Breathing PDF

Yoga and Breathing
Compiled by: Trisha Lamb
Last Revised: April 27, 2006
© International Association of Yoga Therapists (IAYT) 2005
International Association of Yoga Therapists

P.O. Box 2513 • Prescott • AZ 86302 • Phone: 928-541-0004
E-mail: mail@iayt.org • URL: www.iayt.org
The contents of this bibliography do not provide medical advice and should not be so interpreted. Before beginning any
exercise program, see your physician for clearance.
“Mind, Prana, sex-energy (Virya), and the subtle desires of the subconscious (Vasanas) are
interdependent. Control of any one of these leads to the control of all others. In other words,
when one has attained mastery of Prana, one automatically acquires control of mind, sex energy,
and subtle desires.
“Pranayama is the control of the vital force through the regulation of breath. It therefore leads to
Vasanayama. In other words, control of the vital force leads to the control of the subtle desires of
the subconscious. When the subconscious mind is freed from worldly Vasanas or complexes, one
attains the immense powers of the Spirit.”
—Swami Jyotirmayananda
“The peptide-respiratory link is well documented: Virtually any peptide found anywhere else can
be found in the respiratory center. This peptide substrate may provide the scientific rationale for
the powerful healing effects of consciously controlled breath patterns. Mind doesn’t dominate
body; it becomes body. Body and mind are one . . . At this molecular level there really [is] no
distinction between the mind and the body.”
—Candace Pert, Molecules of Emotion
Normal respiration rates for an adult person at rest range from 12 to 20 breaths per minute, and
on average 6 to 8 liters of air are inhaled per minute . The respiratory rate for children decreases
steadily from 25 breaths in the 2nd year to 18 breaths per minute by the 15th year.
NOTE: See also the “Nose” bibliography.
Agni Sara: Solar Power. Yoga International Reprint Series. Honesdale, Pa.: The
Himalayan International Institute Press, www.himalayaninstitute.org.
“Easy-to- follow directions in mastering agni sara, diaphragmatic breathing, and asanas
for relaxation and energy.”
Ajai. Breathing the mind: Observations on meditation: Walking the mind. Yoga Voices,
Spring 2001, p. 14.
Alef, Kathy. Pranayama. Iyengar Yoga Institute of San Francisco Review, Winter 2001,
21(1):8.
___________. Your Breath as a Bridge to Penetrate Asana workshop. Iyengar Yoga

Institute of San Francisco.
Ali, Firooza. Yoga practice: Active or passive? Yoga Rahasya, 1996, 3(4):22-26.
Ali, Swati. Willpower, yoga heal woman with no hope. Mid Day, 14 Apr 2005.
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“Vanita Panapalia (32), who was admitted to Masina Hospital, Byculla, with 75 per cent
burns and a very small chance of survival, has finally recovered after almost 100 days of
treatment.
“Her hands still bandaged, she is now able to walk and eat on her own. With a radiant
smile, this resident of Akola, praises the doctors and nurses who helped her recover.
“But apart from the treatment at the hospital, Vanita has an unusual do- it- yourself cure up
her sleeve. ‘I would perform Pranayama as often as I could manage. It helped me build
my willpower.’
“Vinod Panapalia, her husband says, ‘When we had rushed her to hospital after using
blankets to douse the flames on her, the doctors had said Vanita had 75 per cent burns
and no chance of survival.’
“But Vanita did not lose hope. ‘I have faith in yoga. Though I could not move to perform
the asanas, I would feel strong every time I did Pranayama. Never for a moment did I
think that I would not survive,’ she said.
“Zubin Zarthoshtimanesh, an Iyengar Yoga teacher, believes that yoga could have been
an important tool in her recovery.
“‘Pranayama is the harnessing of energy through the breath. It has a direct impact on your
mind, psyche and your will power,’ he says.
“Doctors say that survival is difficult for someone with 50 per cent and above burns.
‘Only athletes and people with a good constitution can survive such burns,’ says Dr
Milind Ghare from Wockhardt Hospital, Mulund.
“Vanita was admitted to Masani Hospital after she sustained burns when her synthetic
sari caught fire on December 31.”
Allison, J. Respiratory changes during the practice of the technique of Transcendental

Meditation. Lancet, 1970, no. 7651:833-834.
Alternate breathing. Yoga and Total Health, Sep 1995, pp. 16-18.
Ambikananda Saraswati, Swami. Principles of Breathwork. London: Thorsons, 1999.
___________. Conscious Breathing: The Bridge to the Unconscious audiotape. Reading,

England: The Traditional Hatha Yoga Foundation.
___________. Meditation: Its Breath and Soul audiotape and booklet. Reading, England:
The Traditional Hatha Yoga Foundation.
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Ananthanarayanan, Raghu. Learning Through Yoga. Chennai, India: Krishnamacharya
Yoga Mandiram, 2002
Contents: Introducing asana practice, Introducing breath in asana, Introducing vinyasa,

Classifying asanas, Variations in asanas, Simplifying an asana, More about breath in
asana, Asana practice and sports, Asana practice and the arts, Asana practice for ailments,
More about vinyasa, Observing one’s body through asana, Names of asanas, Breath
control in asana, Pranayama, Pronunciation guide
Appels, A., F. Bar, J. Lasken, et al. The effect of a psychological intervention program
on the risk of a new coronary event after angioplasty: A feasibility study. Journal of
Psychological Research, 1997, 43:209-212.
Found that breathing exercise therapy after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty

reduced exhaustion, hostility, and apprehension.
Ariyadhamma, Ven. Mahathera Nauyane. Ânâpâna Sati: Meditation on Breathing.

Bodhi Leaves No. 115. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 1988. Available
online: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/bps/leaves/bl115.html.
ASTHMA. See “Asthma” bibliography.
At last! An end to the ballooning belly? Yoga and Life, late 1970s, no. 7. (A review of
Andre van Lysebeth’s Pranayama.)
Backon, J. Changes in blood glucose levels induced by different forced nostril breathing,
a technique which affects brain hemisphericity and autonomic activity. Medical Science
Research, 1988, 16:1197-1199. Also in Brain and Cognition, Jan 1990, 12(1):155-7.
PMID: 2297432.
Abstract: Asymmetrical shoulder, thoracic and buttock pressure affect ipsilateral nasal
resistance, autonomic tone, and hemisphericity. This factor must be taken into
consideration when conducting psychological experimentation, and, in fact, may have
confounded much prior research.
Badawi, K., R. K. Wallace, and D. Orme -Johnson, et al. Electrophysiologic

characteristics of respiratory suspension periods occurring during the practice of the
Transcendental Meditation program. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1984, 46(3):267-276.
Baier, Karl. Pranayama in asana. From the article “Iyengar & the yoga tradition, part 2.”
Yoga & Health, Oct 1997, pp. 29-31.
Balancing Active & Receptive Energies. Yoga International Reprint Series. Honesdale,
Pa.: The Himalayan International Institute Press, www.himalayaninstitute.org.
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“The classic breathing practice of Nadi Shodhanam (alternate nostril breathing) inducing
calmness and raising your energy level.”
Balaratnam, Sri. Vibrational breath therapy. Yoga Life, Jan 1994, 25(3):11-20.
Balayogi Bhavanani, Ananda. Swarodaya vigjnan: A scientific analysis of the nasal

cycle and its applications. Yoga Life, Dec 2001, 32(12):24-31.
Contents: Introduction, Traditional views on Swara Yoga (rhythmicity of the swara,

activities prescribed in various swaras, interesting observations on Swara Yoga),
Mechanism of nasal cycle, Effects of nasal cycle and forced uninostril breathing
___________, and Smt. Devasena Bhavanani. The importance of pranayama in yogic

discipline. Yoga Life, Apr 2002, 33(4):3-9.
Topics addressed: Pranayama in the Indian spiritual texts; Views on Pranayama by eminent
Yoga masters; Why Pranayama is vital to the Yoga sadhak; Conclusion
___________, Madanmohan, and Kaviraja Udupa. Acute effect of mukh bhastrika (a

yogic bellows type breathing) on reaction time. Indian Journal of Physiology and
Pharmacology, 2003, 47(3):297-300.
Abstract: Reaction time (RT) is an index of the processing ability of [the] central nervous
system and a simple means of determining sensory- motor performance. It has been
reported that yoga training improves human performance including central neural
processing. Earlier studies from our laboratories have shown that yoga training produces a
significant decrease in visual reaction time (VRT) and auditory reaction time (ART). The
present work was planned to determine if mukh bhastrika (a yogic technique in which
breath is actively blasted out in “whooshes” following a deep inspiration) has any effect on
central neural processing by studying its effect on RT. 22 healthy schoolboys who were
practicing yoga for the past three months were recruited for the present study. VRT and
ART were recorded before and after nine rounds of much bhastrika. Mukh bhastrika
produced a significant (P<0.01) decrease in VRT as well as ART. A decrease in RT
indicates an improved sensory- motor performance and enhanced processing ability of
central nervous system. This may be due to greater arousal, faster rate of information
processing, improved concentration and/or an ability to ignore extraneous stimuli. This is
of applied value in situations requiring faster reactivity such as sports, machine operation,
race driving and specialized surgery. It may also be of value to train mentally retarded
children and older sports persons who have prolonged RT.
Ballentine, Rudolph. Clinical significance of the nasal cycle. Research Bulletin of the
Himalayan International Institute, 1980, 2(4).
___________. Fusing body, mind and spirit: A scientist explains why working with the
breath is crucial for anyone determined to follow the path of yoga. Yoga International,
Jan/Feb 1992, 32-36.
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___________. Nostril to nostril: Balancing the breath. Yoga International, Feb/Mar 2003,
pp. 40-44.
Bell, Harold J., and James Duffin. The respiratory response to passive limb movement
is suppressed by a cognitive task. Journal of Applied Physiology, 23 Jul 2004. Author
email: j.duffin@utoronto.ca.
Abstract: Feedback from muscles stimulates ventilation at the onset of passive

movement. We hypothesized that central neural activity via a cognitive task source would
interact with afferent feedback, and we tested this hypothesis by examining the fast
changes in ventilation at the transition from rest to passive leg movement, under two
conditions: (A) no task, and (B) solving a computer-based puzzle. Resting breathing was
greater in condition (B) than in condition (A); evidenced by an increase in mean ± SEM
breathing frequency (18.2 ± 1.1 br·min-1 versus 15.0 ± 1.2 br·min-1, p = 0.004) and
ventilation (10.93 ± 1.16 l·min-1 versus 9.11 ± 1.17 l·min-1 p < 0.001). In condition (A)
the onset of passive movement produced a fast increase in mean ± SEM breathing
frequency (. = 2.9 ± 0.4 br·min-1, p < 0.001), tidal volume (. = 233 ± 95 ml, p < 0.001)
and ventilation (. = 6.00 ± 1.76, p < 0.001). However, in condition (B) the onset of
passive movement only produced a fast increase in mean ± SEM breathing frequency (. =
1.3 ± 0.4 br·min-1, p = 0.045), significantly smaller than in condition (A) (p = 0.007).
These findings provide evidence for an interaction between central neural cognitive
activity and the afferent feedback mechanism, and we conclude that the performance of a
cognitive task suppresses the respiratory response to passive movement.
Benagh, Barbara. How healthy is your breathing? Poor breathing habits are easy to spot.
Here are a number of self- administered tests to help determine if you can benefit from
breath-retraining exercises.Yoga Journal, Jul/Aug 2000. Article available online:
http://www.yo gajournal.com/practice/218_1.cfm.
Bennett, Bija. Breathing into Life: Recovering Wholeness Through Body, Mind, and
Breath. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1993.
Bhargava, R., M. G. Gogate, and J. F. Mascarenhas. Autonomic responses to breath

holding and its variations following pranayama. Indian Journal of Physiology and
Pharmacology, Oct-Dec 1988, 32(4):257-264. PMID: 3215678.
Abstract: Autonomic responses to breath holding were studied in twenty healthy young
men. Breath was held at different phases of respiration and parameters recorded were
Breath holding time, heart rate systolic and diastolic blood pressure and galvanic skin
resistance (GSR). After taking initial recordings all the subjects practised Nadi-Shodhana
Pranayama for a period of 4 weeks. At the end of 4 weeks same parameters were again
recorded and the results compared. Baseline heart rate and blood pressure (systolic and
diastolic) showed a rendency to decrease and both these autonomic parameters were
significantly decreased at breaking point after pranayamic breathing. Although the GSR
was recorded in all subjects the observations made were not conclusive. Thus pranayama
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breathing exercises appear to alter autonomic responses to breath holding probably by
increasing vagal tone and decreasing sympathetic discharges.
Bhastrika & Kapalabhati. Yoga International Reprint Series. Honesdale, Pa.: The
Himalayan International Institute Press, www.himalayaninstitute.org.
“Bellows (bhastrika) breathing for warmth and energy; kapalabhati to clear the nasal
passages and invigorate the brain.”
Bhastrika and Kapalabhati (letter to the editor). Spectrum: The Journal of the British
Wheel of Yoga, Winter 2003, p. 8.
Bhat, Vasanthi. The Power of Conscious Breathing in Hatha Yoga. San Jose, Calif.:
Vasanthi Bhat, 1997.
Bhikkhu, Santikaro. Technology of breathing in & out. Inquiring Mind, Fall 2002,
19(1):13-14.
Bhole, M. V. Pranayama and its rationale. Yoga-Mimamsa, Oct 1965, 8(2):19-26. Paper
given at the Seminar in Kaivalyadhama, Lonavla, 14 Jan 1965.
___________. Significance of nostrils in breathing. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1968, 10(4):1-12.
___________. Effect of head turning on lung ventilation. Indian Journal of Chest

Diseases, 1972, 14(2):1-6.
___________. New findings in the field of research on pranayama. In Abstrakty I.

Pracovnej Konferencie of Problematike Jógy v Rehabilitacii [Abstracts of the First
Conference on the Applications of Yoga in Rehabilitational Therapy], Košice-Šaca, 21-
23 Jun 1978, pp. 54-61.
___________. Lesson plan for introducing the concept of pranayamic breathing in a class
of beginners. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1981, 20(1&2):44-49.
___________. Study of respiratory functions during Kapalbhati - part I. The Yoga

Review, 1982, 2(4):211-215.
___________. Study of respiratory functions dur ing Kapalbhati - part II. The Yoga
Review, 1982, 2(4):217-222.
___________, and P. V. Karambelkar. Significance of nostrils in breathing. Yoga-

Mimamsa, 1968, 10(4):1-12.
___________, and P. V. Karambelkar. Effect of yoga training on vital capacity and

breath holding time. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1972, 14(3&4):198-26.
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___________, P. V. Karambelkar, and M. L. Gharote. Effect of yoga practices on vital
capacity. Indian Journal of Chest Diseases, 1970, 12(1&2):32-35.
Bhramari: The bumble bee. Bindu, no. 10.
Birch, Beryl Bender. Science studies prana. In Beryl Bender Birch, Power Yoga. New
York: Simon & Schuster, 1995, p. 42.
Birkel, D. A., and L. Edgren. Hatha yoga: Improved vital capacity of college students.
Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, Nov 2000, 6(6):55-56.
Block, R. A., D. P. Arnott, B. Quigley, and W. C. Lynch. Unilateral nostril breathing

influences lateralized cognitive performance. Brain and Cognition, 1989, 9:181-190.
PMID: 2923709.
Abstract: Relative nostril efficiency (nasal cycle) is related to hemispheric EEG

differences and performance on cognitive tasks. We investigated how unilateral forced
nostril breathing influences spatial and verbal performance. Right-handed males and
females performed both tasks under either left-nostril, right-nostril, or free-breathing
conditions. Unilateral breathing affects performance differently in males and females. It
influences male performance ipsilaterally on both tasks: Their spatial performance is
better during right- nostril breathing, and their verbal performance is better during left-
nostril breathing. Unilateral breathing influences female performance contralaterally, but
only on the spatial task: Their spatial performance is better during left-nostril breathing.
These differences within and between sexes may exist because unilateral nostril breathing
differentially activates the two hemispheres and thereby facilitates performance, or
because attempts of the brain to control the nasal cycle unilaterally interfere with
performance.
Blokhin, I. P., and T. M. Shanmugan. Asana I dýchanie [Asanas and breathing].

Sechenov Physiol. Journal (USSR), 1973, 59(4):632-638. [In Russian.]
Blumenthal, J. A., C. F. Emery, D. J. Madden, R. E. Coleman, M. W. Riddle, F. R.

Cobb, M. J. Sullivan, and M. B. Higginbotham. Effects of exercise training on
cardiorespiratory function in men and women older than 60 years of age. American Journal
of Cardiology, 15 Mar 1991, 67(7):633-639.
Subjects were randomized to an aerobic exercise condition (cycle ergometry), nonaerobic

yoga, or a nonexercise control group for 4 months.
Boerstler, Richard W. Comeditation: A thanatological aid. International Journal of

Yoga Therapy, 2000, no. 10, pp. 95-104.
In comeditation, mutual breathing in rhythm is used to help ease the psychic suffering of
the terminally ill.
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Bradford, Michael. Prana and the immune system. In the article by Michael Bradford,
“The Nature of Prana as the Basis for the Study of Kundalini.” Article available online:
http://web.stn.net/icr.
Breath debate (Dialogue section). Yoga International, Apr/May 2000. (On diaphragmatic
vs. chest breathing.)
Breathing exercises. Article available online:

http://www.saffronsoul.com/usr/yoga.asp?chapter=ybreath.
Breathing lessons: Comparing breath practices in yoga and three schools of

Buddhism. Shambhala Sun, Jul 2003, pp. 54-60. Article available online:
http://www.shambhalasun.com/Archives/Features/2003/200307jul/200307-Breathing-
Lessons-Richard-Rosen.htm.
Exhale and hold: Richard Rosen on the breath in yoga.

From mindfulness to awareness: Larry Rosenberg on the breath in Theravada.
Be kind to your breath: Edward Espe Brown on the breath in Zen.
Prana and the path: Gaylon Ferguson on the breath in Tibetan Buddhism.
Adventures in breathing: Edward Espe Brown.
Breathing Lessons. Yoga International Reprint Series. Honesdale, Pa.: The Himalayan
International Institute Press, www.himalayaninstitute.org.
“Includes instructions in calming, quieting breathing practices, including: 2:1 breathing,

Bhramari, Ujjayi. Plus—how to relieve anxiety with breathing.”
Breath of fire: Would you like to boost your energy? Yoga International, Aug/Sep
2001, pp. 36-38.
The breath of life . . . and the life of breath. Yoga and Life, no. 5, pp. 8-10.
Provides “a comprehensive approach to the fundamentals of yoga breathing.”
Briggs, Tony. Breathing lessons: You’ve heard of pranayama. Maybe you’ve even tried
it in class. But you’re probably not practicing it. Here’s what you’re missing. Yoga
Journal, Nov/Dec 2000. Article available online:
http://www.yogajournal.com/practice/219_1.cfm.
___________. Pranayama tips: Position, props, and partners can all assist you in
breathwork. Yoga Journal, Nov/Dec 2000. Article available online:
Brindley, Janet. A fresh look at pranayama: Part 1: Nose breathing. Spectrum: The
Journal of the British Wheel of Yoga, Spring 1999, pp. 10-11.
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___________. A fresh look at pranayama: Part 2: Complete breathing. Spectrum: The
Journal of the British Wheel of Yoga, Summer 1999, p. 11.
___________. A fresh look at pranayama: Part 3: Breath retention. Spectrum: The

Journal of the British Wheel of Yoga, Autumn 1999, p. 15.
___________. A fresh look at pranayama: Part 4: Therapeutic pranayama. Spectrum: The

Journal of the British Wheel of Yoga, Winter 1999, p. 10.
Discusses the Buteyko Technique and its relation to pranayama and asthma.
___________. Improve your breathing in a week! Spectrum: The Journal of the British
Wheel of Yoga, Winter 2000, p. 13.
Brown, Edward Espe. Advent ure in breathing. Shambhala Sun, Jul 2003. Article
available online:
http://www.shambhalasun.com/Archives/Features/2003/200307jul/200307-Adventure- in-
Breathing-Edward-Espe-Brown.htm.
___________. Breathing lessons: Comparing breath practices in yoga and three schools
of Buddhism. Shambhala Sun, Jul 2003, pp. 54-60.

Brown, Richard P., Patricia L. Geba rg, and Philip R. Muskin. Yogic breathing,
Sudarshan Kriya for treatment of: Depression, anxiety, stress, PTSD, aggression, and
violence. In Allen Tasman, Jeffrey Lieberman, and Jerald Kay, eds., Chapter 104:
Complementary and Alternative Treatments in Psychiatry. Psychiatry. 2d ed. London:
Wiley & Sons, 2003, pp. 2171-2172.
Buebel, Marcia E., David S. Shannahoff-Khalsa, and Michael R. Boyle. The effects
of unilateral forced nostril breathing on cognition. International Journal of Neuroscience,
1991, 57:239-249.
Buhrman, Sarasvati. Ayurveda and the breath. Yoga International, Apr/May 1997.
Burnham, Liz. The spirit moving through us: Yoga and the respiratory system. Iyengar
Yoga Institute of San Francisco Review, Winter 2001, 21(1):13-14.
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Callahan, Christel. Riding the breath: Part I. Enlightened Practice, Dec 2003 – Jan
2004.
Carpenter, Jeff. Take a deep breath: Study: Slow breathing of mantras, prayer, improve
heart- lung function. 21 Dec 2001. ABC News. Article available online:
http://abcnews.go.com/sections/living/DailyNews/Deepbreath011221.html.
“According to a new study in the most recent issue of the British Medical Journal,
activities like these that promote slow and deep breathing can positively alter many of the
body’s vital signs.
“‘There is a great deal of evidence built up over the last 30 years that breathing exercises
are extraordinarily important in health and well being,’ said Dr. Herbert Benson,
president of the Mind/Body Medical Institute in Boston.
“The 23 test subjects were told to either recite the rosary in Latin or to repeat a typical
yoga mantra that they were taught by an instructor unfamiliar with the study. At no time
were the subjects told how long they should take to perform the tasks.
“The results of the study found that the slow deep breathing associated with these
practices synchronized the subject’s cardiovascular rhythms, leading to favorable
psychological as well as physiological effects.”
Carroll, Michael (Yoganand). Pranayama: The challenges and the benefits. The Kripalu
Yoga Teachers Association Yoga Bulletin, Spring 1996, 5(2):8,10.
___________. Pranayam: Beginner Level Practice CD. Available from Kripalu Shop,
www.kripalushop.org.
___________. Pranayama: The Kripalu Approach to Yogic Breathing CD. 65 minutes.

