Ladder operators: The angular momentum eigenvalue equations (5) can also be solved

by introducing ladder operators very similar to the one applied to SHO,

L± ≡ Lx ± i Ly . (28)

The commutation relations involving L± and components of angular momentum are derived
using the relations (4),

[Lz , L± ] = [Lz , Lx ± iLy ] = ± ~ L±

 2 
L , L± = 0
[L± , L∓ ] = ±2~Lz . (29)

The ladder operators L± also satisfy,

L± L∓ = (Lx ± iLy ) (Lx ∓ iLy ) = L2x + L2y ∓ i(Lx Ly − Ly Lx )

= L2 − L2z ± ~Lz (30)

For the present purpose, let the angular momentum eigenvalue equations be written in the
following form,
L2 f = λ~2 f and Lz f = µ~ f (31)
Just as in SHO, if f is an eigenfunction of L2 and Lz , so also is L± f ,

L2 (L± f ) = L± (L2 f ) = L± (λ~2 f ) = λ~2 (L± f )

Lz (L± f ) = ±~ (L± f ) + L± (Lz f ) = (µ ± 1)~ (L± f ) (32)

Interestingly, L± f is indeed an eigenfunciton of Lz but with new eigenvalues, raised or

lowered by one unit of ~. Hence, L+ (L− ) operator is called raising (lowering) operator
and together are called ladder operator. Therefore, each time we apply L+ or L− , the
eigenvalue µ increases or decreases by ~. But can this continue indefinitely? The restriction
on µ follows from the observation,

hL2 − L2z i = (λ − µ2 )~2 , (33)

2
hL − L2z i = hL2x + L2y i
= hL2x i + hL2y i
Z Z
= dτ f Lx Lx f + dτ f ? Ly Ly f
?

Z Z
= dτ (Lx f ) + dτ (Ly f )2 using hermiticity of Lx , Ly
2

≥ 0 (34)

where dτ is some appropriate volume element. Comparing (33) and (34), we get,

λ ≥ µ2 . (35)

Therefore, raising or lowering of µ must stop to obey (35). Say raising must stop at some
fmax and maximum value for µ be, say, l~,

L+ fmax = 0 ⇒ Lz fmax = l ~ fmax and L2 fmax = λ~2 fmax (36)

1
Using (30), it follows that,

L2 fmax = λ~2 fmax ⇒

(L− L+ + L2z + ~ Lz ) fmax = (0 + l2 ~2 + l~2 ) fmax

and therefore, the eigenvalue λ of L2 in terms of maximum eigenvalue of Lz is,

λ = l(l + 1) ~2 (37)

which is exactly what we got by solving angular part of Schrödinger equation in (21).
Similarly, lowering also should end at some fmin and minimum value for µ be ¯l~,

L− fmin = 0 ⇒ Lz fmin = ¯l ~ fmin and L2 fmin = λ~2 fmin (38)

In the same way as with L+ , using (30), it follows that,

L2 fmin = λ~2 fmin ⇒

(L+ L− + L2z − ~ Lz ) fmin = (0 + ¯l2 ~2 − ¯l~2 ) fmin

and therefore, the eigenvalue λ of L2 in terms of minimum eigenvalue of Lz is,

λ = ¯l(¯l − 1) ~2 . (39)

Since eigenvalue λ of L2 does not change with action of L± , comparing equations (37) and
(39), we see that l(l + 1) = ¯l(¯l − 1) and solving for ¯l we get,
¯l = −l and ¯l = l + 1.

But ¯l = l+1 is absurd since minimum eigenvalue cannot be larger than maximum eigenvalue,
so the acceptable solution is
¯l = −l ⇒ −l ≤ µ ≤ +l (40)

which the limit of µ (the magnetic quantum number) we talked about before without actu-
ally showing it. So for a given value of l, there are 2l + 1 different values of µ and, since µ
changes by one unit of ~, it goes from −l to +l (or the other way round) in N (say) integer
steps,
l = −l + N ⇒ l = N/2
i.e. l must be an integer or a half-integer, l = 0, 1/2, 1, 3/2, 2, . . .. However, we have
seen before when angular part of the Schrödinger equation was solved explicity that l is
an integer. Thus here we have determined the eigenvalues of generic angular momentum
operator without even knowing its eigenfunctions.
The ladder operator when acted upon the eigenfunctions of L2 and Lz changes the eigen-
values of Lz by one unit which can be represented as,

L+ fµ = cλµ fµ+1 and L− fµ = dλµ fµ−1 . (41)

2
The coefficient cλµ can be determined as,

L+ fµ = cλµ fµ+1 ⇒
Z Z Z
? ? 2
dτ fµ L− L+ fµ = dτ (L+ fµ ) (L+ fµ ) = |cλµ | dτ |fµ+1 |2 = |cλµ |2
Z Z
?
or, dτ fµ L− L+ fµ = dτ fµ? (L2 − L2z − ~Lz )fµ
Z
2 2 2 2
dτ |fµ |2
 
= l(l + 1)~ − µ ~ − µ~

= (l − µ)(l + µ + 1)~2
⇒ cλµ = [(l − µ)(l + µ + 1)]1/2 ~ (42)

In the same way we can get dλµ = [(l + µ)(l − µ + 1)]1/2 . In short,
p
cλµ fµ = (l − µ)(l + µ + 1) ~ fµ+1 (43)
p
dλµ fµ = (l + µ)(l − µ + 1) ~ fµ−1 . (44)