced propulsion systems,
and data processing, work together to enable high-speed, low-latency
internet connectivity.

 Starlink's LEO configuration offers numerous advantages over traditional

satellite internet systems operating in geostationary orbit. With satellites
positioned closer to Earth, the signal travel distances are reduced, resulting
in lower latency and improved performance. The constellation's mesh
network allows for efficient data routing and robust connectivity, even if
individual satellites encounter issues. Phased-array antennas on user
terminals dynamically track and communicate with the satellites, ensuring a
reliable connection.

 The ground stations serve as the gateway between the satellite network and
the internet backbone, facilitating the transfer of data to and from the
satellites. These strategically located stations connect the Starlink network
to the global internet infrastructure through high-speed fiber optic cables,
enabling users to access online services and information.

 Starlink's advanced propulsion systems allow for precise orbit adjustments,

collision avoidance, and end-of-life deorbiting, ensuring the sustainability
and longevity of the satellite constellation. These technologies, combined
with ongoing advancements and refinements, position Starlink to
continuously improve its network capacity, reliability, and performance.

 Starlink's ambitious goal is to provide internet access to people around the

world, including those in underserved areas, remote regions, and locations
with limited connectivity options. It has the potential to revolutionize
internet access, fostering economic growth, educational opportunities,
telemedicine, and communication in various industries and communities
globally.
 28

7.2 FUTURE SCOPE

The future scope of Starlink holds immense potential for both SpaceX and users
worldwide. Here are some key aspects that highlight the future possibilities of
Starlink:

 Global Coverage: SpaceX aims to achieve global coverage with its Starlink
constellation. By deploying thousands of satellites, the network can
potentially reach even the most remote and underserved areas, providing
internet connectivity to millions of people who currently lack access. This
global coverage can significantly bridge the digital divide and unlock
opportunities for education, economic development, and communication
worldwide.

 Increased Capacity and Speed: As the Starlink network continues to expand,

SpaceX can enhance its capacity and internet speeds. With more satellites
deployed, the network can accommodate a larger user base and deliver
higher bandwidth, enabling faster and more reliable internet connections.
This can revolutionize online experiences, enabling seamless streaming,
gaming, and data-intensive applications for users across the globe.

 Lower Latency: One of the key advantages of Starlink's LEO configuration is

its potential to provide low latency internet connectivity. SpaceX aims to
reduce latency even further, aiming for latencies as low as 20 milliseconds or
less. Lower latency is crucial for real-time applications like online gaming,
video conferencing, and autonomous vehicles, enabling more responsive and
interactive experiences.

 Mobility and Connectivity on the Move: Starlink's phased-array antennas,

capable of tracking and communicating with satellites while in motion, open
up possibilities for mobile connectivity. This means that users on moving
vehicles, such as cars, ships, and airplanes, could potentially have reliable
internet access, even in remote areas or during long-distance travel. This
could have significant implications for transportation, logistics, and
communication industries.

 Internet Services for Unserved and Underserved Markets: Starlink has the
potential to provide affordable and accessible internet services to markets
that have traditionally been underserved or unserved. This includes rural
areas, developing regions, and areas affected by natural disasters. By
offering a viable alternative to traditional terrestrial infrastructure, Starlink
can spur economic development, improve education and healthcare services,
and enable communication in areas where connectivity was previously
limited.

 Satellite Internet for Commercial Applications: Starlink's high-speed, low-

 29

latency internet connectivity can open up new possibilities for various

commercial applications. Industries such as agriculture, mining, oil and gas,
environmental monitoring, and disaster response can benefit from real-time
data collection, remote monitoring, and efficient communication enabled by
Starlink. This can enhance productivity, safety, and operational efficiency in a
wide range of sectors.

 Expansion of Services: While Starlink primarily focuses on satellite internet

connectivity, SpaceX has hinted at potential expansion into other services.
This includes space-based communication services, inter-satellite links, and
even potentially supporting missions to the Moon and Mars. Such
developments could further revolutionize global communication and space
exploration.

It's important to note that the future scope of Starlink is still unfolding, and new
advancements and developments are likely to occur. SpaceX continues to refine and
improve its technology and infrastructure, responding to user feedback and
evolving needs. The full potential of Starlink's future impact on connectivity,
industries, and society at large remains to be seen, but its potential for
transformative change is substantial.
 30

REFERENCE

1. SpaceX's Starlink Website: The official website of SpaceX provides detailed

information about the Starlink project, including technical specifications,
mission updates, and future plans. You can visit their website at:
https://www.starlink.com/

2. "SpaceX's Starlink Constellation: An Initial Assessment of Potential Effects on

Astronomy" (2019) by C. Stubbs et al.

3. "SpaceX's Starlink Satellite Internet Constellation: A Technical Overview"

(2021) by P. May et al.

4. "Global Internet Access via Low Earth Orbit Satellites: System Design and
Analysis" (2020) by Z. Zhao et al.