Available from Kripalu Shop, www.kripalushop.org.
From the Winter 2001 Kripalu Yoga Teachers Association Yoga Bulletin: “. . . 43
minutes of guided ujjayi, dirgha, kapalabhati, bhastrika, parvatasana, nadi shodhana
and anuloma viloma pranayama. Bhasatrika pranayama is explored in depth in an
additional instructional track; the CD ends with a 22- minute guided posture flow
emphasizing yogic breathing. The insert includes written instructions for each
pranayama.”
Cascolan, Dinah, and Aura Fechter. The Anatomy and Physiology of Breathing and Its
Application to Yoga workshop. URL: http://www.radyoga.com, email:
tfechter@radyoga.com.
Chakravarti, Sree. Correct breathing and good health: The prana and self- healing. In
Sree Chakravarti, A Healer’s Journey. Portland, Ore.: Rudra Press, 1993.
Chandra, Frank. Respiratory practices in yoga. Yoga & Health, Feb 1997, pp. 22-23.
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Topics addressed: Pranayama, prolonged expiration, abdominal/diaphragmatic breathing,
increased resistance, alternate nostril breathing, nasal passages and nasal cycles,
abdominal pressures
Chernin, Dennis K. How to Meditate Using Chakras, Mantras, and Breath. Ann Arbor,
Mich.: Think Publishing, 2001.
Contents: What is meditation?, Meditation and health, Meditation theory and philosophy,
Preparing for meditation, How to meditate
Clarke, John. Characterization of the resting breath pattern. Research Bulletin of the
Himalayan International Institute, Fall 1979, 1:5-9.
___________. The nasal cycle II: A quantitative analysis of nostril dominance. Research
Bulletin of the Himalayan International Institute, 1980, 2(2).
___________. Respiration, heart rate and the autonomic nervous system. Research
Bulletin of the Himalayan International Institute, 1981, 3(2).
___________. Lung capacity and breathing patterns, during rest, exercise, and illness.
Research Bulletin of the Himalayan International Institute, 1981, 3(1).
___________. Achieving peak performance: The complete breath. Yoga International,

Nov/Dec 1991, pp. 49-51.
___________. The nasal cycle: Ancient and modern studies of body-mind balancing.
Yoga International, Mar/Apr 1992, pp. 67-69.
___________. The nasal cycle: A study of nostril dominance in five yoga practitioners.
Yoga International, May/Jun 1992, pp. 64-67.
___________. Slowing down: The practice of 2-to-1 breathing. Yoga International,

Nov/Dec 1994, pp. 56-60.
CO2 elimination in pranayama. Yoga-Mimamsa, Jul 1974, 17(2):3-28.
Complete breath. Yoga Today, no. 1., pp. 30-32.
COPD. See the “COPD and Emphysema” bibliography.
Coulter, David. Postures and breathing: The role of the diaphragm. Yoga International,
Sep/Oct 1991, pp. 58-61.
___________. Relaxation and energy: Abdominal breathing and asana. Yoga

International, Nov/Dec 1991, pp. 52-55.
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___________. For clarity of mind: The diaphragmatic breath. Yoga International,
Jan/Feb 1992, pp. 54-59.
___________. Physiology of bhastrika. Yoga International, Jan/Feb 1995, no. 22. Article
available online: http://www.himalayaninstitute.org/cgi-
local//do.pl?form=viewstory&id=96.
Contents: Controlling the breath; Oxygen and carbon dioxide; The chemoreceptors; High
altitude and the bellows breath; Bhastrika, the bellows exercise
Coulter-Parker, Nancy. Breathe to win: Top athletes say that without breath awareness,
all of the strength and flexibility in the world won’t get them to the finish line first. Yoga
Journal, Nov 2002, pp. 67-69.
“. . . as Ian Jackson crossed the finish line in a respectable 45th place at the 1982 Ironman
in Hawaii, a Time/Life reporter noticed he didn’t look as beaten up as the others. ‘I just
completed 140 miles of breath meditation,’ Jackson told the reporter. ‘The last few miles
of the run were like the champagne bubbles of bliss,’ . . . and ever since Jackson has
preached the wonders and importance of breathing to athletes.”
“Jackson encourages athletes to push air out actively on the exhalation and to let it
passively in on the exhalation.”
For information on Jackson’s BreathPlay CDs, see http://www.breathplay.com.
Cummins, Claudia. Prescriptions for pranayama: Most teachers agree that the breath is a
powerful tool for expanding awareness—but the consensus stops there. Claudia Cummins
profiles the pranayama practices of six yoga traditions and finds differences ranging from
the subtle to the profound. Yoga Journal, Mar/Apr 2002, pp. 108-113, 187-188. Article
available online: http://www.yogajournal.com/practice/673_1.cfm.
Examines Integral, Kripalu, Ashtanga, Iyengar, Viniyoga, and Kundalini Yoga.
___________. On your exhalation. Yoga Journal, Jan/Feb 2003, p. 62.
On the correct way to breathe while doing asanas.
___________. Teaching pranayama. My Yoga Mentor, Jun 2004, no. 7. Article available
online: http://www.yogajournal.com/teacher/1184_1.cfm.
“You know from yo ur own practice that pranayama—breath control—has profound

benefits for your body and mind. But when and how should you teach it to your students?
Learn how six yogic traditions understand this powerful practice.”
Cushman, Anne. Yoga for divers. Yoga Journal, Nov/Dec 1993, p. 20. (On teaching
yoga postures and breathing techniques to Jacques Mayol’s breath-hold diving classes in
Key Biscayne, Florida.)
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Cysarz, Dick, and Arndt Bussing. Cardiorespiratory synchronization during Zen
meditation. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 7 Jun 2005. Author email:
d.cysarz@rhythmen.de.
Abstract: The impact of meditation on cardiorespiratory synchronization with respect to

breathing oscillations and the modulations of heart rate induced by respiration
(respiratory sinus arrhythmia, RSA) was investigated in this study. Four different
exercises (spontaneous breathing, mental task, Zen meditation, and Kinhin meditation)
were consecutively performed by nine subjects mainly without any experience in
meditation. An electrocardiogram and a respiratory trace were recorded simultaneously.
On this basis the degree of cardiorespiratory synchronization was quantified by a
technique which has been adopted from the analysis of weakly coupled chaotic
oscillators. Both types of meditation showed a high degree of sync hronization, whereas
heartbeat and respiration were hardly synchronized during spontaneous breathing. During
the mental task exercise the extent of synchronization was slightly higher than during
spontaneous breathing. These results were largely determined by the breathing frequency
because the two types of meditation induce low breathing frequencies which led to a
pronounced and in-phase RSA. During the meditation the low breathing frequencies led
to a decrease in the high frequency of heart rate variability, whereas the low frequency
and the extent of RSA increased. The heart rate primarily reflected the degree of physical
effort. The high degree of cardiorespiratory synchronization during meditation in
unexperienced meditators suggests that the physiological implications of meditation does
not require prior experience in meditation.
Damelio, Tarika Diana. The kapalabhati sequence. Kripalu Yoga Teachers Association
Yoga Bulletin, Winter 2001, 19(4):8-9. Article available online:
http://www.kripalu.org/kyta_artcl.php?id=52.
Dana Laboratory. Initial research project—the breath. Research Bulletin, Eleanor M.

Dana Laboratory, Himalayan International Institute, 1979.
Dandy, Bill. Letter to the editor on the negative aspects of breath- holding from a
conventional point of view. Yoga Today, Feb 1981, 5(10):31. See the follow-up letters to
the editor by Philip Jones, Peter Longcroft, and Jo Hodby Holman in the Apr 1981 issue,
pp. 11 and 47, and by David Burnett in the May 1981 issue, p. 47, bringing the yogic
point of view.
Dasarathy, C. Yoga breathing and cleansing. Yoga Today, Jan 1981, 5(9):4-9.
___________. Awareness pranayama: Part 2. Yoga Today, Jun 1983, 8(2):46-47, 52.
Davidson, Teresa. The neurophysiology of the control of breathing. Yoga Rahasya,

1999, 6(3):37-43.
14
Davies, A. M., and R. Eccles. Reciprocal changes in nasal resistance to air flow caused
by pressure applied to the axilla. Acta Otolaryngolica (Stockholm), 1985, 99:154-159.
Deardorff, Julie. Experts say breath skills improve life skills: This performance
enhancer is legal. Detroit Free Press, 28 Jun 2005.
Breathing skills may improve performance in darts, running, public speaking,

chiropractic work, test taking, and childbirth.
___________. A healing breath: Breathwork gains following in the West. Times Leader
(Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania), 28 Jun 2005. Also published as: Just breathe: That basic
essential, done correctly, can change your life, gurus say. Newsday, 4 Jul 2005.
“Part healing technique, part performance enhancer, breathwork has been used
throughout the world to help victims of trauma, torture and disaster, as well as addicts
and athletes. Now, fueled by the popularity of Eastern traditions such as yoga and tai chi,
breath awareness is gaining acceptance in the West as a tool for maintaining good health.
“‘Conscious breathing breaks up the habit patterns coded in the body and emotions,’ said
Shakta Kaur, a Kundalini yoga teacher in Chicago who leads ‘breathwalk’ classes, which
synchronize breathing and walking. ‘You end up transforming yourself, actually
changing your body chemistry.’
“Increasingly, science offers support for her claims. Still, although breathing is so basic
and essential that it happens whether we’re knocked unconscious or fall asleep, most
people do it incorrectly.
“Less than 10 percent of the population breathes efficiently, according to chronic-pain

specialist Ingrid Bacci . . .”
Desai, B. P., and M. L. Gharote. Effect of Kapalabhati on blood urea, creatinine and
tyrosine. Activitas Nervosa Superior, Jun 1990, 32(2):95-98. PMID: 2399804
Abstract: The present study conducted on twelve normal healthy male subjects showed
decrease in blood urea, increase in creatinine and tyrosine after one minute of
Kapalabhati, a fast-breathing technique of Hatha Yoga (120 respiratory strokes (min.).
From biochemical point of view the practice of Kapalabhati seems to promote
decarboxylation and oxidation mechanisms due to which quieting of respiratory centres is
achieved, which is also the prerequisite for the practice of Pranayama, another important
technique of Yoga.
___________, P. A. Date, and M. L. Gharote. Changes in SGOT enzyme activity after

one minute kapalabhati—A preliminary communication. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1986-1987,
25(3&4):8-13.
15
Deshpande, R. R., and M. V. Bhole. Effect of kapalbhati on some constituents of
blood—a preliminary study. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1982, 21(1&2):13-20.
Desikachar, T. K. V. Tools of Transformation: Breath as the Mirror workshop. 6th

Annual Yoga Journal Convention, 27-30 Sep 2001, Estes Park, Colorado.
Desiraju, T. Effect of meditations and pranayamas in promoting homeostasis in normal

individuals. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1989, 28(2):1-3.
___________, B. L. Meti, and B. R. Kanchan. Neurophysiological correlates of yogic

practices of meditation and pranayama. Paper presented at INDOCUSSR, Symposium on
Neurophysiology, Armenia, 1983.
Determination of CO2 and O2, Part I. Yoga-Mimamsa, Jul 1974, 17(2):31-65.
Devi, Indra. Renew Your Life through Yoga: The Indra Devi Method for Relaxation
through Rhythmic Breathing. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963.
Devi Bhavanani, Meenakshi. Teaching others to breathe: A world-saving dharma. Yoga

Life, Mar 1998, 29(3):18-19.
Dhanaraj, V. Hubert, and Mohan Singh. Physiological study of yoga exercises. Yoga
Awareness, Feb 1980, 4(1):34-39.
Studied the effects of a six-week Yoga training program on selected physiological

parameters such as heart rate, respiratory rate, tidal volume, vital capacity, breath
holding, PWC130, PWC170, and flexibility.
Dharmanand Saraswati, Swami. Breath of Life: Breathing for Health, Vitality and
Meditation. Publisher unknown, 1999. Available online:
http://www.newagebooksindia.com/.
Diffenbaugh, Noah Suresh. Pranic flow: The practice of nadi shodhanam. Yoga
International, Jun/Jul 1999, pp. 61-63.
Dostálek, C. , M. L. Gharote, and E. Roldon. Agnisara and chi-rhyhm in the EEG.

Yoga-Mimamsa, 1984, 22(3&4):42-50.
EMPHYSEMA. See the “COPD and Emphysema” bibliography.
Ellis, Georg. The Breath of Life: Mastering the Breathing Techniques of Pranayama and
Qi Gong. Newcastle Publishing, 1993.
“. . . explores over 20 Hatha Yoga postures, 20 Qi Gong techniques, and 12 Pranayama

exercise programs . . . with a special section that recommends breathing techniques to
alleviate a variety of health problems from asthma to insomnia . . .”
16
“A practitioner of Patanjali’s Astanga Yoga, George Ellis has studied the Yoga classics
as well as the works of Sri Aurobindo, Ramakrishna, Vivekananda, Krishnamurti, and
Swami Ramdass for over 20 years.”
E-Sutra mailing list breathing flow and breath mechanisms thread. Sep 2001 - Jan
2002. (The e-Sutra mailing list is moderated by Leslie Kaminoff. For more information,
see http://www.breathingproject.org/esutra.shtml.)
Ewing, Arthur H. The Hindu conception of the functions of breath: A study in early
Hindu psycho-physics. Journal of Asian and Oriental Studies, 1901, 22:249-308.
Farhi, Donna. The Breathing Book: Good Health and Vitality Through Essential Breath
Work. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1996.
Contents: What is the essential breath?, The breath connection, Untying the breath,
Developing breath perception, Preparing for the inquiries, Checking in with your breath,
Alternative relaxation positions for the inquiries, Characteristics of free breathing, Going
inside the body, Primary and secondary respiratory muscles, The diaphragm, How the
diaphragm moves, The pelvic and vocal diaphragm, The anatomy of breath holding,
Breathing and the heart, The nose, Your lungs and your rib cage, Common breath holding
patterns, Breathing deeper: It’s not what you think, Dismantling breath holding patterns,
Bringing back your breath, Using the techniques in your everyday life, Getting started,
Preliminaries: BodyBreath synchrony, When should I breathe in and out?, Waking up the
breath, Opening the center, Opening the lower channels, Opening the upper channels,
Deep relaxation, Strengthening diaphragmatic breathing, Lengthening the exhalation,
Stimulating the breath, Stimulating your breath through exercise, Balancing the breath,
Fostering intimacy: Touching from the inner body, The movement of love, Cultivating
mindfulness, Myths that take our breath away, The history of your breath, Merging with
the breath, General “feel good” programs, Guides for dealing with specific breath holding
patterns, Guides for health conditions and specific interests
___________. Holding your breath: In a high-tech, hot-wired world, we’ve almost

forgotten how to do it. Here are some tips for liberating the most important energy source
we’ve got—our own breath. Yoga Journal, Mar/Apr 1996, pp. 75-81,140-144.
___________. The breath that moves us. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 1998,
no. 8, pp. 7-17.
___________. The window in: Following the breath. Yoga International, Dec/Jan 2004,
pp. 62-69.
Farrow, J. T., and J. R. Hebert. Breath suspension during the Transcendental

Meditation technique. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1982, 44(2):133-153.
Abstract: We observed, over four independent experiments, 565 criterion-meeting

episodes of breath suspension in 40 subjects practicing the Transcendental Mediation
technique (TM), a simple mental technique involving no breath control procedures. The
17
frequency and length of these breath suspension episodes were substantially and
significantly greater for TM subjects than for control subjects relaxing with eyes closed.
Voluntary control of respiration was most probably eliminated as an explanation of this
phenomenon by the experimental design and by the use of a variety of nonintrusive
respiration transducers, including a two-channel magnetometer, an indirect but accurate
means of monitoring respiration. Many TM subjects report experience of a completely
quiescent mental state characterized by maintained awareness in the absence of thought.
Eleven TM subjects were instructed to press an event mark button after each episode of
this pure consciousness experience. The temporal distribution of button presses was
significantly related (p less than 10(-10) to the distribution of breath suspension episodes,
indicating that breath suspension is a physiological correlate of some, but not all,
episodes of the pure consciousness experience. In an extensive study of a single advanced
meditator, pure consciousness experiences were also associated with reduced heart rate;
high basal skin resistance; stable phasic skin resistance; markedly reduced mean
respiration rate, mean minute ventilation and mean metabolic rate; and statistically
consistent changes in EEG power and EEG coherence (an indicator of long-range spatial
order in the nervous system).
Feldman, Christina. Answers the question: “When I try to bring awareness to my

breath, I feel instead like I’m interfering with its natural flow. What should I do?”
Tricycle, Summer 2003, pp. 30-31.
Ferguson, Gaylon. Breathing lessons: Comparing breath practices in yoga and three
schools of Buddhism. Shambhala Sun, Jul 2003, pp. 54-60.
Exhale and hold: Richard Rosen on the breath in Yoga.

Flannagan, P., and R. Eccles. Spontaneous changes of unilateral nasal airflow in man.
A re-examination of the “nasal cycle.” Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh), 1997, 117:590-595.
Folgering, H. Studying the control of breathing in man. Eur. Resp. Journal, 1988, 1:651-
660.
Freeman, Richard. Yoga: Breathing & Relaxation video. 75 minutes.
Frostel, C., J. N. Pande, and G. Hedenstierna. Effects of high- frequency breathing on

pulmonary ventilation and gas exchange. Journal of Applied Physiology, 1983,
55(6):1854-1861.
18
Abstract: The effects of spontaneous high- frequency breathing (HFB) on lung function
were evaluated in three subjects highly trained in the practice of yoga. Transpulmonary
pressure was measured by an esophageal balloon catheter and gas flow by
pneumotachography. The abdominal and rib cage contributions to tidal breathing were
measured separately by respiratory inductive plethysmography. Gas exchange was
studied by the conventional technique and by multiple inert gas elimination. During HFB,
respiratory rate increased to 232 cycles/min with a tidal volume of 0.35 liter. This
resulted in a more than 10-fold increase in expired minute ventilation to approximately
90 l/min. The transpulmonary pressure varied by 20 cmH2O, with the calculated elastic,
resistive, and accelerative components varying by 2, 20, and 8 cmH2O, respectively.
Respiratory work increased more than 200- fold in comparison with resting ventilation. A
phase shift between thoracic and abdominal breathing was observed and was interpreted
as a volume displacement of approximately 30 l/min between the two parts of the
respiratory system. Arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide tension remained normal. Bohr
dead space increased, while acetone dead space remained unaltered. A bimodal
distribution of ventilation-perfusion ratios (VA/Q) was observed, with one mode in
normal and another in “high” VA/Q regions.
Foust, Sudhir Jonathan. Learning to take a hint: Opening to prana in meditation.

Kripalu Yoga Teachers Association Yoga Bulletin, Fall 2001, 10(3):9. Article available
online: http://www.kripalu.org/kyta_artcl.php?id=31.
Frawley, David. The secret of prana. Article available online:

http://www.dharmacentral.com/articles/prana.htm.
Funk, Edwin, and John Clarke. The nasal cycle: Observations over prolonged periods
of time. The Journal of The International Association of Yoga Therapists, 1994, no. 5, pp.
9-12. Reprinted from Research Bulletin of the Himalayan International Institute, 1980,
2(2):1-4.
Galas, Judith. The breath that refreshes. Paraplegia News, Mar 1996, 50(3):46.
Gharote, M. L., and Parimal Devnath, eds. Kumbhaka Paddhati of Raghuvira: Science
of Prânâyâma. Lonavla, India: The Lonavla Institute, 2000.
The “Kumbhaka Paddhati is the only text which deals exhaustively [with] the topic of
prânâyâma. It is extensively quoted by Sunderadeva, another writer on hatha- yoga in his
Hatha-Sanketa-Candrikâ and Hatha-Tatva-Kaumudî. The text describes more than 50
kumbhakas, many of which are not commonly known. Despite the description of various
kumbhakas, the author is loud in [his] praise for meru-kumbhaka, [for] which he
describes 47 stages . . . These are not found described in any available text . . . [this] is
the unique feature of Kumbhaka Paddhati.”
Gilmore, Ruth. Answers the following questions: “Am I right in assuming the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the brain’s blood vessels has nothing to do with good
breathing, as you say ‘carbon dioxide’ is a waste product of cell metabolism? Or is it
19
connected to the breath?” “When the blood vessels of the brain expand or contract to
cope with varying levels of carbon dioxide, can we feel it, i.e., does this cause headaches,
migraines, etc.?” “Is it possible, desirable or necessary to have voluntary control of
carbon dioxide levels in the brain?” “If carbon dioxide controls acid/alkaline balance in
the body, does its imbalance cause indigestion and stomach disorders?” Yoga & Health,
Jul 1998, p. 31.
___________. Answers the question “Do you think yoga will help?” from someone who
hyperventilates and has been told by her physician that she should start attending Yoga
classes. Yoga & Health, Jun 2002, p. 34.
Giri, Rakesh, and Ganesh Shankar. Swara Yoga: An introduction and its applications.
Nisargopachar Varta, Jan 2001, pp. 18-20.
Gitananda Giri, Swami. Pranayama: The science of vital control. Paper presented at the
All India Yoga Chikitsa Seminar, Sri Narayan College, Quilon, Kerala, 20-23 May 1971.
___________. The Correction of Breathing Difficulties by Yoga Pranayama.

Pondicherry, India: Satya, 1972.
___________. The classical pranayamas. Yoga Life, Jan 1994, 25(3):3-10.
Includes bhastrika, ujjayi, surya bhedana, sitkari, sheetali, bhramari, murch’cha, plavini,
and kapalabhati.
___________. Pranayama: The science of breath. Yoga Life, Mar 1999, 39(3):3-12.
___________. Faulty breathing—the root cause of most illness. Yoga Life, Dec 1999,
30(12):5.
___________. The respiratory centre. Yoga Life, Jun 2000, 31(6):6-7.
___________. Alternate pranic flows—a scientific investigation. Yoga Life, Sep 2002,
32(9):17-18.
___________. Smoking yogis, beware! Pranayama increases the dangers of cigarettes.

Hinduism Today, Jul – Sep 2002, p. 66.
___________. Hot weather pranayamas: The classical cooling breaths. Yoga Life, Apr
2003, 33(4):3-6.
Includes: Sitkari, seethali, kaki, matangi, bhujangi, kavi, and mukha bhastrika
pranayamas.
___________. The alternate nostril breathing pranayama of Rishiculture Ashtanga Yoga.

