Exogenic processes – the processes that
happen outside the Earth
Weathering – breaking down of rocks and
other materials on the Earth’s surface.
2 TYPES OF WEATHERING:
Mechanical Weathering – when rock breaks
into pieces without changing their chemical
composition.
Chemical Weathering – when the chemical
composition of the rock is changed due to the
action of other substances.
AGENTS OF MECHANICAL WEATHERING:
 Temperature
 Exfoliation
 Frost Action
 Abrasion
 Action of Living Things
AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING:
 Water
 Oxygen
 Carbon dioxide
 Sulfur oxides
 Acids and chemical from organisms
Erosion – the process by which weathered
rocks are transported from one place to
another.
Deposition/ Sedimentation – the process
through which sediments are transported to
another location.
Glaciers – erode surfaces through abrasion.
Moraine – the accumulation of dirt and rocks
that have fallen onto the glacier surface.
Drumlin – an elongated hill with the shape of
inverted spoon or half-buried egg
Meltwater deposits – sediments carried and
deposited along the meltwater streams.
Iceberg Deposits – rocks and sediments that
are picked up from land and deposited on the
ocean floor by melting icebergs.
Glacial lake – a lake created by melted glacier
Mass Wasting – occurs when gravity pulls
rocks and soil down the slopes.
 Also called as Mass Movement
Contributory factors:
 Water
 Wind
 Glaciers
 Gravity – main factor
Talus – accumulated sediments
Slump – downward sliding of a mass of rock or
unconsolidated materials along a curved
surface
SLOW MASS MOVEMENTS:
 Creep – slow downhill movement of soil
 Solidification – water mixed with soil
forms clay which moves as a thick viscous
fluid.
RAPID MASS MOVEMENTS:
 Landslide – it can move tons of
sediments down a slope and causing
tremendous damage.
 Earthflow - movement of water logged
materials down the slope.
 Mudflow – usually occurs after a heavy
rain.
 Sheet wash – he rapid movement of rock
debris or soils saturated with water
Endogenic processes – the processes that
happen inside the Earth.
Magma – an extremely viscous mixture of
molten and semi-molten rocks beneath the
surface of the Earth.
Decompression melting – a process in which
magma forms due to decreased rock pressure.
Flux Melting – occurs when solid rock melts
into magma through addition of water or other
volatiles causing rocks to melt at lower
temperatures.

Pluton – crystalized magma beneath earth’s
crust.
Metamorphism – the change in mineral
composition and texture of the rock that is
subjected to high temperature and pressure
within the earth.
2 TYPES OF METAMORPHISM:
Contact – when magma becomes in contact
with an already existing body of rock.
Regional Metamorphism – caused by a large
geologic process such as mountain building.
2 PROCESSES:
Recrystallization – the process by which
crystals are packed together creating a new
crystal structure.
Neometamorphism – the process that results
in the formation of new minerals.
Geomorphology – scientific study of
landforms
Volcanism/ Volcanic Eruption – extrusion of
rock matter from earth’s subsurface to the
exterior and creation of surface terrain features
Plutonism – igneous process that occur below
earth’s surface
2 TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION:
Explosive Eruption – violently blast pieces of
molten and solid rocks into air
Effusive Eruption – molten rocks pours less
violently into the surface as flowing steam of
lava
Viscosity – resistance to flowing
Silica – primary material component that
contributes to a higher viscosity in molten rocks
Volcanic island – formed when a large volcanic
eruption in the sea floor rises and creates
island
VOLCANIC LANDFORMS:
 Lava Flows – solidified lava (Aa lava and
Pahoehoe lava)
 Cinder Volcano – smallest type of
volcano
 Composite Volcano/ Strato Volcano – a
conical volcano built up by many layers of
hardened lava, tephra, pumice and ash.
 Pyroclastic Materials – fast moving
density currents of airborne volcanic ash,
hot gases, and steam that flow downslope
close to the ground like avalanche.
 Plug Dome – extremely viscous silica rich
magma pushes up into the vent of a
volcanic cone but does not flow further.
 Calderas – a large and deep depression
remains in the area that previously
contained the volcano’s summit.
CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES:
 Active Volcanoes – volcano which erupts
regularly.
 Dormant Volcanoes – those that have
erupted in historical times but now quiet.
 Extinct Volcanoes – those that have not
erupted in historical times
Ojos del Salado & Mauna Kea – highest
volcano
Mauna Loa – largest volcano
Mt. Taal – smallest volcano
Kilauea, Hawaii – most active
Mt. Etna, Italy – oldest volcano
Compression – squeezes the rocks in the
crust.
Tension – pulls on the rocks of the crust
causing them to stretch over a large area.
Shearing – pushes the rocks in the crust to
opposite directions causing them to twist or
tear apart.
Faulting – breaking of rocks along a crack or
fracture when rocks can no longer withstand
stress.
TYPES OF FAULT:
 Normal fault – rock on one side of the
fault that is lower relative to the other side.
 Reverse fault – a rocky block that is
pushed up relative to the rock on its side.
 Strike-slip fault – when the adjacent
blocks of rocks move sideways.
Folding – an effect of compressional stress. PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
Fold – a bend in the rock -introduced by Tuzo Wilson in 1965.
Anticline – upward fold in rock -widely recognized as the scientific explanation
Syncline – downward fold in rock about the formation and evolution of the earth’s
surface features.
Seismic Waves – waves that travel through
rocks in all directions from where the ground
breaks during an earthquake.
Body Waves – are seismic waves of higher
frequency than surface waves.
Surface waves – travel more slowly than body
waves.

2 TYPES OF WAVES:
 Primary Waves (P-waves) – travels
faster than s-waves.
 Secondary Waves (S-waves) – moves in
an up and down motion perpendicular to
the direction of waves and can only pass
through solids and no through liquids.

LAYERS OF THE EARTH:

Crust - the outermost and thinnest layer of the
geosphere.
2 TYPES OF CRUST:
 continental crust – composed of low
density rocks such as granite.
 oceanic crust – composed of high-
density rocks such as basalt.
Mantle – lies beneath the crust.
2 LAYERS:
 upper mantle (lithosphere)
 lower mantle (asthenosphere)
Core – extends from the core-mantle boundary
to the center of the earth.
 Outer core
 Inner core
Moho (Mohorovicic discontinuity)
- boundary between the mantle and crust.
- discovered by Andrija Mohorovicic

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

-introduced by Alfred Wegner in 1915.
-it states that continents are moving.
Pangaea – a large continent that broke about
225 million years ago.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY

-introduced by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz
-it explains how the continents drifted away
from one another.