Yoga Life, Apr 2004, 3594):3-7.
20
___________. A touching gesture: The Sparsha Mudras of Rishiculture Ashtanga Yoga.
Yoga Life, Aug 2004, 35:3-10.
“In the first group of Prana Mudras where the pranic energy is directed in to specific lung
areas, the hands are used to touch the appropriate part of the body, indicating the area into
which the breath and Prana should be moved by inflation and deflation of the lungs. This
group of Mudras is termed ‘Sparsha Mudras,’ literally, the ‘Touching Gestures.’”
___________. Prana—a scientific yoga view. Yoga Life, Feb 2005, 36(2):3-8.
Goenka, S. N. Awareness of natural respiration. Vipassana Patrika, Jan 1999. Article

available online: http://www.vri.dhamma.org/newsletters/nl0105.html.
Gopal, K. S., V. Ananthara man, S. Balachander, and S. D. Nishith. The

cardiorespiratory adjustments in Pranayama with and without Bandhas in Vajrasana.
Indian Journal of Medical Sciences, Sep 1973, 27(9):686-692.
___________, O. P. Bhatnagar, N. Subramanian, and S.D. Nishith. Effect of

yogasanas and pranayamas on blood pressure, pulse rate and some respiratory functions.
Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, Jul 1973, 17(3):273-276.
___________, S. Lakshmanan, and M. Batmanabane. A study of the effect of bandhas

in pranayama on pulse rate, heart rate, blood pressures and pulse pressure. Medicine and
Surgery, 1974, 14(10):5-8.
Gore, M. M. The nasal cycle—a review in relation to Yogic literature and scientific
research. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1991, 30(2&3):60-74.
Govindan, S. V. Pranayama. Yoga & Health, Mar 2000, pp. 9-11.
Grady, Michael. Ujjayi: The amplified breath. Yoga International, May/Jun 1994, pp.
48-50.
___________. The walking breath: Pranayama for pedestrians. Yoga International,

May/Jun 1996, pp. 70-74.
Green, Felicity. Pranayama: The Art of Breathing audiotape set. Iyengar Yoga Institute
of San Francisco. URL: http://www.iyisf.org/resources/bookstore.html. Two tapes.
Greenwell, Bonnie. Prana, kundalini awakening, and the unfinished journey. ICR
Newsletter, May 2001, 18(1):1-2.
Grill, Heinz. Harmony in Breathing. Heinrich Hugendubl Verlag.
21
Gudmestad, Julie. Break out of your slump: Yoga can help prevent slouching—and the
depression, shallow breathing, tension, and headaches that often go with it. Yoga Journal,
2001. Article available online: http://www.yogajournal.com/practice/615_1.cfm.
___________. Breathing room: Yoga allows you to pay attention to the breath—and
brings greater awareness to the parts of the body that allow us to exhale and inhale fully.
Yoga Journal, Mar/Apr 2002, pp. 157-159. Article available online:
Guerrera, Mary P. Breathing lessons. Family Medicine, Nov 2004, 36(10):693-694.

Article available online: http://www.stfm.org/fmhub/fm2004/November/Mary693.pdf.
Mary Guerrera, M.D., writes: “‘I wonder whether the teaching community’s precept
could be “Every breath a lesson.”’ When I recently rediscovered this intriguing quote by
the respected medical educator, Neal Whitman, Ed.D., an entirely new meaning emerged.
In the chapter on this subject, he writes: ‘In the presence of medical students and
residents, medical teachers are never not teaching. This notion will not ring true for you if
you equate teaching to giving information. But, if you view teaching as any interpersonal
communicative event that occurs because of your desire to help learners, then every
breath is indeed a lesson.’
“For office-based teachers of family medicine, teaching time is not limited to the
discussions we have with learners about the patients they have seen. Students and
residents also learn from us during many other moments of the day as we navigate the
complex and ever-changing sea of clinical practice and teaching roles. They watch our
every move and even our every breath, observing how we reason a differential diagnosis,
converse with a worried patient, and communicate with colleagues. They notice not only
our solutions to the various challenges that arise during the day but also how
professionally we conduct ourselves in dealing with these issues. Indeed, every breath,
word, and action that learners observe are learning potential by role modeling and
demonstrating how to address the various issues and challenges of daily practice . . .”
Gunstone, Maria. YOU & ME Breathing Techniques for Special Needs. URL:
http://www.youandmeyoga.com/teachingaids.htm.
Gupta, Sri R. C. Practical aspects of prana. Cakra: A Journal of Tantra and Yoga, 1971,
3:108-111.
Gupta, Ranjit Sen. Pranayama: A Conscious Way of Breathing. New Delhi, India: New
Age Books, 2003.
Contents: Physiology of breathing; Yoga—the basis of pranayama; Prana—the essence of

breath is the fundamental source of pranayama; Basic preparations prior to pranayama
practices; Variations of pranayama and how they are performed; Kundalini: The dormant
cosmic energy in [the] human being; Training charts for pranayama performances
22
Hanh, T. N. Breathe! You Are Alive: Sutra on the Full Awareness of Breathing.
Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax Press, 1996.
Harrigan, J. M. A component analysis of yoga: The effects of diaphragmatic breathing

and stretching postures on anxiety, personality and somatic/behavioral complaints.
Dissertation Abstracts International, 1981, 42(4-A):1489.
Harvey, J. R. The effect of yogic breathing exercises on mood. Journal of the American
Society of Psychosomatic Dentistry and Medicine, 1983, 30(2):39-48.
Hayes, Derek. Teacher education 7: Mudras, bandhas, pranayams. Yoga Today, Jan
1982, 6(9):42-45.
Based on the British Wheel of Yoga’s Teacher Diploma regula tions.
Hennessy, Sandy. Let the caged bird sing! Iyengar Yoga Institute of San Francisco
Review, Winter 2001, 21(1):16-17. (On pranayama.)
Hillsman, D., and V. Sharma. Yoga and pneumothorax. Chest, May 2005, 127(5):1863.
Author email: deane.hillsman@ieee.org. This is a response to Johnson, Tierney, and
Sadighi, which is cited in this bibliography.
Hoffman, Erik. Nadi shodana’s influence on the brain. Bindu, 2000, no. 13.
Hoffman, Kevin. Clearing your head: The practice of kapalabhati. Yoga International,
Jul/Aug [year unknown], pp. 72-75.
___________. It’s as simple as breathing: The power of breath awareness. Yoga

International, Jan/Feb 1992, pp. 37-39.
___________. Balancing active & receptive energies: The practice of nadi shodhanam.
Yoga International, Mar/Apr 1992, pp. 38-43.
___________. Altering subtle energy patterns: Variations on the practice of nadi

shodhanam. Yoga International, May/Jun 1992, pp. 46-50.
___________. Nostril dominance: Experiencing subtle energy. Yoga International,

Jul/Aug 1993, pp. 61-65..
___________. Moving with the current: Observations on nostril dominance. Yoga

International, Sep/Oct 1993, pp. 10-13.
Hudson, John. Instant Meditation for Stress Relief: Breathing Techniques and Mental
Exercises for an Immediate Sense of Calm and Well-Being. New York: Lorenz
Books/Anness Publishing, 1996.
23
Hunt, Elaine. The mystery of breath. Yoga Today, Apr 1980, 4(12):16-17.
HYPERVENTILATION. See “Hyperventilation” bibliography.
The importance of breath. Reaching Out with Yoga Magazine, no. 7. Theme of the
entire issue.
International Centre for Yoga Education and Research. Pranayama for Health and
Well-Being DVD. Available from Super Audio (Madras) Pvt. Ltd,
www.musicandchants.com, or Dr. Ananda Balayogi Bhavanani at ananda@icyer.com.
Contents: INTRODUCTION TO PRANAYAMA: Yogacharya Dr. Ananda Balayogi

Bhavanani (director of ICYER with Yogacharini Meenakshi Devi Bhavanani); SECTION
1: SITTING POSTURES FOR PRANAYAMA: Vajra Asana, Sukha Asana and Padma
Asana; SECTION 2: VIBHAGA PRANAYAMA (SECTIONAL BREATHING):
Sectional or lobular breathing is the “A, B, C” of pranayama and is the beginning of good
breath control. Here we learn to breathe into the low, mid, and upper sections of the
lungs in a proper manner. Vibhaga Pranayama is the conglomeration of lower chest
breathing (Adham Pranayama), mid chest breathing (Madhyam Pranayama), upper chest
breathing (Adyam Pranayama), and complete unified breathing (Mahat Yoga
Pranayama); SECTION 3: MUDRAS FOR PRANAYAMA: Chin Mudra, Chinmaya
Mudra, Adhi Mudra, Brahma Mudra, Nasarga Mudra, Vishnu Mudra, Shanmuki Mudra
or Yoni Mudra, Kaki Mudra, Kakachandra Mudra and Jihva Mudra; SECTION 4:
HATHENAS: ASANAS TO HELP BREATHE BETTER: Hathenas are forcing
techniques used to help the respective sections of the lungs to be enlarged, expanded,
reconditioned and rejuvenated. Ushtra Asana, Matsya Asana, Bala Asana, and Chatus
Pada Asana with Vyagraha Pranayama; SECTION 5: CLEANSING BREATHS: Mukha
Bhastrika, Anunasika Pranayama, and Kukkriya Pranayama; SECTION 6:
PRANAYAMAS FOR ACTIVATION: Surya Pranayama and Kapalabhati; SECTION 7:
COOLING DOWN: Sheetali Pranayama and Sitkari Pranayama; SECTION 8:
CONTEMPLATION AND MEDITATION: Pranava Pranayama, Bhramari Pranayama
and the Savitri Pranayama with Surya Prana Mudra; SECTION 9: STRESS RELIEF
AND RELAXATION: Nasarga Mukha Bhastrika, Chandra Pranayama, Bhujangini
Mudra, Aloma Viloma Pranayama and Savitri Pranayama in Shavasana;
CLASSIFICATION AND BENEFITS OF PRANAYAMA: Interview with Yogacharini
Dr. Nalini Devi (a medical doctor and well-trained Yoga teacher, who is director of the
Gitananda Yoga Centre in Ibiza, Spain); SPIRITUAL VALUE OF PRANAYAMA:
Interview with Yogacharini Meenakshi Devi Bhavanani (director of ICYER with
Yogacharya Dr. Ananda Balayogi Bhavanani).
Introduction to pranayama. Yoga Rahasya, 1994, 1(2).
Introduction to pranayama and yogic breathing. Article available online:

http://www.yogasite.com/pranayama.htm.
24
Irigaray, Luce. Between East and West: From Singularity to Community. Columbia
University Press, 2001. Translated by Stephen Pluhácek.
From the publisher: “With this book we see a philosopher well steeped in the Western
tradition thinking through ancient Eastern disciplines, meditating on what it means to
learn to breathe, and urging us all at the dawn of a new cent ury to rediscover indigenous
Asian cultures. Yogic tradition, according to Irigaray, can provide an invaluable means
for restoring the vital link between the present and eternity—and for re-envisioning the
patriarchal traditions of the West.
“Western, logocentric rationality tends to abstract the teachings of yoga from its everyday
practice—most importantly, from the cultivation of breath. Lacking actual, personal
experience with yoga or other Eastern spiritual practices, the Western philosophers who
have tried to address Hindu and Buddhist teachings—particularly Schopenhauer—have
frequently gone astray. Not so, Luce Irigaray. Incorporating her personal experience with
yoga into her provocative philosophical thinking on sexual difference, Irigaray proposes a
new way of understanding individuation and community in the contemporary world. She
looks toward the indigenous, pre-Aryan cultures of India—which, she argues, have
maintained an essentially creative ethic of sexual difference predicated on a respect for
life, nature, and the feminine.
“Irigaray’s focus on breath in this book is a natural outgrowth of the attention that she has
given in previous books to the elements—air, water, and fire. By returning to
fundamental human experiences—breathing and the fact of sexual difference—she finds
a way out of the endless sociologizing abstractions of much contemporary thought to
rethink questions of race, ethnicity, and globalization.”
The author thinks that there should be separate yoga s for men and women and that there
is no universalized transcendence through yoga, no such thing as “beyond gender,” which
is the teaching of all self- transcending traditions.
Isaacs, Nora. A breath’s best friend. Yoga Journal, Mar/Apr 2002, p. 21.
On Isaac Friend’s Tai Chi Yoga Bag, which assists in practicing deep breathing.
Iyengar, B. K. S. Breathlessness. In B. K. S. Iyengar, Light on Yoga. New York:

Schocken, 1976, p. 292.
___________. [Defines pranayama in an interview.] Iyengar Yoga Institute Review,

Summer 1991, p. 16.
___________. Vedanta of asanas and pranayama. Yoga Rahasya, 1998, 5(2):4-19.
___________. Light on Pranayama: The Art of Yogic Breathing. New York: Crossroad,
1999.
25
Contents: The Theory of Pranayama: What is yoga?, Stages of yoga, Prana and
pranayama, Pranayama and the respiratory system, Nadis and chakras, Guru and sisya,
Food, Obstacles and aids, The effects of pranayama; The Art of Pranayama: Hints and
cautions, The art of sitting in pranayama, The art of preparing the mind for pranayama,
Mudras and bandhas, The art of inhalation (puraka) and exhalation (rechaka), The art of
retention (kumbhaka), Grades of sadhaka in pranayama, Bija pranayama, Vrtti
pranayama; The Techniques of Pranayama: Ujjayi pranayama, Viloma pranayama,
Bhramari, murchha and plavini pranayama, Digital pranayama and the art of placing the
fingers on the nose, Bhastrika and kapalabhati pranayama, Sitali and sitakari pranayama,
Anuloma pranayama, Pratiloma pranayama, Surya bhedana and chandra bhedana
pranayama, Nadi sodhana pranayama; Freedom and Beatitude: Dhyana (meditation),
Savasana (the art of relaxation), Appendix: Pranayama courses
___________. The Vedanta of asana and pranayama. Yoga Rahasya, 1998, 5(2):4-19.
Reprinted in Iyengar Yoga Institute of San Francisco Review, Winter 2001, 21(1):1, 3-6.
___________. Hyperventilation. In B. K. S. Iyengar, Yoga: The Path to Holistic Health.

London/New York: Dorling Kindersley, 2001, pp. 345.
___________. Introduction to pranayama. Yoga Rahasya, [n.d., second issue], pp. 8-26.
Iyengar, Geeta S. Pranayama is not for children. In Geeta S. Iyengar, “Yoga for school
children,” Yoga Rahasya, 1998, 5(1):15-16. Also available online:
http://www.skys.com.au/children_schoolchild.html.
___________. Geetaji answers common queries on pranayama practice. Yoga Rahasya,

2003, 10(3):17-21.
___________. Teaching and practicing bhastrikâ prânâyâma. Yoga Rahasya, 2003,

10(3):22-25.
Iyengar, Prashant. Prânâyâma audiocassette. 60 minutes.
Provides “instructions for the basics of prânâyâma while lying donw in Savâsana. The
instructions start with observing normal breath before attempting any regulation of the
breath or pranayamic breathing. One side of the cassette deals with Ujjâyi exhalations
while the other with Ujjâyi inhalations. The instructions are . . . clear, precise and explicit
with reference to the different techniques ofregulating the exhalations and then the
inhalations . . . The practitioner is then guided through the experience and sensations in
different parts of the body following the implementation of the techniques described.”
___________. Pranayama Classes (5 days) audiotapes or CDs. Contact

info@postures.com.
Jackson, Ian. BreathPlay CDs. URL: http://www.breathplay.com. See entry below for
“University of Toledo” for an abstract and discussion of BreathPlay research.
26
Specific breathing tools and techniques for athletes. “Jackson encourages athletes to push
air out actively on the exhalation and to let it passively in on the exhalation.”
From the website: “BreathPlay . . . also . . . elevates breathing beyond mere air supply,
using it to activate the spine and to integrate body and mind, breathing and movement.”
Jahnke, Roger. Physiological mechanisms operating in the human system during the
practice of Qigong and Yoga/Pranayama. Article available online (footnotes not
included): http://www.healthy.net/asp/templates/article.asp?PageType=Article&id=388#.
Excerpted from Roger Jahnke, The Most Profound Medicine: The Supreme Essence of
the Asian Traditional Systems of Medicine are the Self Applied Health Maintenance
Practices: Qigong and Yoga/Pranayama. Roger Jahnke, 1990.
Jain, Kalpana. Pranayam has scientific basis, says U.S. expert. The Times of India,
Health/Science section, 10 Mar 2002. Article available online:
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow.asp?art_id=2699981&prtPage=1.
Jella, S. A., and D. S. Shannahoff-Khalsa. The effects of unilateral forced nostril

breathing on cognitive performance. International Journal of Neuroscience, 1992, 73(1-
2):61-68. PMID: 8132419.
Abstract: This study describes the effects of 30 minutes of unilateral forced nostril
breathing on cognitive performance in 51 right-handed undergraduate psychology
students (25 males and 26 females). A verbal analogies task modeled after the Miller
Analogies and SAT Tests was used as a test of left-hemispheric performance and mental
rotation tasks based on the Vandenburg and Kuse adaptation of Shepard and Metzler's
tests were used as spatial tasks for testing right-hemispheric performance. Spatial task
performance was significantly enhanced during left nostril breathing in both males and
females, p = .028. Verbal task performance was greater during right nostril breathing, but
not significantly p = .14. These results are discussed in comparison to other cognitive and
physiological studies using unilateral forced nostril breathing. This yogic breathing
technique may have useful application in treating psychophysiological disorders with
hemispheric imbalances and disorders with autonomic abnormalities.
Jnaneshvara Bharati, Swami. Breathing practices and pranayama. Article available

online: http://swamij.com/breath.htm.
Johari, Harish. Breath, Mind and Consciousness. Inner Traditions International, 1989.
Johnson, Derek B., Mathew J. Tierney, and Parvis J. Sadighi. Kapalabhati

pranayama: Breath of fire or cause of pneumothorax? Chest, May 2004, 125(5):1951-
1952. Author email: dakotaderek@yahoo.com. See also response by Hillsman and
Sharma cited in this bibliography.
Abstract: Spontaneous pneumothorax is the most common cause of pneumothorax. We

report a case of a 29- year-old healthy woman who presented to the emergency department
27
with a spontaneous pneumothorax caused by a yoga breathing technique called
Kapalabhati pranayama, or breath of fire. Yoga breathing exercises are commonly
practiced, and a limited number of studies have shown various physiologic benefits of
yoga breathing. This is the only known report of spontaneous pneumothorax caused by
pranayama, but some other rare causes are noted. This case should illustrate that adverse
side effects can occur when one pushes the body to physiologic extremes.
Jois, K. Pattabhi. Pranayama. Yoga Awareness: Quarterly Journal of YOCOCEN, Jul

1977, 1(1), 9-12.
Jones, Terrie Lynne. “Spiritwise”: The role of prana and breath in healing the body,
mind, and spirit. Master’s thesis. Sonoma State University, Santa Rosa, California, 1998.
Joshi, K. S. Pranayama. Varanasi, India: Chaukhambha Orientalia, 1977.
Contents: Respiration and breathing, Meaning of yogic breathing, Initial steps,

Techniques and procedure, Evaluation of yogic breathing, Psychophysiological aspects
___________. Yogic Pranayama: Breathing for Long Life & Good Health. New Delhi,
India: Orient Paperbacks, 1983. Text of book available online:
http://www.indiangyan.com/books/yogabooks/yogic_prayama/what_is_pranayama.shtml.
Contents: What is pranayama?, Misconceptions about pranayama removed, Before

making a beginning, How to practice pranayama, Varieties of pranayama, Pranayama: A
key to good health, Pranayama for the cure of disorders, Cure of disorders
Joshi, L. N., V. D. Joshi, and L. V. Gokhale. Effect of short term Pranayama practice on
breathing rate and ventilatory functions of lung. Indian Journal of Physiology &
Pharmacology, Apr 1992, 36(2):105-108. PMID: 1506070.
Abstract: Thirty three normal male and forty two normal female subjects, of average age of
18.5 years, underwent six weeks course in “Pranayam” and their ventilatory lung functions
were studied before and after this practice. They had improved ventilatory functions in the
form of lowered respiratory rate (RR), and increases in the forced vital capacity (FVC),
forced expiratory volume at the end of 1st second (FEV1%), maximum voluntary
ventilation (MVV), peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR- lit/sec), and prolongation of breath
holding time.
Jyotirmayananda, Swami. Awakening of kundalini through Sukha Purvaka Pranayama.

International Yoga Guide, Feb 2002, 39(6):135.
Kaliappan, Latha, and K. V. Kaliappan. Yoga, pranayama, thermal biofeedback

techniques in the management of stress and high blood pressure. Journal of Indian
Psychology, 1991, 9(1&2):36ff.
Kaminoff, Leslie. The Breathing Prescription. Author email:

leslie@breathingproject.org.
28
___________. The case for the 3-D diaphragm. Available in the e-Sutra blog:
http://esutra.blogspot.com.
___________. The Breathing Project’s 100 Hour Advanced Course for Yoga
Professionals. The Breathing Project, Inc., 5 East 22nd Street, #15C, New York, NY
10010, Tel. and fax: (212) 979-9642, e-mail: BreathingProject@aol.com.
The Breathing Project is taught by Leslie Kaminoff and consists of 70 classroom hours
and 30 workshop hours over the course of nine months. Enrollment in this course is by
application and will be limited to twelve participants.
Course material will focus on the essential details of spinal and respiratory anatomy and
their relation to the practice and teaching of yoga. Some of the topics that will be
covered in-depth are: the evolution, structure, and function of the spinal column; the
evolution and function of breathing, and its relation to spinal movements; the anatomy
and kinesiology of the diaphragm and respiratory mechanism; the Shape/Change®
method of breath education and yoga teaching methodology; breath as the integrating
principle of posture, movement, and yoga practice.
The bulk of the classroom hours will be focused on providing participants with a clear
understanding of the anatomical and theoretical components of the course. Five weekend
workshops will allow for extended practice sessions in which the course material can be
experientially applied to the practice and teaching of yoga.
Applications for The Breathing Project’s 100- hour course are accepted from any yoga
teacher with a minimum of one year’s teaching experience and an understanding of basic
anatomy. The application process will include testing of anatomical knowledge. The
course will include reading assignments and homework, which will be submitted weekly
via e-mail.
Leslie Kaminoff, originator and teacher of the course, is a Yoga educator, bodyworker,
and breathing therapist inspired by the Viniyoga tradition of T. K. V. Desikachar. He is
an internationally recognized specialist in breath anatomy who has led workshops for
many of the leading Yoga associations and schools in America. He currently practices
bodywork, Yoga, and breathing therapy in New York City and Great Barrington,
Massachusetts. Leslie’s first book, The Breath Prescription, is based on the material in
this course.
Kant, S. Evaluation of yogic breathing exercises on pulmonary functions, free radicals,

and antioxidant status among healthy individuals. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of
the American College of Chest Physicians, 25 Oct 2000, San Francisco, California.
Thirty healthy volunteers performed yogic breathing exercises 30 minutes every day for
10 weeks. Pulmonary function tests were done initially and at the end of the 10-week
exercise period. Levels of malonaldehyde (an indicator of free radical activity) and
29
superoxide dismutase (an indicator of antioxidant activity) were also collected. Following
the exercise period, volunteers showed significant improvement in pulmonary function.
Malonaldehyde levels also decreased significantly (9.54+/-0.56 nm/mL before exercises
to 8.21 +/-0.76nm/mL after exercises). Superoxide dismutase levels increased, but not
significantly (11.60+/-3.14 units/mg to 13.04+/-2.66). Researchers concluded that the
practice of yoga not only improves pulmonary lung function in healthy adults, but may
also be helpful in reducing the prevalence of bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease, and lung cancer.
Karunananda, Swami. Deepening Your Pranayama Practice audiotape. Buckingham,

Va.: Shakticom.
From the publisher: “For those who have been doing breathing practices for awhile this is
an excellent talk with examples for deepening your practice. Recorded during the 1999
Yoga Teachers Reunion in Yogaville.”
___________. The Power of Breath audiotape. Buckingham, Va.: Shakticom.
From the publisher: “In yoga, the system of breathing practices, or pranayama as it is
known, is a key element in physical and emotional health. In this inspirational talk, one of
Integral Yoga’s main teachers and Yogaville’s resident expert on pranayama explains its
many benefits and details the connection between the breath and the mind.”
Katkov, A. Ju. Prozvol’na ja gipoventiljaci ja v ritme odno dychanie v minutu kak

sredetvo snizeni ja metabolizma [Conscious hypoventillation at a one breath-a-minute
pace as a means of reducing metabolism]. In Abstrakty I. Pracovnej Konferencie of
Problematike Jógy v Rehabilitacii [Abstracts of the First Conference on the Applications
of Yoga in Rehabilitational Therapy], Košice-Šaca, 21-23 Jun 1978, pp. 50-53. [In
Russian.]
Kaul, H. Kuma r. Pranayama for Health. Kamla Nagar, Delhi, India: Surjeet
Publications, 1991.
Keller, Doug. Refining the Breath: Pranayama in the Anusara Style of Yoga. 2d ed.
South Riding, Va.: Doug Keller, 2000. Available for purchase via the DoYoga.com
website: http://www.doyoga.com/newbook.html.
An Introduction, Pranayama in the Anusara Style of Yoga, Explorations of the Breath,

Natural breath, Diaphragmatic Breath, Three Diaphragms, Pranayama, Full Yogic Breath,
An Initial Practice of Ujjayi Breathing, Viloma Pranayama, Sitting Poses for Pranayama,
Mudra, Bandhas and the Loops of Anusara Yoga, Prana and Apana, The Bandhas, A
Round of Seated Ujjayi Pranayama, Breathing Through the Loops and Bandhas, The
Significance of Aligning with Loops, Maha Mudra, Clearing Techniques, Stoking the
Fire of the Prana, Cooling and Soothing, Regulating the Breath through the Nostrils, The
Nadis, Technique for Regulating the Nostrils, Breathing Techniques through Both
Nostrils, Anuloma Pranayama, Pratiloma Pranayama, Alternate Nostril Techniques,
30
Surya Bhedana, Chandra Bhedana, Nadi Shodhana, Practicing Pranayama with the
Bandhas, Breath Ratios, The Yoga of Sound—Mantra, Bibliography
___________. Breathing and the bandhas in Anusara Yoga. Article available online:
http://www.doyoga.com/a_yogapurpose.html. (Excerpted from Anusara Yoga.)
___________. Diaphragmatic breath. Article available online:

http://www.doyoga.com/bk_diaphragmatic.html. (Excerpted from Refining the Breath.)
___________. An initial practice of ujjayi breathing. Article available online:
___________. Pranayama in the Anusara style of yoga. Article available online:

http://www.doyoga.com/bk_pranstyle.html. (Excerpted from Refining the Breath.)
___________. Yoga and the breath. Article available online:

http://www.doyoga.com/bk_ujjayi.html. (Excerpted from Refining the Breath.)
Kent, Howard. Breathe Better, Feel Better: Learn to Increase Your Energy, Control
Anxiety and Anger, Relieve Health Problems, and Just Relax with Simple Breathing.
Peoples Medical Society, 1997.
Keuning, J. On the nasal cycle. Rhinology International, 1968, 6:99-136.
Khalsa, Gurucharan Singh. Breathwalk: Breathing Your Way to a Revitalized Body,

Mind, and Spirit. New York: Broadway Books, 2000.
From the publisher: “Breathing and walking comprise two of our simplest activities, yet
they are also two of our most powerful actions. By bringing them together in a systematic
and meditative way, we can enhance our physical, emotional, and spiritual fitness. We
can tap our vitality to fully enjoy and excel in our lives.
“With a series of easy to follow, transformational exercises that combine breathing and
walking in very specific ways for specific benefits, Breathwalk teaches us: how to
alleviate exhaustion, anxiety, sadness, and other problems; to heal physical, mental, and
spiritual conflict in our lives; to enter a zone of total fitness within our own bodies and
minds . . .”
Khalsa, Shanti Shanti Kaur. Prana as Medicine: Breathwork as Therapeutic

Intervention workshop. 6th Annual Yoga Journal Convention, 27-30 Sep 2001, Estes
Park, Colorado.
“Since ancient times, prana has been used in the recovery of illness, because yogic
breathing directly affects the glands, nerves, and magnetic field of the body, benefiting
health outcomes. Learn the science and soul behind breathing for healing effects,
including techniques for moving prana through the psyche and physical body.”
31
KIN-Yoga mailing list pranayama and children thread. 21 Jul - 27 Jul 2001. (The
KIN-Yoga mailing list is run by the Kripalu Yoga Teachers Association.)
Klein, R., D. Pieton, S. Prossner, and D. Shannahoff-Khalsa. Hemispheric

performance efficiency varies with nasal airflow. Biological Psychology, 1986, 23:127-
137.
Koontz, Katy. Every breath you take. Vegetarian Times, May 2000. Available online:
http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m0820/2000_May/61616840/print.jhtml.
Kraftsow, Gary. Vita Breath: Beginning Pranayama Practice. Rudra Press, 1994.
___________. Developing exhalation; Developing inhalation; Working with inhalation;

A practice for inhalation. In Gary Kraftsow, Yoga for Wellness: Healing with the
Timeless Teachings of Viniyoga. New York: Penguin/Arkana, 1999, pp. 219-220; 224;
225; 225-230.
Krishna, Gopi. The Wonder of the Brain. Institute for Consciousness Research.
From the publisher: “The current state of confusion about the real nature of spiritual
experience is due to a lack of understanding of how the brain functions as a channel for
the expression of consciousness. In this book, Gopi Krishna challenges scientists and
psychiatrists alike to stop ignoring the important part the physical brain plays in our
development. He asserts that an understanding of prana, the super-intelligent cosmic
energy behind all forms of life, is the key to understanding how higher forms of reality
and other planes of creation, currently inaccessible to us, will become available for
exploration.”
Krishnananda, Swami. Pranayama or regulation of the vital energy. In Swami

Krishnananda, The Yoga System. Shivanandanagar, India: The Divine Life Society, 1992,
pp. 39-47.
Kriyananda, Goswami. Breath-control (pranayama); Breathing techniques (pranayama);

Hong-sau kriya meditation technique: The gander of action breath meditation. In
Goswami Kriyananda, The Spiritual Science of Kriya Yoga. Chicago: The Temple of
Kriya Yoga, 1976, 2002, pp. 190-237; 280-286.
___________. Answers the question: “My yoga practice used to include asanas,
pranayama . . . and meditation; but when I began experiencing a tightness and soreness in
my throat, I stopped the prana yama. I would like to resume pranayama, but even a couple
of rounds aggravates my throat. How can I get around this obstacle? YOGAChicago,
Mar-Apr 1999.
Kuvalayananda, Swami. Kapalbhati. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1930, 4(2):161-172.
32
___________. Pranayama. Lonavla, India : Kaivalyadhama, 1931/Bombay: Popular
Prakashan, 4th ed., 1966.
Contents: Respiration, Asanas appropriate to pranayama, Pranayama in general, Ujjayi,

Kapalabhati, Bhastrika, Suryabhedana, Sitkari, Sitali, Bhramari, Murcha, Plavini,
Physiological and spiritual values of pranayama, A full course in yogic physical culture,
A short course in yogic physical culture, An easy course in yogic physical culture,
Glossary
___________, and P. V. Karambelkar. Experiments on Pranayama-Bhastrika

Pranayama (Gheranda Samhita pattern). Yoga-Mimamsa, 1956, 6(1):9-20.
___________, and P. V. Karambelkar. Studies in alveolar air. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1956,

6(2):99-119.

7(1):9-25.

7(2):79-94.
___________, and P. V. Karambelkar. Studies in internal and external pressure

changes in normal breathing. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1956, 6(3):187-195.
___________, and P. V. Karambelkar. Studies in internal and external pressure

changes in deep breathing. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1956, 6(3):196-202.
Lachance, Kim Marie. Pranayama: Birthing the yogic breath. Yoga for Everybody, Jul
2004, p. 23.
“Pranayama delivered me from the exhaustive Lamaze-style huffing and puffing that did
me no good in labor with my first son. Knowing how to effectively breathe during asana
was as critical to my prenatal yoga practice as knowing when to stop once I reached my
limit.”
Lange, Per. Plenty of oxygen during nadi shodana. Bindu, 2000, no. 13, pp, 7-8.
Lantin, Barbara. Wellbeing: Other ways to change your breathing. The Daily
Telegraph, 19 Sep 1997, p. 23.
Lasater, Judith. Breathing lessons: By making it a conscious, controlled action,

pranayama begins to transform breathing into a spiritual practice. Yoga Journal, May/Jun
1999, pp. 104-108. Article available online:
http://www.yogajournal.com/wisdom/458_1.cfm.
Learning to exhale: The 2-to-1 breath. Yoga International, Feb/Mar 2003, pp. 52-54.
33
Lee, Cyndi. Path without a goal: “Using the rhythm of the breath, we can join
movements together into a flowing sequence that has no peak experience and no non-
peak experience.” Shambhala Sun, Jul 2000, pp. 85-87.
___________. Breathing room: “Freeing the breath from both mental and physical
constraints is like opening a tight belt after Thanksgiving dinner.” Shambhala Sun, Jan
2003, pp. 77-78.
___________. Answers the question: “I want to add pranayama and meditation to my

daily home yoga practice. What is the best sequence for these activities? Yoga Journal.
Article available online: http://www.yogajournal.com/practice/709_1.cfm.
Lepicovská, V., C. Dostálek, and M. Kovarova. Hathayogic exercise jalandharabandha

in its effect on cardiovascular response to apnoea. Act Nerv Super (Praha), Jun 1990,
32(2):99-114. PMID: 2399805.
Abstract: Jalandharabandha (JB) is the important constituent of apnoea (kumbhaka) in

hathayogic breathing exercises. It is performed by pressing the chin into the jugular notch
and creating thus the positive pressure on the neck region. The influence of JB on the
heart rate and vasomotor response was studied in relationship to different lung volumes.
The course of R-R intervals is highly significantly different according to the type of
apnoea. JB leads to the diminution of bradycardia, but does not change the position of the
maximum and minimum in comparison to the apnoea without JB. Application of JB
increases the number of vasodilatations and shortens the latencies of vasodilatations,
duration and amplitude of reactions. JB during breath holding decreases the vagal reflex
changes and may thus work as a stabilizing component in yogic breathing exercises.
Lewis, Dennis. Relaxing your face muscles for deeper breathing and more energy.
Available online: http://authentic-breathing.com/breathing_tips.htm#eyes.
“Those of us whose work requires extreme visual concentration (and the list is a long
one, especially in this age of computer technology) can improve our work and increase
our energy by making sure that our face muscles are relaxed and by looking away
frequently from the work we are doing . . .”
___________. The Tao of Natural Breathing. Mountain Wind Publishing, 1996.
___________. A simple breathing exercise for stress reduction. Article available online:
http://www.skali.com/health/bth.php?article=4.
___________. Balance intake of carbon dioxide and oxygen promotes healthy breathing.
Article available online: http://www.skali.com/health/bth.php?article=5.
___________. Unnecessary tension dampers breathing. 24 Feb 2000. Article available

online: http://www.skali.com/health/bth.php?article=6.
34
___________. The importance of the diaphragm in healthy breathing. 2 Mar 2000.
Article available online: http://www.skali.com/health/bth.php?article=7.
___________. Breathing Perspective online newsletter. Ceased publication in 2001.

URL: www.breath.org.
___________. How our self- image influences our breathing. In Dennis Lewis, Free Your
Breath, Free Your Life (Boston: Shambhala, 2004). Also posted on e-Sutra blog 21 Aug
2005, http://esutra.blogspot.com/2005/08/dennis- lewis-on-how-our-self- image.html.
Lillas, Pixie. Pranayama: Coming to the practice. Australian Yoga Life, 2003, no. 7, pp.
12-16.
Lindsay, Jamie. The energetic effects of pranayama. My Yoga Mentor, Nov 2004, no.
12. Article available online:
http://www.yogajournal.com/teacher/1411_1.cfm?email=mail@iayt.org&ctsrc=nlt12.
“You may have noticed that changing the sequencing of your class changes your
students’ energetic experience. But there’s another way to create different energetic
effects—the careful use of breath control.”
Loehr, James E., Jerome Agel, and Jeff Migdow. Breathe In Breathe Out. Boston:
Warner Books, 1999; New York: Time/Life Books, 2001.
___________, and Jeffrey A. Migdow. With every breath you take. Yoga & Health, Mar
2000, pp. 13-14.
Lovell, Charles. Keeping that good feeling. Spectrum: The Journal of the British Wheel
of Yoga, Autumn 1997, p. 16.
Lundeen, Sudha Carolyn. Answers the question: “When I exhale during a pranaya ma
breath or just in natural breathing, which is preferred, the mouth or the nose?” Yoga
Journal. Article available online:
http://www.yogajournal.com/practice/561_1.cfm?ctsrc=nlv109.
Lynn, Brian. Paradoxical breathing in Reflex Yoga. The Journal of The International
Association of Yoga Therapists, 1993, no. 4, pp. 25-29.
Lysebeth, Andre van. Pranayama: The Yoga of Breathing. London: Allen and Unwin,
late 1970s.
MacGregor, Hilary E. Breathing lessons: A yoga-based technique that targets healing

and stress is gaining favor. Los Angeles Times, 27 Sep 2004.
On the Art of Living Foundation’s Sudarshan Kriya Yoga breathing techniques.
35
Machander, A. R. Comments on the increase of intrathoracic pressure in the practice of
pranayama. Jógová Cvicení, 1982, pp. 65-70. [In Czechoslovakian.]
Summary: “Both intrathoracic and intraabdominal pressure can be increased during yogic
practice. Abhyantara kumbhaka . . . during pranayama can increase intrathoracic pressure
in different degree[s], according to the technique used. The increase of thoracic pressure
elevates venous pressure with consequent venous blockade and the increase of pressure
both in cerebrovascular fluid and intracranially. If the breath-holding with increased
intrathoracic pressure lasts 45 seconds, it causes stagnant hypoxy of the brain with
metabolic changes . . . Thanks to limited venous return, minute heart volume is decreased
to one-half with consequent disturbance of cardiac rhythm. Therefore the breath- holding
with increased thoracic pressure is not without danger (cerebral stroke, collapse,
paroxysm of epilepsy, coronary infarction).
“Pronounced increase of thoracic pressure can be caused by [the] following conditions: 1)

if tension of expiratory thoracic muscles is increased after glottis is closed, 2) if uddiyana
bandha is practiced incorrectly, causing abdominal press[ure], 3) if there is relaxation of
diaphragm during breath- holding and increased abdominal pressure expands over it to
thoracic cavity. Increased intraabdominal pressure can have negative effect also during
asanas, if they are practice with longer breath-holding and with activation of expiratory
muscles (e.g., mayurasana, backward bending).
“As a consequence we can state that incorrect practicing of certain yogic exercises can
endanger especially disposed persons and regular incorrect practice could negatively
influence even healthy people.”
___________. Exercise for correction of right- left activity. Jógová Cvicení, 1982, pp.
131-132. [In Czechoslovakian.]
Summary: “Both tradition and modern research show how important is breathing through
both nostrils. It can be reached through asymmetric asanas, when one half of [the] thorax
is compressed, the other distended. It influences both the movement of [the] chest wall
and through vasomotor reflexes [the] passage through the nostrils. Differences between
both halves of the body must be checked in certain balanced (meditative) postures.”
Mackintosh, Sarah. Breathing. Yoga & Health, Jan 2004, p. 37.
Madan, M., D. P. Thombre, B. Balakumar, T. K. Nambinarayanan, S. Thakur, N.

Krishnamurthy, and A. Chandrabose. Effects of yogic training on reaction time,
respiratory endurance and muscle strength. Indian Journal of Physiology and
Pharmacology, Oct 1993, 37(4):350-352. PMID: 1291472.
Abstract: There is evidence that the practice of yoga improves physical and mental
performance. The present investigation was undertaken to study the effect of yoga
training on visual and auditory reaction times (RTs), maximum expiratory pressure
(MEP), maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP), 40 mmHg test, breath holding time after
36
expiration (BHTexp), breath holding time after inspiration (BHTinsp), and hand grip
strength (HGS). Twenty seven student volunteers were given yoga training for 12 weeks.
There was a significant (P < 0.001) decrease in visual RT (from 270.0 +/- 6.20 (SE) to
224.81 +/- 5.76 ms) as well as auditory RT (from 194.18 +/- 6.00 to 157.33 +/- 4.85 ms).
MEP increased from 92.61 +/- 9.04 to 126.46 +/- 10.75 mmHg, while MIP increased
from 72.23 +/- 6.45 to 90.92 +/- 6.03 mmHg, both these changes being statistically
significant (P < 0.05). 40 mmHg test and HGS increased significantly (P < 0.001) from
36.57 +/- 2.04 to 53.36 +/- 3.95 s and 13.78 +/- 0.58 to 16.67 +/- 0.49 kg respectively.
BHTexp increased from 32.15 +/- 1.41 to 44.53 +/- 3.78s (P < 0.01) and BHTinsp
increased from 63.69 +/- 5.38 to 89.07 +/- 9.61 s (P < 0.05). Our results show that yoga
practice for 12 weeks results in significant reduction in visual and auditory RTs and
significant increase in respiratory pressures, breath holding times and HGS.
Makwana, K., N. Khirwadkar, and H. C. Gupta. Effect of short term yoga practice on
ventilatory function tests. Indian Journal of Physiology & Pharmacology, Jul 1988,
32(3):202-208. PMID: 3198241.
Abstract: Twentyfive normal male volunteers undergoing a ten weeks course in the
practice of yoga have been studied by some parameters of ventilatory functions tests. The
observations recorded at the end of ten weeks of the course have shown improved
ventilatory functions in the form of lowered respiratory rate, increased forced vital
capacity, FEV1, maximum breathing capacity and breath holding time, while tidal
volume and %FEV1, did not reveal any significant change. Thus, a combined practice of
yoga seems to be beneficial on respiratory efficiency.
Mandlik, Vishwas V. Pranayama CD. Information available online:

http://www.yogapoint.com/ASPScripts/YogaStore/Courses/ShortCourses/PranayamaCou
rses.asp.
Matsumoto, M., and J. C. Smith. Progressive muscle relaxation, breathing exercises,

and ABC relaxation theory. Journal of Clinical Psychology, Dec 2001, 57(12):1551-
1557. PMID: 11745596.
Abstract: This study compared the psychological effects of Progressive Muscle

Relaxation (PMR) and breathing exercises. Forty-two students were divided randomly
into two groups and taught PMR or breathing exercises. Both groups practiced for five
weeks and were given the Smith Relaxation States Inventory before and after each
session. As hypothesized, PMR practitioners displayed greater increments in relaxation
states (R-States) Physical Relaxation and Disengagement, while breathing practitioners
displayed higher levels of R-State Strength and Awareness. Slight differences emerged at
Weeks 1 and 2; major differences eme rged at Weeks 4 and 5. A delayed and potentially
reinforcing aftereffect emerged for PMR only after five weeks of training—increased
levels of Mental Quiet and Joy. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.
Copyright 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
37
McGonigal, Kelly. Breathwork for enhancing immune function. Article available online:
http://www.openmindbody.com/immunesystemandbreathing.htm.
___________. The politics of breathing: Still liberating women, after all these years?
Article available online: www.bodybreathmind.com.
Mehling, Wolf E., Kathryn A. Hamel, Michael Acree, Nancy Byl, and Frederick M.
Hecht. Randomized controlled trial of breath therapy for patients with chronic low-back
pain. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, Jul/Aug 2005, 11(4).
Miles, W. R. Oxygen consumption during three yoga-type breathing patterns. Journal of

Applied Physiology, 1964, 19(1):75-82.
Miller, Richard C. The Psychophysiology of Respiration: Eastern and Western

Perspectives. Sebastopol, Calif.: Anahata Press. (Booklet.)
___________. Working with the Breath: Breath and Movement in Asana. Sebastopol,
Calif.: Anahata Press. (Booklet.) Also published in Yoga Journal, Sep/Oct 1989, pp. 67-
75.
___________. Pranayama pick- me-up. Run down? Depressed? Snap out of it with a few
quick rounds of kapalabhati, the yogic “breath of fire.” Yoga Journal, Jul/Aug 1995, pp.
12-14.
___________. Pranayama: The Breath of Life: The Practice of Pranayama Presented in

the Non-dual Tradition. Sebastopol, Calif.: Anahata Recordings, 1999. 90 minutes.
___________. The Principles and Practice of Ujjayi Pranayama: The Breath that
Conquers All audiotapes. Sebastopol, Calif.: Anahata Recordings, 1999. 3 hours.
___________. The breath of life. Sebastopol, Calif. No date.
Miller, Olivia H. A sharing of breaths: Performed for centuries by Tibetan physicians,

comeditation is now being used in the West to ease the psychic suffering of the
terminally ill. Yoga Journal, Mar/Apr 1993, pp. 136, 124.
Mira. Why hold your breath? Bindu, 2000, no. 13, pp. 6-7.
Miyamura, M., K. Nishimura, K. Ishida, K. Katayama, M. Shimaoka, and S.

Hiruta. Is man able to breathe once a minute for an hour?: The effect of yoga respiration
on blood gases. Japanese Journal of Physiology, Jun 2002, 52(3):313-316. PMID:
12230808. Author email: miyamura@htc.nagoya-u.ac.jp.
Abstract: The ventilatory response to hypercapnia and arterial blood gases during ujjai
respiration of once per minute for an hour were determined in a professional hatha yogi.
38
The results suggest that lower chemosensitivity to hypercapnia in yoga practitioners may
be due to an adaptation to low arterial pH and high PaCO(2) for long periods.
Mohan, Madan, U. C. Rai, V. Balavittal, D. P. Thombre, and Swami Gitananda.

Cardiorespiratory change during Savitri Pranayam and Shavasan. The Yoga Review,
1983, 3(1):25-34.
Abstract: The present study was conducted in trained (n=7) and untrained (n=7)
volunteers to determine the effect of savitri pranayam and shavasan on O2 consumption,
heart rate and blood pressure. In trained subjects we found a consistent and significant
(p<0.01) reduction in O2 consumption within a few minutes of starting savitri pranayam.
During shavasan, there was significant reduction in O2 consumption (p<0.05), heart rate
(p<0.001) and diastolic blood pressure (p<0.05). In untrained subjects, the changes in
above mentioned parameters were statistically insignificant.
___________, C. Saravanane, S. G. Surange, D. P. Thombre, and A. S.

Chakrabarty. Effect of yoga type breathing on heart rate and cardiac axis of normal
subjects. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oct-Dec 1986, 30(4):334-40.
Abstract: Effect of inspiratory and expiratory phases of normal quiet breathing, deep
breathing and savitri pranayam type breathing on heart rate and mean ventricular QRS
axis was investigated in young, healthy untrained subjects. Pranayam type breathing
produced significant cardioacceleration and increase in QRS axis during the inspiratory
phase as compared to eupnea. On the other hand, exp iratory effort during pranayam type
breathing did not produce any significant change in heart rate or QRS axis. The changes
in heart rate and QRS axis during the inspiratory and expiratory phases of pranayam type
breathing were similar to the changes observed during the corresponding phases of deep
breathing.
Mohan, S. Mitti. Variations in the differential air flow through nostrils in man with
change of posture from supine to prone position. Indian Journal of Physiology and
Pharmacology, Jul-Sep 1985, 29(3):165-170.
___________. Reversal of nostril dominance by posture. Journal of Indian Medical

Association, 1991, 89:88-91.
___________. Reflex reversal of nostril dominance by application of pressure to the

axilla by a crutch. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 1993, 37(1):147-
150.
___________. Nostril dominance and autonomic nervous system activity. Journal of

Indian Psychology, 1995, 13(2):28-41.
___________. Nostril dominance and ESP: A further study. Journal of Indian

Psychology, 1996, 14(1&2):9-13. (See original study below by Krishna Rao et al.)
39
___________. Nostril dominance (svara) and bilateral volar galvanic skin resistance.
International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 1999, no. 9, pp. 33-39. Reprinted from Indian
Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, Jan 1996, 40(1):58-64.
___________, and R. Eccles. Effect of inspiratory and expiratory air flow on congestion
and decongestion in the nasal cycle. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology,
1989, 33:191-193.
___________, et al. Cardiorespiratory change during Savitri Pranayam and Shavasan.

Yoga Review, 1983, 3(1):25-34.
Monsanto, Chandrasekhar. Prana svara nidanam (finding the essential harmony of breath
and voice): A complementary diagnostic tool in Ayurveda. Article available online:
http://www.iouedu.com.
Moorthy, Samba. Pranayama: Varieties & benefits. Enlightened Practice, Dec 2003 –
Jan 2004.
Morgan, Lata. The Anatomy and Yoga of Breathing workshop. For information call
Lata Morgan 415-837-1765 or email lataji@mindspring.
“What is the shape of your diaphragm? How does it move when you breath? Does the
way you breathe impact your alignment, movement, and consciousness?
“These are a few questions we will explore in this thirty hour course focusing on the
elements of respiration. Throughout the five days we are going to look at how the
function of breathing organizes the skeletal, muscular, organ and fluid systems of the
torso.
“Embody the lobes of your lungs to increase your breathing capacity; learn about the
spiral architecture and movement of your ribs; build your core support by engaging your
pelvic floor, kidneys, and psoas in breathing; understand how balanced muscular action
of the spine allows for efficient and easy breathing.
“This course blends experiential anatomy, breathing exercises, guided movement, yoga
and vocalization to help you clarify your breathing options, mobilize your rib cage and
spine, and enliven your belly and chest.”
“Principles from Body-Mind Centering®, the Feldenkrais Method®, Functional

Anatomy, Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Yoga will be applied as we examine the
relationships between function and structure, mobility and stability, breath and
movement.”
40
Morse, Donald R., L. C. Cohen, M. L. Furst, and J. S. Martin. A physiological
evaluation of the yoga concept of respiratory control of autonomic nervous system
activity. International Journal of Neurosciences, 1984, 31: 3-19.
Motoyama, Hiroshi. Western and Eastern medical studies of pranayama and heart
control. Research for Religion and Parapsychology, 1977, 3(1):1-69. Tokyo: The
International Association for Research for Religion and Parapsychology.
___________. An electrophysiological study of prana (ki). Research for Religion and

Parapsychology, 1979. Tokyo: The International Association for Religion and
Parapsychology. Also in Spiritual India and Kundalini, 1978, 2(4):25-38.
Mounamurti Saraswati, Swami. Nitric oxide (NO) and some of the added benefits of
nostril breathing. Article available online: http://satyamyoga.virtualave.net.
Muktibodhananda, Swami. Swara Yoga. Article available online:

http://www.yogapoint.com/info/newsletter3.htm#.
From the website: “Swara is [a] Sanskrit word, meaning sound or note. It is also a
continuous flow of air through one nostril. Yoga means union, so Swara Yoga is a
science which is [the] realization of cosmic consciousness through control and
manipulation of breath.
“Swara Yoga is [a] science which is a complete study, observations, control and
manipulation of breath or Swara. Pranayama is only related to control of breath in various
ways. In Swara Yoga, you will find association of breath in relation to activities of sun,
moon, various seasons, physical and mental conditions of individuals, etc. So Swara
Yoga is more comprehensive in theory and practices related to breath. ”
Myers, Esther, and Lynn Wylie. The Ground, the Breath, & the Spine. Toronto,
Ontario, Canada: Self-published, 1990.
Nadi shodhana—the sweet breath. Article available online:

http://www.yogasite.com/nadi.htm.
Naficy, Kambiz. Ancient vedic breathing techniques. The New Times, Mar 2000, pp. 16-
17.
Nagendra, H. R. Pranayama: The Art and Science. Bangalore, India: Vivekananda

Kendra Yoga Prakashana, 1998.
Narayananda, Swami. The Secrets of Prana, Pranayama and Yoga-Asanas. Gylling,

Denmark: N. U. Yoga Trust & Ashrama, 1979.
41
Naruka, J. S., R. Mathur, and A. Mathur. Effect of pranayama practices on fasting
blood glucose and serum cholesterol. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences, Jun 1986,
40(6):149-152. PMID: 3770842.
Naveen, K. V., H. R. Nagarathna, H. R. Nagendra, and T. Shirley. Yoga breathing

through a particular nostril increases spatial memory scores without lateralized effects.
Psychological Reports, Oct 1997, 81(2):555-561.
Abstract: Uninostril breathing facilitates the performance on spatial and verbal cognitive
tasks, said to be right and left brain functions, respectively. Since hemispheric memory
functions are also known to be lateralized, the present study assessed the effects of
uninostril breathing on the performance in verbal and spatial memory tests. School
children (N = 108 whose ages ranged from 10 to 17 years) were randomly assigned to
four groups. Each group practiced a specific yoga breathing technique: (i) right nostril
breathing, (ii) left nostril breathing, (iii) alternate nostril breathing, or (iv) breath
awareness without manipulation of nostrils. These techniques were practiced for 10 days.
Verbal and spatial memory was assessed initially and after 10 days. An age- matched
control group of 27 were similarly assessed. All 4 trained groups showed a significant
increase in spatial test scores at retest, but the control group showed no change. Average
increase in spatial memory scores for the trained groups was 84%. It appears yoga
breathing increases spatial rather than verbal scores, without a lateralized effect.
The neurophysiology of the control of breathing. Yoga Rahasya, 1999, 6(3).
Niranjanananda Saraswati, Swami. Prana, Pranayama, Prana Vidya. Munger, Bihar,

India: Bihar School of Yoga.
Provides “detailed instructions and black-and-white illustrations of techniques and

visualizations, and all the practices dealing with awakening and harmonization of the
vital force. The last section of the book describes the various stages of Prana Vidya and
other forms of psychic healing.”
Nostril to nostril: Setting the stage for meditation. Yoga International, Jun/Jul 2001,
pp. 14-16.
O’Rielly, Trish. Uniting breath & movement. Yoga International, Apr/May 2001, pp.
78-85.
Our respiratory system. Yoga Rahasya, 1994, 1(2).
Palkhivala, Aadil. How to teach peace. My Yoga Mentor, Nov 2004, no. 12. Article
available online: http://www.yogajournal.com/teacher/1409_1.cfm.
“Sometimes the stresses of our society make us feel like peace is a million miles away.
But yoga shows us that it’s right in our reach. As teachers, we must heal our students’
nervous systems by giving them concrete tools to cultivate peace on the mat . . .”
42
In addition to positive uses of pranayama, the article also cautions: “. . . as teachers, we
must be very careful with certain pranayama practices. Bhastrika pranayama (often
known as ‘Breath of Fire’) can damage or even destroy the nervous system. I’ll never
forget a woman who came to me for legal advice when I was practicing law. She was
extremely agitated, constantly distracted, and couldn’t finish a thought or a sentence. I
learned that her nervous system was burnt out from years of practicing pranayama
improperly, specifically bhastrika and kapalabhati (Skull- shining breath). When an
excess of pranic energy floods the nervous system, it is like a balloon that’s filled with
more air than it has the strength to contain. The nervous system is shattered and severe
mental trauma can result. The body must be properly prepared with years of asana
(especially backbends) to safely receive and contain the power of prana.
“And there are other ways to harm our students with the practice. For instance, the
nervous system is agitated by jerky movements. This includes trembling during a pose by
working too hard. Remind your students that there is no virtue in holding poses too long,
for the benefits quickly unravel and turn into detriments. I have heard some teachers say
to their students, ‘Shake it out!’ and encourage their students to shake themselves after
intense poses to release tension. This misses the point. It is far better to be still and melt
the tension with awareness.”
___________. Pranayama CD and audiotape. Available for purchase online:

http://www.aadilpalkhivala.com/educatio.htm.
Parker-Krauss, Marti. Pranayama: The Iyengar way. Enlightened Practice, Dec 2003 –
Jan 2004.
Pasek, Tadeusz, Henryk Gaertner, and Mike J. Plyley. Voluntary control of breathing
according to Yoga, personal experiences and physiological research. Paper given at the
9th European Symposium on Somatotherapy/2nd European Symposium of Psychosomatic
Education, 24-26 October 1999, Krakow, Poland.
Patel, Shree Jantibhai. Integral Yoga: Breathing & Pranayama, Mudra, Bandha.
Colchester, Essex, England: Shree Jantibhai Patel, 1983.
Pierce, Margaret D., and Martin G. Pierce. Yoga for Your Life: A Practice Manual of
Breath and Movement for Every Body. Sterling Publications, 1996.
Pierce, Martin. Breathing for modern life. Yoga Journal, Sep/Oct 1998, pp. 104-105.
Pirisi, Angela. Take a deep breath. Yoga Journal, Jan/Feb 2001. Article available online:
http://www.yogajournal.com/health/110_1.cfm?ctsrc=nlv129.
“New study findings presented at the American Society of Hypertension's annual meeting
say it may be a good idea to take some deep breaths next time you're feeling stressed.
43
“The recent research, conducted at the Kaleida Health-Millard Fillmore Hospital in
Buffalo, New York, reinforces previous findings that suggest pranayama may help lower
blood pressure.
“Researchers took 12 people between the ages of 22 and 55 with normal blood pressure
and subjected them to mental stress for five minutes by asking them to perform a
frustrating mathematical task. Then they compared the use of controlled breathing—
inhaling and exhaling at a rhythmic pace—with listening to classical music, nature
sounds, or no intervention, to measure how long it takes for blood pressure levels to
return to normal.
“Results showed that classical music made systolic blood pressure (SBP)—the top
number that reflects blood pressure when the heart contracts—drop to pre-stressed levels
after an average time of 2.9 minutes, nature sounds worked in 3.0 minutes, and doing
nothing normalized SBP after 3.7 minutes, whereas deep breathing returned SBP to
normal after just 2.7 minutes.
“Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) was slower to return to normal, but after four minutes,
readings had dropped by 11.2 percent with yogic breathing, compared to 2.7 percent for
the group doing nothing. This suggests that DBP would return to normal levels more
quickly with yogic breathing.
“Lead researcher B. H. Sung, an associate professor of medicine at the State University

of New York at Buffalo, believes that even hypertensive patients would have similar
results, although the higher the blood pressure, the more time it would take for the
pressure to come down.
“B. H. Sung and her coresearchers speculate yogic breathing may work by relaxing
muscles that constrict blood vessels and changing the signals sent to the brain that
announce stress to the body. Sung believes the technique may prove an effective
complementary form of therapy to medication and lifestyle changes for hypertensives . .
.”
Prana and pranayama. Yoga Rahasya, 1998, 5(3).
Pranayama. Available online: http://www.yogamedicine.com/pranayama.htm.
Pranayama in water. Article available online:

http://www.yoga.com.ua/lappa/date/lessprac/2engl.html.
Pranic energization technique. Available online:

http://www.yogamedicine.com/astralhealing.htm.
Pratap, V. Diurnal pattern of nostril breathing—an exploratory study. Yoga-Mimamsa,

Oct 1971 and Jan 1972, 14(3&4):1-18.
44
___________, W. H. Berrettini, and C. Smith. Arterial blood gases in pranayama
practice. Perceptual Motor Skills, Feb1978, 46(1):171-174. PMID: 25412.
Abstract: Pranayama is a Yogic breathing practice which is known experientially to

produce a profound calming effect on the mind. In an experiment designed to determine
whether the mental effects of this practice were accompanied by changes in the arterial
blood gases, arterial blood was drawn from 10 trained individuals prior to and
immediately after Pranayama practice. No significance changes in arterial blood gases
were noted after Pranayama. A neural mechanism for the mental effects of this practice is
proposed.
Rabold, Elsa. Notes from the yoga classroom: Keep breathing well to be well. Australian
Yoga Life, 2002, No. 3, p. 21.
Raghuraj, P., and S. Telles. Right uninostril yoga breathing influences ipsilateral
components of middle latency auditory evoked potentials. Neurological Sciences (Journal
of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical
Neurophysiology), Dec 2004, 25(5):274-280. PMID: 15624085.
Abstract: A previous report described selective electrical activity of the cerebral

hemispheres with uninostril breathing. In the present study, middle latency auditory
evoked potentials (MLAEPs) were recorded from symmetrical scalp sites during the
practice of uninostril Yoga breathing. There were two sessions (40 min each) of right
nostril Yoga breathing (RNB) and of breath awareness (BAW), with (i) “before,” (ii) test
(either RNB or BAW), and (iii) “after” periods. The participants were 14 male volunteers
aged between 18 and 33 years, and the setting was a Yoga center. MLAEPs were
recorded from symmetrical scalp sites (C4 and C3). During RNB, the peak amplitudes of
two negative components (i.e., Na wave and Nb wave) were significantly increased on
the right side. Increased peak amplitudes of Na and Nb waves suggested that RNB
increased the number of neurons recruited on the right side, suggesting a possible
application of RNB in certain psychiatric disorders with cerebral hemispheric imbalance.
Raghuraj, R., R. Nagarathna, H. R. Nagendra, and T. Shirley. Pranayama increases

grip strength without lateralized effects. Indian Journal of Physiol Pharmacol, Apr 1977,
41(2):129-133. PMID: 9142556.
Abstract: The present study was conducted to determine whether breathing through a
particular nostril has a lateralized effect on hand grip strength. 130 right hand dominant,
school children between 11 and 18 yrs of age were randomly assigned to 5 groups. Each
group had a specific yoga practice in addition to the regular program for a 10 day yoga
camp. The practices were: (1) right-, (2) left-, (3) alternate- nostril breathing (4), breath
awareness and (5) practice of mudras. Hand grip strength of both hands was assessed
initially and at the end of 10 days for all 5 groups. The right-, left- and alternate- nostril
breathing groups had a significant increase in gr ip strength of both hands, ranging from
4.1% to 6.5%, at the end of the camp though without any lateralization effect. The breath
awareness and mudra groups showed no change. Hence the present results suggest that
45
yoga breathing through a particular nostril, or through alternate nostrils increases hand
grip strength of both hands without lateralization.
___________, A. G. Ramakrishnan, H. R. Nagendra, and S. Telles. Effect of two

selected yogic breathing techniques on heart rate variability. Indian Journal of
Physiology and Pharmacology, Oct 1998, 42(4):467-472. (Breathing techniques:
kapalabhati and alternate nostril breathing.)
The following review of this study appears in an article by Ralph La Forge entitled
“Spotlight on Yoga” in the May 2001 issue of IDEA Health and Fitness Source
(http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m0BTW/5_19/74886169/p1/article.jhtml?term=yoga):
Study: Heart rate variability (HRV) is a functional measure of the proficiency of the
parasympathetic nervous system. Greater variability is associated with relaxation and
quiescence and a lower risk of major cardiovascular events, such as heart attack.
To measure HRV, two spectral components of an electrocardiogram are usually recorded:

a high- frequency (0.15-0.50 hertz [Hz]) component, attributable to parasympathetic
activity, and a low- frequency component (0.05-0.15 Hz), attributable to sympathetic
activity.
Researchers at the Vivekananda Kendra Yoga Research Foundation in Bangalore, India,

studied HRV during two yoga practices that had previously been found to have opposite
effects: sympathetic stimulation (kapalabhati, or breathing at high frequency, i.e., 2
breaths per second for several seconds) and reduced sympathetic activity (nadi shodana,
or alternate- nostril breathing). All 12 male volunteers (age range = 21-33 years) were
assessed before and after each practice on separate days.
Following kapalabhati, low-frequency power and the ratio of low to high frequency
increased significantly, whereas high- frequency power fell significantly. There were no
significant changes following nadi shodana. According to Raghuraj and colleagues, these
results suggest that (1) kapalabhati modifies cardiac autonomic control (nervous system
regulation of heart function) by increasing sympathetic activity and reducing vagal
(primary parasympathetic nerve) activity and (2) HRV is a more useful
psychophysiological measure than heart rate alone.
Comments: HRV is an up-and-coming measure of cardiovascular function in clinical

cardiology. HRV cannot be discerned by heart rate palpation or wrist-worn
cardiotachometers; it must be measured using very expensive electrocardiographic
spectral analysis equipment, such as that found in university-based cardiovascular
research institutions.
___________, and S. Telles. Effect of yoga-based and forced uninostril breathing on the
autonomic nervous system. Perceptual Motor Skills, Feb 2003, 96(1):79-80. PMID:
12705513.
46
Abstract: Some reports have described the effects of forced uninostril breathing on
autonomic activity as sex-specific, while other reports [have] described selective effects of
breathing through a specific nostril on the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system,
irrespective of sex. There are also yoga breathing techniques which involve voluntary
uninostril breathing. These techniques also influence the autonomic activity based on the
patent nostril rather than sex. These descriptions were in line with experiential observations
of the ancient sages described in classical yoga texts. This paper summarize s these
perspectives on uninostril breathing.
Rai L., and K. Ram. Energy expenditure and ventilatory responses during Virasana—a
yogic standing posture. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, Jan 1993,
37(1):45-50. PMID: 8449544.
Abstract: Energy expenditure and ventilatory responses to yogic standing posture of

Virasana were studied on 10 healthy men (25-37 years of age). The results of various
responses respectively to the horizontal supine, Chair-sitting and Virasana were: Minute
Ventilation (VE) 7.64, 8.61 and 18.67 L/min; Respiratory Frequency (FR) 15.71, 15.70 and
21.45 Breath/min; Tidal Volume (VT) 0.496, 0.544 and 0.827 L/min; Oxygen consumption
(VO2) 0.127, 0.234 and 0.573 L/min; Carbondioxide Elimination (VCO2) 0.127, 0.134 and
0.420 L/min; Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER) 0.58, 0.57 and 0.69; Heart Frequency
(FH) 65.2, 74.5 and 104.4 beats/min; Oxygen Pulse (O2P) 3.32, 3.17 and 5.45 ml/beat;
Ventilatory Equivalent (VE-EQ) 36.78, 37.12 and 33.85; Multiple of Resting VO2 (METS)
0.96, 1.05 and 2.53 and Metabolic Cost (MC) 1.04, 1.13 and 2.76 Cal/min. Virasana
posture was characterised by higher VE, FR, VT, VO2, VCO2, FH and O2P with lesser
VE-EQ. The observations suggest that Virasana induces temporarily a hypermetabolic state
characterised by enhanced sympathetic nervous system activity which gets inhibited during
the adoption of resting supine shavasana posture.
Rai, I., et al. Effect of induced left nostril breathing on body functions in adult human
males. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 1983 (supplement 1), 5:74-75.
47
Rajalakshmi, S., and G. Veluchamy. Kaya Kalpa methods adopted by Siddhars: A
scientific approach. Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine (Hyderabad),
Jul- Dec 2000, 30(2):103-110.
Abstract: Thirumular says in his Thirumanthiram the body is a sacred instrument to

contain the soul and therefore must be nurtured well to safeguard the life. Thirumular is
reported to have lived a long span of three thousand years according to tradition. The art
of longevity and the attempts of immortalising the corporeal human body were the
ultimate aims of Siddhars as understood from their numerous treatises on the art of
rejuvenation—Thirumular Karpam - 300, Bohar Karpam - 300, Thiruvalluvur Karpam -
300, Yugimuni Karpam - 300, etc., which form some of the excellen[t] works in this
regard. One of the means to rejuvenate the body was achieved through the art of
breathing (Pranayama) which has a direct bearing on the basal metabolic rate and the
span of longevity. In this paper an attempt has been made to throw some light on the
scientific basis of the various Kaya Kalpa methods adopted by Siddhars.
Raju, P. S., K. A. Kumar, S. S. Reddy, S. Madhavi, K. Gnanakumari, C.

Bhaskaracharyulu, M. V. Reddy, N. Annapurna, M. E. Reddy, D. Girijakumari, et
al. Effect of yoga on exercise tolerance in normal healthy volunteers. Indian Journal of
Physiology and Pharmacology, Apr-Jun 1986, 30(2):121-132. PMID: 3818038.
Abstract: Twelve normal healthy volunteers (6 males and 6 females) undergoing yoga
training for 90 days were studied for the effect of yoga on exercise tolerance. Their ages
ranged from 18 to 28 years. The volunteers were taught only Pranayama for the first 20
days and later on yogic asanas were added. Sub- maximal exercise tolerance test was done
on a motorized treadmill by using Balke's modified protocol, initially, after 20 days
(Phase-I) and after 90 days of yoga training (Phase-II). Pyruvate and lactate in venous
blood and blood gases in capillary blood were estimated immediately before and after the
exercise. Minute ventilation and oxygen consumption were estimated before and during
the test. Post exercise blood lactate was elevated significantly during initial and Phase-I,
but not in Phase-II. There was significant reduction of minute ventilation and oxygen
consumption only in males in Phase-I and II at the time when the volunteers reached their
80% of the predicted heart rate. Female volunteers were able to go to higher loads of
exercise in Phase-I and II.
___________, S. Madhavi, K. V. Prasad, M. V. Reddy, M. E. Reddy, B. K. Sahay,

and K. J. Murthy. Comparison of effects of yoga & physical exercise in athletes. Indian
Journal of Medical Research, Aug 1994, 100:81-87. PMID: 7927562.
Abstract: The effect of pranayama a controlled breathing practice, on exercise tests was
studied in athletes in two phases; submaximal and maximal exercise tests. At the end of
phase I (one year) both the groups (control and experimental) achieved significantly
higher work rate and reduction in oxygen consumption per unit work. There was a
significant reduction in blood lactate and an increase in P/L ratio in the experimental
group, at rest. At the end of phase II (two years), the oxygen consumption per unit work
was found to be significantly reduced and the work rate significantly increased in the
48
experimental group. Blood lactate decreased significantly at rest in the experimental
group only. Pyruvate and pyruvate- lactate ratio increased significantly in both the groups
after exercise and at rest in the experimental group. The results in both phases showed
that the subjects who practised pranayama could achieve higher work rates with reduced
oxygen consumption per unit work and without increase in blood lactate levels. The
blood lactate levels were significantly low at rest.
Rama, Swami. Pranayama. In Swami Rama, Lectures on Yoga: Practical Lessons on

Yoga. 6th ed. Honesdale, Pa.: Himalayan International Institute of Yoga Science and
Philosophy, 1979, pp. 83-104.
___________. The science of prana. Research Bulletin of the Himalayan International

Institute, 1980, 2(2):1-2.
___________. Pranayama. Research Bulletin of the Himalayan International Institute,

1981, 3(1).
___________. Path of Fire and Light: Advanced Practices of Yoga. Honesdale, Pa.:
Himalayan Institute Press, 1999.
___________, Rudolph Ballentine, and Alan Hymes. Science of Breath. Honesdale,

Pa.: Himalayan Institute Press, 1979, 1998.
Ramaswami, Srivatsa. Yogic breathing exercises and their health benefits. In Srivatsa
Ramaswami, Yoga for the Three Stages of Life: Developing Your Practice as an Art
Form, a Physical Therapy, and a Guiding Philosophy. Rochester, Vt.: Inner Traditions
International, 2000, pp. 189-211.
Ramaswamy, Lata. Swara yoga: How to harmonise breath. Deccan Herald, 24 Apr
2005.
“Research has shown that air flow in the turbinates in the nose triggers neuronal responses
that set up reflexes throughout the body. ”
Rao, Krishna, Mitti Mohan, and M. Satyanarayana. ESP and nostril dominance.
Journal of Indian Psychology, 1993, 11:19-23. (See follow-up study above by Mitti
Mohan.)
Rao, M. Narasimha. The concept of pranan in Indian philosophy with special reference
to Upanishads and Patanjali Yoga Sutra. Master’s thesis, Shivaji University, Kolhapur,
India, 1986.
Rao, Shankar. Oxygen consumption during yoga-type breathing at altitudes of 520 m. and
3,800 m. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 1968, 56(5):701-705.
___________. Respiratory responses to headstand posture. Journal of Applied

Physiology, 1968, 24(5):697-699.
49
___________, and A. Potdar. Nasal airflow with body in various positions. Journal of
Applied Physiology, 1970, 28:162-165.
Rash, Joe. Developing a daily pranayama practice. Iyengar Yoga Institute Review, Summer
1989, pp. 18-19, 13.
Raub, J. A. Autonomic cardiopulmonary modulation by complete yoga breathing. In

preparation, 2002.
Ravishankar, N. S. Pranayama. In N. S. Ravishankar, Yoga for Health: Curative Powers

of Yogasanas. New Delhi: Pustak Mahal, 2001, pp. 115-125.
Ravizza, R. Nasal cycle. Research Bulletin of the Himalayan International Institute, 1981,
4(1):12-21.
___________. Characteristics of healthy breathing: The evidence from modern science.

Yoga International, Sep/Oct 1992, pp. 58-62.
Rawlinson, Ian. Pranayama. Somerset, England: Cambridge Yoga Publication, no date.
___________. Breathing and vinyasa. Yoga Journal, Jan/Feb 1988, pp. 54-59.
___________. Use of the breath in asanas. Yoga Today, May 1980, 5(1):34-38.
___________. The Desikachar Way: Lesson 6: Breathing in the asanas. Yoga Today, Sep
1981, 6(5):4-9.
___________. The Desikachar Way: Lesson 10: Retention of breath in postures. Yoga
Today, Jan 1982, 6(9):4-8.
Ridges, Anita. [Natural breathing vs. the yoga complete breath]. In “Stress and energy
flow.” Yoga Today, Jan 1981, 5(9):18-20. See also the author’s letter to the editor
regarding her ideas on this topic in the Nov 1981 issue, p. 19, and subsequent letters both
critical of and agreeing with the author in the Jan 1982 issue, p. 9.
Rindley, Janet. A fresh look at pranayama. Part 1: Nose breathing. Spectrum, Spring
1999, pp. 10-11.
Roberts, Avril. Pranayama for the mentally ill. Yoga & Health, Aug 2004, pp. 8-10.
“People with anxiety and panic will often breathe mainly with the upper chest. Those
with depression will often use deep abdominal breathing with little chest involvement . .
.”
Roberts, Ernest. Yoga and breath. Yoga Today, Nov 1979, 4(7):4-9.
50
Roberts, Katherine. Yoga, breathing, and golf. The Golf Channel, 29 Oct 2003. Article
available online: http://www.thegolfchannel.com/15100/11195.
Roberts, Sherry. Breathing: Easy and free destressing. Article available online:
http://www.yogamovement.com/resources/breathing.html.
Rodenbeck, Joachim. Bhramari—the bumble bee. Bindu, no. 10, pp. 4-5.
Contents: Practice, A more harmonious pregnancy with Bhramari, Musicality and Nada
Yoga
Rosen, Richard. Pranayama for anxiety. Yoga Journal, Jul/Aug 2002, p. 85.
___________. The Yoga of Breath: A Step-by-Step Guide to Pranayama. Boston:

Shambhala Publications, 2002. A follow-up volume will be published in late 2005 or
early 2006.

Rosenberg, Larry. Breathing lessons: Many yogis find that anapanasati, a form of
meditation that focuses on the breath, is a natural place to begin their sitting practice.
Yoga Journal, Sep/Oct 2002, pp. 131-135.

Rossi, Ernest Lawrence. The new yoga of the West: Natural rhythms of mind-body
healing. Psychological Perspectives, issue date unknown.
51
On ultradian and cir cadian rhythms, such as the nasal cycle. “These quotations suggest
that we are in an exciting period of convergence in which the traditional practices of
yoga, meditation, and psychotherapy are intersecting current research at the molecular-
genetic level. We . . . end this survey with some suggestions about the practical
application of this new ‘Yoga of the West.’”
Roy, Acharya Upendra. The power of prana. In H. R. Nagendra, R. Nagarathna, and S.

Telles, Yoga Research & Applications: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference
on Frontiers in Yoga Research and Applications. Bangalore, Vivekananda Kendra Yoga
Research Foundation, 2000, pp. 81-84.
Rychner, R. The gentle yoga of breath. Assertive Nurse, Sep 1980, 3(4):2-3. PMID:
7002134.
Sabatini, Sandra. Breath—the Essence of Yoga. London: Thorsons, 2001.
Sahu, R. J. Implication of different concepts of prana and pranayama in the ancient and
mediaeval Sanskrit texts. Yoga Life, Sep 1997, 28(9):12-20.
Santana, Rose. Asanas for pranayama. Enlightened Practice, Dec 2003 – Jan 2004.
Saranam, Sankara. Pranayama in Theory and in Practice. Peralta, N.M.: The

Pranayama Institute. Available for purchase online: http://www.pranayama.org/read.html.
___________. Yoga and Judaism. Astrologue, 1997.
Claims that the Hebrew prophets were practitioners of the various systems of pranayama.
Saraswati, M. Swara Yoga: The Tantric Science of Breathing. Munger, Bihar, India:
Bihar School of Yoga, 1984.
Sarkar, A. K. Prana in the Upanishads. Hinduism, Spring 1980, no. 88, pp. 20-26.
Satchidananda, Swami. The Breath of Life: Integral Yoga Pranayama. Integral Yoga,
1998.
Satchidananda Ma. Kapalabhati. Spectrum: The Journal of the British Wheel of Yoga,
Winter 1999, pp. 22-23.
Satyananda Saraswati, Swami. Answers the questions: What is Pranayama? And what
is its purpose? What are the different varieties of Pranayamas? What are their techniques
for the practice and what are the benefits of those Pranayamas? Please enumerate some of
the important instructions in connection with the practice of Pranayama. In Ma
Yogabhakti, ed., Yoga Discussed in Relation to Other Thoughts & A Dialogue on
Practical Yoga. Bihar, India: The Bihar School of Yoga, 1968, pp. 75-82.
52
___________. Asana, Pranayama, Mudra, Bandha. Enlarged and revised ed. Munger,
Bihar, India: Bihar Yoga Bharati, 1996.
Satyanarayana, M., K. R. Rajeswari, N. J. Rnai,. C. S. Krishna, and P. V. Rao.

Effect of Santhi Kriya on certain psychophysiological parameters: A preliminary study.
Indian J Physiol Pharmacol, Apr 1992, 36(2):88-92. PMID: 1506088. (Body weight,
blood pressure, oral temperature, pulse rate, respiration, ECG, and EEG.)
Abstract: Santhi Kriya is a mixture of combined yogic practices of breathing and

relaxation. Preliminary attempts were made to determine the effect of Santhi Kriya on
certain psychophysiological parameters. Eight healthy male volunteers of the age group
25.9 +/- 3 (SD) years were subjected to Santhi Kriya practice daily for 50 minutes for 30
days. The volunteer's body weight, blood pressure, oral temperature, pulse rate,
respiration, ECG and EEG were recorded before and after the practice on the 1st day and
subsequently on 10th, 20th and 30th day of their practice. They were also given a
perceptual acuity test to know their cognitive level on the 1st day and also at the end of the
study i.e., on the 30th day. Results indicate a gradual and significant decrease in the body
weight from 1st to 30th day (P less than 0.001) and an increase in alpha activity of the
brain (P less than 0.001) during the course of 30 days of Santhi Kriya practice. Increase of
alpha activity both in occipital and pre- frontal areas of both the hemispheres of the brain
denotes an increase of calmness. This study also revealed that Santhi Kriya practice
increases oral temperature by 3 degrees F and decreases respiratory rate significantly (P
less than 0.05) on all practice days. Other parameters were not found to be altered
significantly. It is concluded that the Santhi Kriya practice for 30 days reduces body
weight and increases calmness.
Schiff, B. B., and S. A. Rump. Asymmetrical hemispheric activation and emotion: The
effects of unilateral forced nostril breathing. Brain and Cognition, 1995, 29:217-231.
Schmidt, Ole, and Swami Janakananda. Two breathing exercises—listening—and

music. Bindu, no. 2, pp. 8-9.
“The performance of music and yoga are originally closely related, as the musical sense
and ability to perceive tone are associated with Nada Yoga (sound yoga), and are
prepared for it through the use of breathing exe rcises.”
Instructions for Kapalbhati and Bhramari pranayama are given and Nada Yoga is
discussed.
Schulte, H. J., and V. V. Abhyanker. Yogic breathing and psychologic states. Ariz Med,
Sep 1979, 36(9):681-683.
Overview: “One of the authors (VVA) recently traveled to India and had the opportunity
to interview several well-known yogic masters regarding their use of yogic breating for
selected emotional disorders. The goal of this paper is to discuss the psychologic changes
53
associated with respiration controlled by the Yogic method. Two case examples will be
presented with discussion.”
Schumacher, John. Pranayama: Moving from the Physical to the Energetic workshop.
6th Annual Yoga Journal Convention, 27-30 Sep 2001, Estes Park, Colorado.
Scientific studies corroborating institutional pranayama. Journal of the Yoga Institute,

Dec 1981, 27(5):3-14.
Sequeira, H. Pranayama as I see it, part I. Yoga and Total Health, Aug 2000, pp. 11-12.
___________. About prana and pranayama from my studies, part II. Yoga and Total
Health, Sep 2000, pp. 20-22.
Contents: The tenfold prana [as described by Yajnavalkya], Channels of life force—nadis,
Prana and pranayama in the Upanisads, Pranayama in Puranas, Prana and pranayama in
the Yoga-Sutra, Study of prana and pranayama at The Yoga Institute, Pranayama IX
(anuloma- viloma)
Shannahoff-Khalsa, David. Unilateral forced nostril breathing: Basic science, clinical

trials, and selected advanced techniques. Subtle Energies and Energy Medicine Journal,
2001, 12(2).
Abstract: This article reviews the published basic science and clinical studies on
unilateral forced nostril breathing (UFNB), a subset of yogic breathing (pranayam)
techniques that were discovered/devised more than 5000 years ago. The relationship of
UFNB to the ultradian physiological phenomenon called the nasal cycle, a marker of
mind-body states is also reviewed. Basic science studies show how UFNB can effect the
autonomic nervous system, central nervous system (including cognition), and general
metabolic activities. Clinical trials on the application to angina pectoris and obsessive
compulsive disorder are described. In addition, three selected advanced UFNB techniques
are described; one for stimulating the immune system; one for developing a
comprehensive, comparative, and intuitive mind; and a third for developing an
enlightened-transcendent mind. These three techniques are part of the ancient science of
Kundalini Yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan.
___________. M. R. Boyle, and M. E. Buebel. The effects of unilateral forced nostril

breathing on cognition. International Journal of Neuroscience, 1991, 57:239-249.
Abstract: Ultradian rhythms of alternating cerebral dominance have been demonstrated in

humans and other mammals during waking and sleep. Human studies have used the
methods of psychological testing and electroencephalography (EEG) as measurements to
identify the phase of this \natural endogenous rhythm. The periodicity of this rhythm
approximates 1.5 – 3 hours in awake humans. This cerebral rhythm is tightly coupled to
another ultradian rhythm known as the nasal cycle, which is regulated by the autonomic
nervous system, and is exhibited by greater airflow in one nostril, later switching to the
other side. This paper correlates uninostril airflow with varying ratios of verbal/spatial
54
performance in 23 right-handed males. Relatively greater cognitive ability in one
hemisphere corresponds to unilateral forced nostril breathing in the contralateral nostril.
Cognitive performance ratios can be influenced by forcibly altering the breathing pattern.
___________, and B. Kennedy. The effects of unilateral forced nostril breathing on the
heart. International Journal of Neuroscience, Nov 1993, 73(1-2):47-60.
Abstract: Three experiments are described that employ impedance cardiography to
monitor the effects of unilateral forced nostril breathing (UFNB) on the heart.
Experiment 1 includes 7 subjects (4 males, 3 females) with a respiratory rate of 6
breaths/min (BPM). Experiment 2 includes 16 trials using one subject to examine the
intraindividual variability, at 6 BPM. Experiment 3 includes 10 trials with the same
subject in experiment 2, but with a respiratory rate of 2-3 breaths/s. This rapid rate of
respiration is a yogic breathing technique called "breath of fire" or "kapalabhatti" and
employs a very shallow but rapid breath in which the abdominal region acts like a
bellows. All 3 experiments demonstrated that right UFNB increases heart rate (HR)
compared to left. Experiment 1 gave 7 negative slopes, or lowering in HR with left nostril
breathing and 7 positive slopes, or increases in HR with right nostril breathing, p = .001.
The second and third experiments showed differences in HR means in which right UFNB
increases HR more than left, p = .013, p = .001, respectively. In experiment 2 stroke
volume was higher with left UFNB, p = .045, compensating for lower HR. Left UFNB
increased end diastolic volume as measured in both experiments 1 and 2, p = .006, p =
.001, respectively. These results demonstrate a unique unilateral effect on sympathetic
stimulation of the heart that may have therapeutic value.
Shantikumar, Yogacharya. The Science of Yogic Breathing (Pranayama). Bombay,

India: Taraporevala Sons, 1974.
Shrikrishna, Dr. Essence of Pranayama. Lonavla, India: Kaivalyadham Ashram, rev. enl.
1996.
___________. Essence of pranayama: Yogic concept of the body functions in the context
of pranayama. Yoga & Health, Feb 1997, pp. 14-16, 29-30.
___________. Essence of pranayama. Yoga & Health, Jun 1998, pp. 36-37.
Simply Breathing. Yoga International Reprint Series. Honesdale, Pa.: The Himalayan
International Institute Press, www.himalayaninstitute.org.
“Simple instructions on breath awareness, diaphragmatic breathing, the walking breath.”
Sinha, B., U. S. Ray, A. Pathak, and W. Selvamurthy. Energy cost and

cardiorespiratory changes during the practice of Surya Namaskar. Indian Journal of
Physiology and Pharmacology, Apr 2004, 48(2):184-190. PMID: 15521557.
Summary: The present study was undertaken to observe the energy cost and different
cardiorespiratory changes during the practice of sûrya-namaskara. Twenty-one male
55
volunteers from the Indian Army practiced selected yogic exercises six days a week for
three months. The practice schedule consisted of Hatha-Yoga âsanas (28 min),
prânâyâma (10.5 min), and meditation (5 min). Subjects first practiced kapâla-bhâti
prânâyâma for 2 min, then yoga-mudrâ for 2 min; after that they rested until oxygen
consumption and heart rate (HR) came to resting value. Subjects subsequently performed
SN for 3 min 40 sec on average. After three months of training, subjects performed the
entire yogic practice schedule in the laboratory, and measurements were taken. Their
pulmonary ventilation, carbon dioxide output, oxygen consumption, HR, and other
cardiorespiratory parameters were measured during the actual practice of SN. Oxygen
consumption was highest in the eighth posture (1.22+/-0.073 1 min(-1)) and lowest in the
first posture (0.35+/-0.02 1 min(-1)). Total energy cost throughout the practice of SN was
13.91 kcal and at an average of 3.79 kcal/min. During practice, the highest HR was
101+/-13.5 bpm. As an aerobic exercise SN seems to be ideal, as it involves both static
stretching and the slow dynamic component of exercise with optimal stress on the
cardiorespiratory system.
Sivagyana, Sannyasi (Richard Budden). Effects of pranayama on the brain. Article

available online: http://www.yogamag.net/archives/1997/1jan97/pranbran.shtml.
Sivananda, Swami. The Science of Pranayama. Tehri-Garhwal, U.P., Himalayas, India:

The Divine Life Society, 1997.
Contents: Prana and pranayama, What is prana?, Seat of prana, Sub-pranas and their
functions, The colour of pranas, The length of the air-currents, The centering of the prana,
The lungs, Ida and pingala, Sushumna, Kundalini, Shat-chakras, Nadis, Purification of the
nadis, Shat-karmas (the six purificatory processes), Dhautis, Basti, Neti, Trataka (gazing),
Nauli, Kapalabhati, [Chapter 2 brings dietary, meditative, etc., preparation for
pranayama], What is pranayama, Pranayama (according the Gita), Pranayama (according
to Sri Sankaracharya), Pranayama (according to Yogi Bhusunda), Control of breath,
Varieties of pranayama, Three types of pranayama, The Vedantic kumbhaka, Pranayama
for nadi-suddhi, Mantra during prana yama, Exercises 1-4, Deep breathing exercise,
Kapalabhati, The external kumbhaka (bahya), Easy comfortable pranayama (sukha
purvaka), Pranayama for awakening kundalini, Pranayama during meditation, Pranayama
while walking, Pranayama in savasana, Rhythmical breathing, Surya bheda, Ujjayi,
Sitkari, Sitali, Bhastrika, Bhramari, Murchha, Plavini, Kevala kumbhaka, Pranic healing,
Distant healing, Relaxation, Relaxation of mind, Importance and benefits of pranayama,
Special instructions, Concentration on solar plexus, Pancha dharana, Prithvi dharana,
Ambhasi dharana, Agneyi dharana, Vayavya dharana, Akasa dharana, Story of Yogi
Bhusunda, The inner factory, Yogic diet, Sivananda’s pranayama, Kundalini pranayama,
Questions and answers
___________. Science of pranayama. In Swami Sivananda, Yoga Asanas.

Shivanandanagar, India: The Divine Life Society, 1998, 82-94.
56
Contents: Exercise no. 1, Exercise no. 2, Kapalabhati, Suryabheda, Ujjayi, Sitkari, Sitali,
Bhastrika, Bhramari, Murcha, Plavini, Kevala Kumbhaka, Benefits of pranayama, Hints
on pranayama
Smith, Gordon. From breath to light: Simple guidelines to yogic breathing. Yoga &
Health, Mar 2000, p. 12.
Soleri, Sylvana. Making it through the holidays using pranayama. Enlightened Practice,
Dec 2003 – Jan 2004.
Some experimental studies in relation to pranayamic breathing. Yoga Awareness:

Quarterly Journal of YOCOCEN, Jul 1977, 1(1), Yococen Supplement, Report of The
Fifth International Conference of International Yoga Teachers Association, Panchgani,
India, December 1976, pp. 29-30.
On the effects of three different positions of the abdominal wall on kumbhaka.
Somerville, Rebecca. Relationship of yama, niyama and breath. In the article,

“Patanjali’s divine gift – part two: Sadhana Pada.” Australian Yoga Life, 2003, no. 6, p.
61.
Sovik, Rolf. Breathing lessons: Eliminating performance anxiety. Yoga International,

Nov/Dec 1993, pp. 36-40.
___________. A gradual awakening. Yoga International, Aug/Sep 1996, pp. 63-65. (On
starting a pranayama practice.)
___________. What moves the lungs? Yoga International, Dec/Jan 1997, pp. 67-69.
Article available online: http://www.himalayaninstitute.org/cgi-
local//do.pl?form=viewstory&id=89.
___________. Guided Relaxation and Breathing audiocassette. Honesdale, Pa.:

Himalayan Institute, 1998.
Side 1 provides a 13-minutes systematic reclining relaxation in the corspe pose, and side
2 provides a 9- minute deeply relaxing breathing practice in the crocodile pose.
___________. Breathing through emotions. Yoga International, Feb/Mar 2000, pp. 61-
64.
___________. Breathe! 6 techniques to keep you calm. Yoga International, Dec/Jan

2000, pp. 45-48.
___________. The science of breathing—the yogic view. Progress in Brain Research,

2000, 122:491-506.
57
___________. The art of breathing: Drawing the diaphragm. Yoga International,
Feb/Mar 2003, pp. 46-50.
Spicuzza, L., A. Gabutti, C. Porta, N. Montano, and L. Bernardi. Yoga and

chemoreflex response to hypoxia and hypercapnia. Lancet, 28 Oct 2000,
356(9240):1495-1496.
Abstract: We tested whether chemoreflex sensitivity could be affected by the practice of

yoga, and whether this is specifically because of a slow breathing rate obtained during
yoga or as a general consequence of yoga. We found that slow breathing rate per se
substantially reduc ed chemoreflex sensitivity, but long-term yoga practice was
responsible for a generalised reduction in chemoreflex.
Stancák, A., Jr., M. Kuna, P. Novák, M. A. Srinivasan, C. Dostálek, and S.

Vishnudevananda. Observations on respiratory and cardiovascular rhythmicities during
yogic high- frequency respiration. Physiol Res., 1991, 40(3):345-354. PMID: 1751482.
Yogic high- frequency respiration—kapalabhati (KB)—was studied in 24 subjects from a

point of rhythmicity. Respiratory movements, blood pressure and R-R intervals of ECG
were recorded in parallel and evaluated by spectral analysis of time series. Respiratory
signals during KB were modulated by 0.1 Hz rhythm in 82% of experiments. This
component was also present in R-R intervals and blood pressure during KB. Frequency
(0.2-0.3 Hz) was observed in 67% of respiratory records. The presence of the component
0.2-0.3 Hz in respiration was dependent on resting respiratory frequency. This frequency
component was reduced in R-R intervals but increased in blood pressure during
kapalabhati as compared to that at rest. The occurrence of both frequency components in
respiration during KB supports the hypothesis about the integrative role of cardiovascular
and respiratory rhythms in physiological states characterized by altered respiratory
frequency.
___________, M. Kuna, Srinivasan, C. Dostálek,and S. Vishnudevananda.

Kapalabhati: Yogic cleansing exercise. II. EEG topography analysis. Homeostasis, 1991,
33:182-189. PMID: 1818698.
Abstract: Topography of brain electrical activity was studied in 11 advanced yoga

practitioners during yogic high- frequency breathing kapalabhati (KB). Alpha activity was
increased during the initial five min of KB. Theta activity mostly in the occipital region
was increased during later stage s of 15 min KB compared to the pre-exercise period. Beta
1 activity increased during the first 10 min of KB in occipital and to a lesser degree in
parietal regions. Alpha and beta 1 activity decreased and theta activity was maintained on
the level of the initial resting period after KB. The score of General Deactivation factor
from Activation Deactivation Adjective Checklist was higher after KB exercise than
before the exercise. The results suggest a relative increase of slower EEG frequencies and
relaxatio n on a subjective level as the after effect of KB exercise.
___________, M. Kuna, Srinivasan, S. Vishnudevananda, and C. Dostálek.
58
Kapalabhati: Yogic cleansing exercise. I. Cardiovascular and respiratory changes.
Homeost Health Dis, Oct 1991, 33(3):126-34. PMID: 1818666.
Abstract: We studied cardiovascular and respiratory changes during yogic breathing

exercise kapalabhati (KB) in 17 advanced yoga practitioners. The exercise consisted in
fast shallow abdominal respiratory movements at about 2 Hz frequency. Blood pressure,
ECG and respiration were recorded continuously during three 5 min periods of KB and
during pre- and post-KB resting periods. The beat-to-beat series of systolic blood
pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), R-R intervals and respiration were
analysed by spectral analysis of time series. The mean absolute power was calculated in
three frequency bands--band of spontaneous respiration, band of 0.1 Hz rhythm and the
low- frequency band greater than 15 s in all spectra. The mean modulus calculated
between SBP and R-R intervals was used as a parameter of baroreceptor-cardiac reflex
sensitivity (BRS). Heart rate increased by 9 beats per min during KB. SBP and DBP
increased during KB by 15 and 6 mmHg respectively. All frequency bands of R-R
interval variability were reduced in KB. Also the BRS parameter was reduced in KB. The
amplitude of the high- frequency oscillations in SBP and DBP increased during KB. The
low- frequency blood pressure oscillations were increased after KB. The results point to
decreased cardiac vagal tone during KB which was due to changes in respiratory pattern
and due to decreased sensitivity of arterial baroreflex. Decreased respiratory rate and
increased SBP and low- frequency blood pressure oscillations after KB suggest a
differentiated pattern of vegetative activation and inhibition associated with KB exercise.
Stanescu, D. C., B. Nemery, C. Veriter, and C. Marechal. Pattern of breathing and

ventilatory response to CO2 in subjects practicing hatha-yoga. Journal of Applied
Physiology, 1981, 51:1625-1629.
Abstract: We studied eight Belgian subjects well advanced in the practice of hatha-yoga
and compared them with eight sex-, age-, and height- matched control subjects. Practice of
yoga (range 4-12 yr) involves control of posture and manipulation of breathing, including
slow near-vital capacity maneuvers accompanied by apnea at end inspiration and end
expiration. Average values for the yoga and the control group (in parentheses) are as
follows: ventilation (VE) 5.53 1 X min-1 (7.07); tidal volume (VT), 1.03 liters (0.56); rate
of breathing, 5.5 min-1 (13.4); end-tidal PCO2, 39.0 Torr (35.3). All differences are
significant (P less than 0.05). Ventilatory response to CO2 (rebreathing technique) was
significantly lower in the yoga group (P less than 0.01). The regression relating VE to VT
during rebreathing of CO2 was VE = 8.1 (VT - 0.23) for the yoga group and VE = 15.8
(VT - 0.16) for the control group (P less than 0.005). We attribute these changes to
chronic manipulation of respiration.
Steffensen, Sharon. Donna Farhi: A breathing workshop. YOGAChicago, Sep-Oct 1999,

pp. 18-19.
___________. A pranayama workshop in the windy city with Kausthub Desikachar.

YOGAChicago, May-Jun 2003, pp. 22-24.
59
Sterios, Peter. Rhythm of Breath workshop. 6th Annual Yoga Journal Convention, 27-30
Sep 2001, Estes Park, Colorado.
“‘When breath control is correct, mind control is possible,’ says Sri K. Pattabhi Jois.
Recognize and develop the subtle qualities of one’s practice necessary for breath control.
Proper positioning (alignment), sound (ujjayi), and rhythm (length) will be used to
understand the transformative power of proper breathing.”
Sudsuang, R., V. Chentanez, and K. Veluvan. Effect of Buddhist meditation on serum

cortisol and total protein levels, blood pressure, pulse rate, lung volume and reaction
time. Physiology and Behavior, Sep 1991, 50(3):543-548. PMID: 1801007.
Abstract: Serum cortisol and total protein levels, blood pressure, heart rate, lung volume,
and reaction time were studied in 52 males 20-25 years of age practicing Dhammakaya
Buddhist meditation, and in 30 males of the same age group not practicing meditation. It
was found that after meditation, serum cortisol levels were significantly reduced, serum
total protein level significantly increased, and systolic pressure, diastolic pressure and
pulse rate significantly reduced. Vital capacity, tidal volume and maximal voluntary
ventilation were significantly lower after meditation than before. There were also
significant decreases in reaction time after meditation practice. The percentage decrease
in reaction time during meditation was 22%, while in subjects untrained in meditation,
the percentage decrease was only 7%. Results from these studies indicate that practising
Dhammakaya Buddhist meditation produces biochemical and physiological changes and
reduces the reaction time.
Svoboda, Robert E. Cultivating prana. Third Annual Southwest Yoga Conference

Catalogue, Nov 2000, pp. 34-35.
Szabo, Rich. Hatha yoga breathing. Article available online:

http://abel.hive.no/oj/musikk/trompet/exercise/yoga.html.
Szanejko, Margaret. Blocks and breathing: Margaret Szanejko continues her studies
with Dr. Bhole. Spectrum: The Journal of the British Wheel of Yoga, Spring 1998, p. 11.
Taylor, Liz. Pranayama practices as taught on this summer’s YBT [Yoga Biomedical
Trust] retreat. Yoga Biomedical Bulletin, Autumn 1996, no. 32., p. 3.
Telles, Shirley. Oriental approaches to masculine and feminine subtle energy principles.
Perceptual Motor Skills, Apr 2005, 100(2):292-294. Author email: anvesana@vsnl.com.
Abstract: According to ancient Indian and Chinese texts the subtle energy (prana or chi)
flows through several thousand anatomically indistinguishable channels or meridians
(nadis). Three channels are especially important (ida, pingala, and sushumna). The ida
and pingala channels correlate with left and right uninostril breathing, respectively. Like
yin and yang, they are considered to represent the masculine and feminine principles
present in all creation irrespective of sex. From this perspective these principles are
60
assumed to be present simultaneously in persons of both sexes. This suggests that any
sex-specific effects of uninostril breathing may be associated with sex-based
physiological differences, not with ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ attributes of the channels
(and the corresponding nostrils).
___________, and T. Desiraju. Oxygen consumption during pranayamic type of very

slow-rate breathing. Indian Journal of Medical Research, Oct 1991, 94:357-363. PMID:
1794892.
Abstract: To determine whether the yogic Ujjayi pranayamic type of breathing that
involves sensory awareness and consciously controlled, extremely slow-rate breathing
including at least a period of end- inspiration breath holding in each respiratory cycle
would alter oxygen consumption or not, ten males with long standing experience in
pranayama, and volunteering to participate in the laboratory study were assessed. These
subjects aged 28-59 yr, had normal health appropriate to their age. Since kumbhak (timed
breath holding) is considered as an important phase of the respiratory cycle in the
pranayama, they were categorised into two groups of five each, one group practising the
short kumbhak varieties of pranayama, and the other the long kumbhak varieties of
pranayama. The duration of kumbhak phase was on an average 22.2 percent of the
respiratory cycle in the short kumbhak group, and 50.4 per cent in the long kumbhak
group. The oxygen consumption was measured in test sessions using the closed circuit
method of breathing oxygen through the Benedict-Roth spirometer. Each subject was
tested in several repeat sessions. Values of oxygen consumption of the period of
pranayamic breathing, and of post-pranayamic breathing period, were compared to
control value of oxygen consumption of the prepranayamic breathing period of each test
session. The results revealed that the short kumbhak pranayamic breathing caused a
statistically significant increase (52%) in the oxygen consumption (and metabolic rate)
compared to the pre-pranayamic baseline period of breathing. In contrast to the above,
the long kumbhak pranayamic breathing caused a statistically significant lowering (19%
of the oxygen consumption (and metabolic rate).
___________, and T. Desiraju. Heart rate alterations in different types of pranayamas.

Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 1992, 36(4):287-288.
___________, C. Joseph, S. Venkatesh, and T. Desiraju. Alterations of auditory

middle latency evoked potentials during yogic consciously regulated breathing and
attentive state of mind. International Journal of Psychophysiology, May 1993, 14(3):189-
198. PMID: 8340237.
Abstract: Middle latency auditory-evoked potentials (AEP-MLRs) of 10 healthy male

subjects in the age range of 21-33 years, were assessed to determine whether yogic
pranayamic practice would cause changes in them. The pranayama type assessed here is
an exercise of consciously-controlled rhythmic breathing involving timed breath-holding
in each cycle of breathing, while the subject holds utmost attention and experiences the
touch of inhaled air in the nasal passage [Ujjayi and Bhastrika type of pranayama]. The
results revealed that the Na-wave amplitude increased and latency decreased during the
61
period of pranayamic practice, whereas the Pa-wave was not significantly altered. The
change is interpreted as an indication of a generalized alteration cause in information
processing at the primary thalamo-cortical level during the concentrated mental exercise
of inducing modifications in neural mechanisms regulating a different functional system
(respiratory). Further [research is] required to understand the operational significances of
such changes.
___________, R. Nagarathna, and H. R. Nagendra. Breathing through a particular

nostril can alter metabolism and autonomic activities. Indian Journal of Physiology and
Pharmacology, 1994, 38(2):133-137. PMID: 8063359
Abstract: There is increasing interest in the fact that breathing exclusively through one
nostril may alter the autonomic functions. The present study aimed at checking whether
such changes actually do occur, and whether breathing is consciously regulated. 48 male
subjects, with ages ranging from 25 to 48 years were randomly assigned to different
groups. Each group was asked to practice one out of three pranayamas (viz. right nostril
breathing, left nostril breathing or alternate nostril breathing). These practices were
carried out as 27 respiratory cycles, repeated 4 times a day for one month. Parameters
were assessed at the beginning and end of the month, but not during the practice. The
“right nostril pranayama” group showed a significant increase, of 37% in baseline oxygen
consumption. The “alternate nostril” pranayama group showed an 18% increase, and the
left nostril pranayama group also showed an increase, of 24%. This increase in
metabolism could be due to increased sympathetic discharge to the adrenal medulla. The
“left nostril Pranayama” group showed an increase in volar galvanic skin resistance,
interpreted as a reduction in sympathetic nervous system activity supplying the sweat
glands. These results suggest that breathing selectively through either nostril could have a
marked activating effect or a relaxing effect on the sympathetic nervous system. The
therapeutic implications of being able to alter metabolism by changing the breathing
pattern have been mentioned.
___________, R. Nagarathna, and H. R. Nagendra. Physiological measures of right

nostril breathing. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 1996, 2(4):479-
484. PMID: 9395677.
Abstract: This study was conducted to assess the physiological effects of a yoga
breathing practice that involves breathing exclusively through the right nostril. This
practice is called surya anuloma viloma pranayama (SAV). Twelve volunteers (average
age 27.2 years +/- 3.3 years, four males) were assessed before and after test sessions
conducted on two consecutive days. On one day the test session involved practicing SAV
pranayama for 45 minutes (SAV session). During the test period of the other day,
subjects were asked to breathe normally for 45 minutes (NB session). For half the
patients (randomly chosen) the SAV session was on the first day and the NB session on
the next day. For the remaining six patients, the order of the two sessions was reversed.
After the SAV session (but not after the NB) there was a significant (P < .05, paired t
test) increase in oxygen consumption (17%) and in systolic blood pressure (mean
increase 9.4 mm Hg) and a significant decrease in digit pulse volume (45.7%). The latter
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two changes are interpreted to be the result of increased cutaneous vasoconstriction. After
both SAV and NB sessions, there was a significant decrease in skin resistance (two factor
ANOVA, Tukey test). These findings show that SAV has a sympathetic stimulating
effect. This technique and other variations of unilateral forced nostril breathing deserve
further study regarding therapeutic merits in a wide range of disorders.
___________, S. Narendran, P. Raghuraj, R. Nagarathna, and H. R. Nagendra.

Comparison of changes in autonomic and respiratory parameters of girls after yoga and
games at a community home. Perceptual Motor Skills, Feb 1997, 84(1):251-257.
___________, S. K. Reddy, and H. R. Nagendra. Oxygen consumption and respiration

following two yoga relaxation techniques. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback,
Dec 2000, 25(4):221-227. Author email: anvesana@vsnl.com. PMID: 11218923.
Abstract: The present study was conducted to evaluate a statement in anc ient yoga texts
that sugge sts that a combination of both “calming” and “stimulating” measures may be
especially helpful in reaching a state of mental equilibrium. Two yoga practices, one
combining “calming and stimulating” measures (cyclic meditation) and the other, a
“calming” technique (shavasan), were compared. The oxygen consumption, breath rate,
and breath volume of 40 male volunteers (group mean +/- SD, 27.0 +/- 5.7 years) were
assessed before and after sessions of cyclic meditation (CM) and before and after
sessions of shavasan (SH). The 2 sessions (CM, SH) were 1 day apart. Cyclic meditation
includes the practice of yoga postures interspersed with periods of supine relaxation.
During SH the subject lies in a supine position throughout the practice. There was a
significant decrease in the amount of oxygen consumed and in breath rate and an increase
in breath volume after both types of sessions (2- factor ANOVA, paired t test). However,
the magnitude of change on all 3 measures was greater after CM: (1) Oxygen
consumption decreased 32.1% after CM compared with 10.1% after SH; (2) breath rate
decreased 18.0% after CM and 15.2% after SH; and (3) breath volume increased 28.8%
after CM and 15.9% after SH. These results support the idea that a combination of yoga
postures interspersed with relaxation reduces arousal more than relaxation alone does.
Tigunait, Pandit Rajmani. Understanding the pranic sheath. Yoga International, [date
unknown].
___________. Waking the energy of breath. Living Joyfully (Himalayan Institute), Spring
2004, pp. 8-12.
“The majority of diseases today, both physical and psychosomatic, are related to the
lower half of the torso . . .
“Agni sara loosens the knots caused by fear, insecurity, sense cravings, anger, hatred,
loneliness, and sense of unworthiness.”
___________. Answers questions on preparing to practice pranayama. Yoga

International, Jun/Jul 2005, pp. 28-30.
63
___________. Answers the questions: “How do I prepare myself to practice pranayama?
What must I do (or not do) for a safe and successful practice?” “This doesn’t make sense.
Pranayama seems to be less vigorous and demanding than the asanas, especially the full
range of 84 classical poses. How can something as advanced as asana be a prerequisite to
something as simple as pranayama?” Yoga International, Jun/Jul 2005, pp. 28-30.
Tindall, Blair. Stage fright: A professional musician playing at Carnegie Hall comes to
terms with her intense fear of hitting a wrong note. Yoga Journal, Sep/Oct 2002, p. 192.
Tran, M. D., R. G. Holly, J. Lashbrook, and E. A. Amsterdam. Effects of Hatha Yoga

practice on the health-related aspects of physical fitness. Preventive Cardiology, Autumn
2001, 4(4):165-170. PMID: 11832673.
Abstract: Ten healthy, untrained volunteers (nine females and one male), ranging in age
from 18-27 years, were studied to determine the effects of hatha yoga practice on the
health-related aspects of physical fitness, including muscular strength and endurance,
flexibility, cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, and pulmonary function. Subjects
were required to attend a minimum of two yoga classes per week for a total of 8 weeks.
Each yoga session consisted of 10 minutes of pranayamas (breath-control exercises), 15
minutes of dynamic warm- up exercises, 50 minutes of asanas (yoga postures), and 10
minutes of supine relaxation in savasana (corpse pose). The subjects were evaluated
before and after the 8-week training program. Isokinetic muscular strength for elbow
extension, elbow flexion, and knee extension increased by 31%, 19%, and 28% (p<0.05),
respectively, whereas isometric muscular endurance for knee flexion increased 57%
(p<0.01). Ankle flexibility, shoulder elevation, trunk extension, and trunk flexion
increased by 13% (p<0.01), 155% (p<0.001), 188% (p<0.001), and 14% (p<0.05),
respectively. Absolute and relative maximal oxygen uptake increased by 7% and 6%,
respectively (p<0.01). These findings indicate that regular hatha yoga practice can elicit
improvements in the health-related aspects of physical fitness. Copyright © 2001 CHF,
Inc.
Udupa, Kaviraja, Madanmohan, Ananda Balayogi Bhavanani, P. Vijyalakshmi, and

N. Krishnamurthy. Effect of pranayam training on cardiac function in normal young
volunteers. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, Jan 2003, 47 (1):27-33.
Article available online: http://www.ijpp.com/vol47_no1_orgn_artcl_1.htm.
Abstract: Systolic tire intervals (STI) are non- invasive and sensitive tests for measuring
the ventricular performance. It has been reported that practice of pranayam modulates
cardiac autonomic status and improves cardio-respiratory functions. Keeping this in
view, the present study was designed to determine whether pranayam training has any
effect on ventricular performance as measured by STI and cardiac autonomic function
tests (AFT). Twenty- four school children were randomly divided into two groups of
twelve each. Group I (pranayam group) subjects were given training in nadishuddhi,
mukh-bhastrika, pranav and savitri pranayams and practised the same for 20 minutes
daily for a duration of 3 months. Group II (control group) subjects were not given any
pranayam training. STI (QS2 , LVET and PEP) and AFT (RRIV and QT/QS2 ) were
64
measured in both the groups at the beginning and again at the end of three months study
period. Pranayam training produced an increase in RRIV and a decrease in QT/QS2
suggesting an enhanced parasympathetic and blunted sympathetic activity respectively.
QS2 , PEP and PEP/LVET increased significantly, whereas LVET was reduced
significantly in pranayam group. In contrast, the changes in STI and AFT were much
less marked in the control group. Our study shows that three months of pranayam
training modulates ventricular performance by increasing parasympathetic activity and
decreasing sympathetic activity. Further studies on a larger sample size may illustrate the
underlying mechanism(s) involved in this alteration.
___________, R. H. Singh, and R. M. Shettiwar. Physiological and biochemical studies

on the effect of yoga and certain other exercises. Indian Journal of Medical Research,
1975, 63(4):620-625. PMID: 1213761.
___________. Studies on the effect of some yogic breathing exercises (Pranayams) in

normal persons. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 1975, 63:1062-1065.
University of Toledo. “BreathPlay” research. URL:

http://www.breathplay.com/toledotext.html.
Abstract: This study tested the effectiveness of Ian Jackson’s “BreathPlay” method of
respiration. BreathPlay uses a pattern of forceful expirations and less forceful inspirations
in varying ratios. The experimental (E) and control (C) subjects (N = 15 and 10) were
volunteers from local USCF clubs. All subjects participated in a maximal OXT (I) on
their own bicycles mounted on a wind-load trainer. Following I, E worked 12 hrs. with
Jackson over three days learning BreathPlay. Both groups were retested in the following
10 days (II). Percent changes from I to II were evaluated during the t-tests. Significant
gains from I to II by E versus C include time to exhaustion, 7.2 vs 0%, (p<.05). Decrease
in submaximal ER and RPE, 4.7 vs 2.8% and 9.6 vs 4.6% (p<.01, p<.02). Peak %CO2
occurred 26.8 later vs 14.8% earlier for C (p<.001. Time of RQ = 1.0 was extended 2.0
minutes for E vs .85 minutes for C (p<.20). Anaerobic threshold (AT) was delayed fo r
2.0 minutes for E in II. Submaximal VCO2 and %CO2 was decreased for E vs C, 9.8 vs
0.8% (p<.05). For racing cyclists BreathPlay increases endurance and delays onset of AT.
Discussion: It is a commonly held belief that there is little or no enhanced athletic

performance with voluntary breath patterning by healthy subjects for activities other than
swimming. The purpose of the present investigation was to determine if an experimental
basis exists for anecdotal reports for the effectiveness of the BreathPlay technique of
voluntary ventilatory patterning (VVP) for racing cyclists.
The results of the present study suggest that endurance cycling performance may be
enhanced by voluntary breath patterning in which cyclists exaggerate the force and
duration of exhalation. Cyclists using this technique demonstrated a significant increase
in time to exhaustion. The improved endurance performance was accompanied by
significantly lower submaximal V02 HR and RPE in those cyclists using VVF. The lower
VO2’s may have been the result of increased ventilatory efficiency. If ventilatory
65
efficiency increases with VVP then a lower value for the oxygen cost of breathing (OCB)
may be expected. Since the OCB can rise to 10% of VO2 during exercise a reduction
could significantly reduce total body oxygen consumption. It has also been hypothesized
that distraction from the sensation of effort can reduce the HR and RPE response to
exercise. The concentration required to perform VVP may therefore be in part
responsible for the lower va lues observed in the cyclists using the experimental
technique.
A second explanation for the lower HRs may be that a reduction in intrathoracic pressure
may occur during the prolonged exhalation. A reduced intrathoracic pressure would
reduce impedance to venous return that would in turn facilitate an increased stroke
volume and decreased HR while maintaining the required cardiac output.
It is interesting to note that the increase in endurance times observed in the experimental
group was not accompanied by an increase in VO2 peak under the same condition. The
improve endurance performance would therefore seem to be related to the lower
submaximal VO2 and the observed delay in inset of the anaerobic threshold.
Much additional research regarding the potentia l of VVP remains to be performed before
it may be recommended as an ergogenic aid. At present the results appear promising and
suggest a role for VVP to enhance the endurance performance of racing cyclists.
The use of breath as a natural tranquilizer. L’yx, Special Issue 2000 in English, pp, 7-
8.
Venkatesananda, Swami. Prana. 1975. Article available online:

http://www.dailyreadings.com/prana.htm.
___________. The regulation of the life force: The practice of pranayama. 1975. Article
available online: http://www.dailyreadings.com/pranayama.htm#lifeforce.
Volin, Michael, and Nancy Phelan. Yoga Breathing. London: Pelham, 1966.
Vyas, Rashmi, and Nirupama Dikshit. Effect of meditation on respiratory system,

cardiovascular system and lipid profile. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology,
Oct 2002, 46(4):487-491.
Abstract: In this study, respiratory functions, cardiovascular parameters and lipid profile
of those practicing Raja Yoga meditation (short and long term meditators) were
compared with those of nonmeditators. Vital capacity, tidal volume and breath holding
were significantly higher in short and long term meditators than nonmeditators. Long
term meditators has significantly higher vital capacity and expiratory pressure than short
and long term meditators than nonmeditators. Long term meditators had significantly
higher vital capacity and expiratory pressure than short term meditators. Diastolic blood
pressure was significantly lower in both short and long term meditators as compared to
nonmeditators. Heart rate was significantly lower in long term meditators than in short
66
term meditators and nonmeditators. Lipid profile showed a significant lowering of serum
cholesterol in short and long term meditators as compared to nonmeditators. Lipid profile
of short and long term meditators was better than the profile of nonmeditators inspite of
similar physical activity. This shows the Raja Yoga meditation provides significant
improvements in respiratory functions, cardiovascular parameters and lipid profile.
Webb, Janet. Clear your mind: The practice of kapalabhati. Yoga International, Oct/Nov
2002, pp. 36-41.
Weintraub, Amy. Fire in the belly—managing [depression] with yogic breathing; Art of
living—breathing that heals. In Amy Weintraub, Yoga for Depression: A Compassionate
Guide to Relieve Suffering through Yoga. New York: Broadway Books, 2004, pp. 120-
150; 151-168. Author’s email: amy@amyweintraub.com.
Weitzberg, Eddie. Breathe through the nose! Modern research confirms the wisdom of
the yoga tradition. Bindu, 2000, no. 13.
Weller, Stella. Breath & the mind: Because the relationship between breath and mind is
reciprocal, we can create a change in our emotional state by consciously altering our
pattern of breathing. Yoga & Health, Jun 1999, pp. 5-7.
Werntz, D. A., R. G. Bickford, F. E. Bloom, and D. S. Shannahoff-Khalsa.

Alternating cerebral hemispheric activity and lateralization of autonomic nervous
function. Human Neurobiology, 1983, 2:39-43. PMID: 6874437.
Abstract: Alternating dominance of cerebral hemispheric activity was demonstrated in

humans by use of the electroencephalogram (EEG). Relative changes of electrocortical
activity have a direct correlation with changes in the relative nostril dominance, the so-
called nasal cycle. The nasal cycle is a phenomenon where efficiency of breathing
alternates predominantly through right or left nostril with a periodicity ranging from 25 to
greater than 200 minutes. Relatively greater integrated EEG value in one hemisphere
correlates with predominant airflow in the contralateral nostril, defining a new
interrelationship between cerebral dominance and peripheral autonomic nervous function.
___________, R. G. Bickford, and D. Shannahoff-Khalsa. Selective hemispheric

stimulation by uninostril forced nostril breathing. Human Neurobiology, 1987, 6:165-
171. PMID: 3449485.
Abstract: We have previously demonstrated by the integration of EEG amplitudes, that an

ultradian rhythm of alternating cerebral dominance exists in humans. This rhythm is
tightly coupled with the nasal cycle, since its lateralization correlates with shifts in
airflow through the left and right nostrils, where relatively greater integrated amplitudes
in one hemisphere correspond to predominant airflow in the contralateral nostril. The
nasal cycle is known to be regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of
the autonomic nervous system. This dynamic lateralization of alternating activity in the
autonomic nervous system exists in other peripheral structures and is also likely to be the
mode of regulation of the cortical rhythm. This paper shows that forced nostril breathing
67
in one nostril produces a relative increase in the EEG amplitude in the contralateral
hemisphere. This phenomena was demonstrated in 5 out of 5 untrained subjects. These
results suggest the possibility of a non-invasive approach in the treatment of states of
psychopathology where lateralized cerebral dysfunction have been shown to occur.
Where is your diaphragm? Yoga Today, no. 1., pp. 28-29.
Whitwell, Mark, with David Hurwitz. Asana, pranayama, meditation: A seamless

process. LA Yoga, Jul/Aug 2003, pp. 44-45.
Wood, C. Mood change and perceptions of vitality: A comparison of the effects of

relaxation, visualization and yoga. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, May 1993,
86(5):254-258. PMID: 8505745.
Abstract: The effects of three different procedures, relaxation, visualization and yogic
breathing (pranayama) and stretch on perceptions of physical and mental energy and on
postive and negative mood states have bee nassessed in a group of normal volunteers (N
= 71, age range 21-76). Pranayama produced a significantly greater increase in
perceptions of mental and physical energy and feelings of alertness and enthusiasm than
the other two procedures (P < 0.5). Relaxation made subjects significantly more sleepy
and sluggish immediately after the session than pranayama (P < 0.05). Visualization
made them more sluggish but less content than pranayama (P < 0.05) and more upset than
relaxation after the second session (P < 0.05). Thus, a 30 min programme of yogic stretch
and breathing exercises which is simple to learn and which can be practised even by the
elderly had a markedly “invigorating” effect on perceptions of both mental and physical
energy and increased high positive mood. A more extensive investigation is planned to
establish whether such a programme can readily be incorporated into everyday life, and
with what long-term results.
Xerri, Philip. Pranayama: Part one. Spectrum: The Journal of the British Wheel of Yoga,
Spring 2002, pp. 14-17.
___________. Pranayama: Part Two. Spectrum: The Journal of the British Wheel of
Yoga, Summer 2002, pp.20-22.
___________. Pranayama: Part three. Spectrum, Autumn 2002, pp. 20-22.
___________. Pranayama Teacher Training and Foundation Course. London and

Sheffield, England. Email: pax_yoga@yahoo.com; URL: www.yogaquests.co.uk.
Yadav, R. K., and S. Das. Effect of yogic practice on pulmonary functions in young
females. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oct 2001, 45(4):493-496.
PMID: 11883159.
Abstract: During recent years, a lot of research work has been done to show the beneficial
effects of yoga training. The present study was undertaken to assess the effects of yogic
practice on some pulmonary functions. Sixty healthy young female subjects (age group
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17-28 yrs.) were selected. They had to do the yogic practices daily for about one hour.
The observations were recorded by MEDSPIROR, in the form of FVC, FEV-1 and PEFR
on day-1, after 6 weeks and 12 weeks of their yo gic practice. There was significant
increase in FVC, FEV-1 and PEFR at the end of 12 weeks.
Yee, Rodney. The Art of Breath and Relaxation audiocassettes. Venice, Calif.: Living
Arts. 90 minutes.
Yesudian, Selvarajan. New pranayama breathing exercises, hatha yoga exercises and
their therapeutic effects. In Selvarajan Yesudian, Yoga Week by Week: Exercise and
Meditations for All the Year Round. New York: Harper & Row, 1975, pp. 131-172.
Yoga Biomedical Trust. Hyperventilation classes. URL:

http://freespace.virgin.net/yogabio.med/ (click on “Yoga Therapy & How to Try It,” then
click on “Index-Alphabetical,” then click on “Hyperventilation”).
Yogeshwaranand Saraswati Maharaj, Brahmarshi 108 Swami. Science of Vital

Force: A New Research on Self—and God-Realization—by the Medium of Prana. New
Delhi: Yoga Niketan Trust, 1980.
Chapters include: Genesis of prana; Order of succession of prana [in the causal body];
Origination of prana from the tanmatra of touch in the realm of ahankar; Origination and
essential nature of prana in the realm of gross elements; In the realm of gross elements
perception of thirty types of pranas in the gross body and self-realisation by samadhi; In
the realm of subtle elements or five tanmatras perception of thirty types of pranas and
self-realisation by the tanmatra of touch; In the realm of mahat, perception of three types
of more sublte pranas in the causal body and self-realisation; Realisation of Brahma and
the most subtle causal pran in the quiescent state of prakriti
Of Related Interest
Aldridge, David. Philosophical speculations on two therapeutic applications of breath.

Subtle Energies and Energy Medicine Journal, 2001, 12(2).
Abstract: Life begins and ends with breath. Slight bodily changes are brought about by
alteration in the mechanisms of breath. In addition, mental changes are also influenced by
breath. Our general condition of well-being is dependent upon the rhythmic cycles of
breathing within us. Similarly, emotions change the rhythm of breath and when we
become overexcited, then we lose control over the breath. By gaining control of the
breath then we gain mastery of mind and body. Not only that, we also establish a
connection with the world around us, of which we are part, through the breath.
Two specific healing initiatives based upon breath are used as illustration of breath both
as a subtle organizing property and as a material manifestation. The first example is the
use of breath through singing to intentionally organize the physiological abilities of
another person as they recover from coma. Singing is literally the intentional use of
69
breath to heal realized through a particular therapeutic form, which is improvised music
therapy. A fundamental property of breathing is that it has rhythm. In musical terms,
rhythm has to have the property of intention otherwise it would be simply cyclic
repetition or pulse. The second healing initiative is that of Qigong Yangsheng for the
treatment of asthma. Breathing is used here also as an intentional activity, this time by the
patient to improve his or her own breathing abilities and to heal what is essentially a
breathing problem, the material manifestation of airflow. In this latter example, the
healer acts as a teacher and guide for the sufferer to influence her own breathing.
Aust, G., and K. Fischer. [Changes in body equilibrium response caused by breathing.
A posturographic study with visual feedback.] Laryngorhinootologie, Oct 1997,
76(10):577-582. [In German.]
Abstract: . . . deals with the psychophysical breath work by Middendorf and examines
whether it has an effect on reactions of the body’s equilibrium system . . . Group 1 and 2
show significantly better results in the posturographic test with visual feedback than
subjects without experience in breath work (Group 3). Furthermore, posturographic
results immediately after one hour of breath work reveal clear improvements in the body
equilibrium.
Bai, J., H. Lu, J. Zhang, and X. Zhou. Simulation study of the interaction between
respiration and the cardiovascular system. Meth. Inf. Med., 1997, 36:261-263.
Bass, C., and W. N. Gardner. Emotional influences on breathing and breathlessness.

Journal of Psychosomatic Res., 1985, 29:599-609.
Bell, Harold J., and James Duffin. The respiratory response to passive limb movement
is suppressed by a cognitive task. Journal of Applied Physiology, 2004. Author email:
j.duffin@utoronto.ca.
Abtract: Feedback from muscles stimulates ventilation at the onset of passive movement.
We hypothesized that central neural activity via a cognitive task source would interact
with afferent feedback, and we tested this hypothesis by examining the fast changes in
ventilation at the transition from rest to passive leg movement, under two conditions: (A)
no task, and (B) solving a computer-based puzzle. Resting breathing was greater in
condition (B) than in condition (A); evidenced by an increase in mean ± SEM breathing
frequency (18.2 ± 1.1 br min-1 versus 15.0 ± 1.2 br min-1, p = 0.004) and ventilation
(10.93 ± 1.16 l min-1 versus 9.11 ± 1.17 l min-1 p < 0.001). In condition (A) the onset of
passive movement produced a fast increase in mean ± SEM breathing frequency ( = 2.9 ±
0.4 br min-1, p < 0.001), tidal volume ( = 233 ± 95 ml, p < 0.001) and ventilation ( = 6.00
± 1.76 l min-1, p < 0.001). However, in condition (B) the onset of passive movement
only produced a fast increase in mean ± SEM breathing frequency ( = 1.3 ± 0.4 br min-1,
p = 0.045), significantly smaller than in condition (A) (p = 0.007). These findings provide
evidence for an interaction between central neural cognitive activity and the afferent
feedback mechanism, and we conclude that the performance of a cognitive task
suppresses the respiratory response to passive movement.
70
Bernardi, Luciano, C. Passino, V. Wilmerding, G. M. Dallam, D. L. Parker, R. A.
Robergs, and O. Appenzeller. Breathing patterns and cardiovascular autonomic
modulation during hypoxia induced by simulated altitude. Journal of Hypertension, 2001,
19:947-958.
___________, C. Porta, L. Spicuzza, J. Bellwon, G. Spadacini, A. W. Frey, L. Y.

Yeung, J. E. Sanderson, R. Pedretti, and R. Tramarin. Slow breathing increases
arterial baroreflex sensitivity in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation, 15 Jan
2002, 105(2):143-145. PMID: 11790690. Author email: lbern1ps@unipv.it.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: It is well established that a depressed baroreflex sensitivity

may adversely influence the prognosis in patients with chronic heart failure (CHF) and in
those with previous myocardial infarction. METHODS AND RESULTS: We tested
whether a slow breathing rate (6 breaths/min) could modify the baroreflex sensitivity in
81 patients with stable (2 weeks) CHF (age, 58+/-1 years; NYHA classes I [6 patients], II
[33], III [27], and IV [15]) and in 21 controls. Slow breathing induced highly significant
increases in baroreflex sensitivity, both in controls (from 9.4+/-0.7 to 13.8+/-1.0 ms/mm
Hg, P<0.0025) and in CHF patients (from 5.0+/-0.3 to 6.1+/-0.5 ms/mm Hg, P<0.0025),
which correlated with the value obtained during spontaneous breathing (r=+0.202,
P=0.047). In addition, systolic and diastolic blood pressure decreased in CHF patients
(systolic, from 117+/-3 to 110+/-4 mm Hg, P=0.009; diastolic, from 62+/-1 to 59+/-1 mm
Hg, P=0.02). CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that in patients with CHF, slow
breathing, in addition to improving oxygen saturation and exercise tolerance as has been
previously shown, may be beneficial by increasing baroreflex sensitivity.
___________, Giammario Spadacini, Jerzy Bellwon, Ramiz Hajric, Helmut

Roskamm, and Axel W. Frey. Effect of breathing rate on oxygen saturation and
exercise performance in chronic heart failure. The Lancet, 2 May 1998, 351(9112):1308-
1311.
The training of respiratory muscles decreases respiratory work and at the same time
achieves higher levels of blood oxygen. This is of special importance for cardiac patients
since the low blood oxygen common in cardiac patients “may impair skeletal muscle and
metabolic function, and lead to muscle atrophy and exercise intolerance.” Patients in this
study who were trained to slow down their breathing via special deep-breathing
techniques achieved higher blood oxygen levels and were able to perform better on
exercise tests. (The optimum breath rate was found to be 6 breaths per minute, as
opposed to the average resting rate of 12-14 breaths per minute.)
Brener, J., and D. Hothersall. Paced respiration and heart rate control.
Psychophysiology, 1967, 4:1-6.
Cappo, B. M., and D. S. Holmes. The utility of prolonged respiratory exhalation for
reducing physiological and psychological arousal in non-threatening and threatening
situations. Journal of Psychosomatic Res., 1984, 28:265-273.
71
Chinese Yoga Federation. Qigong: Chinese breathing. Yoga Today, Oct 1980, 5(6):16-
19.
Christiansen, Bjorn. Thus Speaks the Body: Attempts toward a Personology from the
Point of View of Respiration and Postures. New York: Arno Press, 1972.
Christie, R. V. Some types of respiration in the neuroses. Quarterly Journal of Medicine,

1935, 16:427-432.
Collinge, William, and Paul R. Yarnold. Transformational breath work in medical

illness: Clinical application and evidence of immunoenhancement. Subtle Energies and
Energy Medicine Journal, 2001, 12(2).
Abstract: The term “transformational breath work” commonly refers to techniques which
use the breath for inducing altered states of consciousness to promote healing on any
level. This paper describes common elements of transformational breath work and
rationale for its use in medical illness. It then describes the use of one form, Evocative
Breath Therapy (EBT), TM within a group mind/body medicine program. The technique
employs an hour-long, four-stage process of focused awareness on the breath
accompanied by guided imagery and evocative music. It is designed to induce an altered
state of consciousness that promotes expanded self-awareness, self-acceptance, self-
compassion, a sense of inner peace, and release of emotional and physical tension. A
pilot study was conducted to determine the impact of EBTTM on one indicator of
immune function, salivary immunoglobulin A (S-IgA). A heterogeneous sample of forty-
five adults (21 cancer patients, 22 healthy others, 2 with other illnesses) contributed
saliva samples before and immediately after the experience. A 46.3% increase in S-IgA
was found (p = 0.0123, paired-differences t-test). There were no significant differences
between cancer patients and others. Effect strength was moderate, .278. Leave-one-out
analysis found the effect strength to decrease only marginally, suggesting the results are
likely generalizeable to independent random samples. Issues in the use of
transformational breath work in clinical programs and implications for further research
are discussed.
Control of human ventilation. Article available online:

http://homepages.culver.edu/faculty/jcoelho/biol309/ventlate.htm.
A brief overview of the physiology of human respiration.
Cysarz,Dirk, Dietrich von Bonin, Helmut Lackner, Peter Heusser, Maximilian

Moser, and Henrik Bettermann. Oscillations of heart rate and respiration synchronize
during poetry recitation. American Journal of Physiology: Hearth and Circulatory
Physiology, 2004, 287:H579-H587. Author email: d.cysarz@rhythmen.de. Abstract:
http://ajpheart.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/287/2/H579?ct
72
Abstract: The objective of this study was to investigate the synchronization between low-
frequency breathing patterns and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) of heart rate during
guided recitation of poetry, i.e., recitation of hexameter verse from ancient Greek
literature performed in a therapeutic setting. Twenty healthy volunteers performed three
different types of exercises with respect to a cross-sectional comparison: 1) recitation of
hexameter verse, 2) controlled breathing, and 3) spontaneous breathing. Each exercise
was divided into three successive measurements: a 15-min baseline measurement (S1), 20
min of exercise, and a 15- min effect measurement (S2). Breathing patterns and RSA were
derived from respiratory traces and electrocardiograms, respectively, which were
recorded simultaneously using an ambulatory device. The synchronization was then
quantified by the index , which has been adopted from the analysis of weakly coupled
chaotic oscillators. During recitation of hexameter verse, was high, indicating prominent
cardiorespiratory synchronization. The controlled breathing exercise showed
cardiorespiratory synchronization to a lesser extent and all resting periods (S1 and S2)
had even fewer cardiorespiratory synchronization. During spontaneous breathing,
cardiorespiratory synchronization was minimal and hardly observable. The results were
largely determined by the extent of a low-frequency component in the breathing
oscillations that emerged from the design of hexameter recitation. In conclusion,
recitation of hexameter verse exerts a strong influence on RSA by a prominent low-
frequency component in the breathing pattern, generating a strong cardiorespiratory
synchronization.
Deshmukh, V. D. Limbic autonomic arousal: Its physiological classification and review

of the literature. Clinical Electroencephalography, 1991, 22(1):46-60.
Abstract; The object of this article is to present a novel physiological classification of

Limbic-Autonomic (LA) arousal on the basis of human physiological data, specifically
the oro-nasal breathing patterns in man. It is proposed that the multidimensional LA
arousal can be classified into five grades: Grade I: Non- nasal (NN) or oral breathing with
bilateral nasal congestion, and nonactive behavior, Grade II: Left Nasal (LN) breathing
and quiet behavior, Grade III: Right Nasal (RN) breathing and active behavior, Grade IV:
Bilateral Nasal (BN) breathing and very active behavior, and Grade V: Oral and Bilateral
Nasal (ON) breathing with maximal behavioral activation. The data from polygraphic
electroencephalographic recordings from five healthy volunteers, before, during and after
exercise are presented in support of this physiological classification of LA arousal. On
the basis of Limbic-Autonomic asymmetry a novel concept of ‘Visceral Dominance’ is
also proposed.
Douglas-Klotz, Neil. The natural breath: Towards further dialogue between Western
somatic and Eastern spiritual approaches to the body awareness of breathing. The
Healing Breath: A Journal of Breathwork Practice, Healing and Spirituality, 2002, 2(2).
Article available online:
http://www.healingbreathjournal.org/collected_authors_healingbreathjournal.pdf.
Eccles, R. The central rhythm of the nasal cycle. Acta Otolarangolica, 1978, 86:464-468.
73
Elgelid, Staffan. The importance of breath retraining and breath awareness for the acute
care patient. Acute Care Perspectives, Winter 2001, 10(4).
Engel, B. T., and R. A. Chism. Effect of increases and decreases in breathing rate on
heart rate and finger pulse volume. Psychophysiology, 1967, 4:83-89.
Fan, Hsing-Hua, and Michael C. K. Khoo. Analysis of autonomic regulation through

respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Article available online:
http://www.usc.edu/dept/biomed/graduate/grodins/GRODINS1999/fan.html.
Feldman, Jack L., Gordon S. Mitchell, and Eugene E. Nattie. Breathing: Rhythmicity,
plasticity, chemosensitivity. Annual Review of Neuroscience, Jul 2003, 26:239-266. Author
email: feldman@ucla.edu.
Abstract: Breathing is a vital behavior that is particularly amenable to experimental

investigation. We review recent progress on three problems of broad interest. (i) Where
and how is respiratory rhythm generated? The preBötzinger Complex is a critical site,
whereas pacemaker neurons may not be essential. The possibility that coupled oscillators
are involved is considered. (ii) What are the mechanisms that underlie the plasticity
necessary for adaptive changes in breathing? Serotonin-dependent long-term facilitation
following intermittent hypoxia is an important exa mple of such plasticity, and a model
that can account for this adaptive behavior is discussed. (iii) Where and how are the
regulated variables CO2 and pH sensed? These sensors are essential if breathing is to be
appropriate for metabolism. Neurons with appropriate chemosensitivity are spread
throughout the brainstem; their individual properties and collective role are just
beginning to be understood.
Feleky, A. The influence of the emotions on respiration. Journal of Experimental

Psychology, 1916, 1:218-241.
Foglino, Annette. Take a breather. Living Fit, Nov/Dec 1997, pp. 34-35.
Fried, Robert. Breath Well, Be Well: A Program to Relieve Stress, Anxiety,

Hypertension, Migraine, and Other Disorders for Better Health. John Wiley & Sons,
1999.
“This straightforward . . . guide shows readers how to take advantage of several easy
breathing techniques and exercises to effectively reduce stress—the most common health
complaint in North America—as well as a range of other health problems, including
asthma, migraines, hypertension, hyperventilation, and psychosomatic disorders. The
author presents simple breathing exercises anyone can do, any time . . .”
___________. Why do we need to teach natural breathing? The Healing Breath: A

Journal of Breathwork Practice, Healing and Spirituality, 2000, 2(3). Article available
online: http://www.healingbreathjournal.org/collected_authors_healingbreathjournal.pdf.
74
___________, and Joseph Grimaldi. The Psychology and Physiology of Breathing: In
Behavioral Medicine, Clinical Psychology, and Psychiatry. The Plenum Series in
Behavioral Psychophysics. New York: Plenum, 1993.
Giardino, Nicholas D., Robb W. Glenny, Soo Borson, and Leighton Chan.
Respiratory sinus arrhythmia is associated with efficiency of pulmonary gas exchange in
healthy humans. American Journal of Physiology—Heart and Circulation Physiology,
May 2003, 284(5):H1585-H1591
Abstract: Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) may be associated with improved

efficiency of pulmonary gas exchange by matching ventilation to perfusion within each
respiratory cycle. Respiration rate, tidal volume, minute ventilation (E), exhaled carbon
dioxide (CO2), oxygen consumption (O2), and heart rate were measured in 10 healthy
human volunteers during paced breathing to test the hypothesis that RSA contributes to
pulmonary gas exchange efficiency. Cross-spectral analysis of heart rate and respiration
was computed to calculate RSA and the coherence and phase between these variables.
Pulmonary gas exchange efficiency was measured as the average ventilatory equivalent
of CO2 (E/CO2) and O2 (E/O2). Across subjects and paced breathing periods, RSA was
significantly associated with CO2 (partial r = 0.53, P = 0.002) and O2 (partial r = 0.49, P
= 0.005) exchange efficiency after controlling for the effects of age, respiration rate, tidal
volume, and average heart rate. Phase between heart rate and respiration was significantly
associated with CO2 exchange efficiency (partial r = 0.40, P = 0.03). These results are
consistent with previous studies and further support the theory that RSA may improve the
efficiency of pulmonary gas exchange.
Goyeche, J. R. M., Y. Ago, and Y. Ikemi. Breathing and psychosomatic medicine.

Asian Med Journal, 1978, 21:54-59.
Grossman, E., A. Grossman, M. H. Schein, R. Zimlichman, and B. Gavish.

Breathing-control lowers blood pressure. Journal of Human Hypertension, Apr 2001,
15(4):263-269. PMID 11319675. Author email: gross-e@zahav.net.il.
Abstract: We hypothesize that routinely applied short sessions of slow and regular
breathing can lower blood pressure (BP). Using a new technology BIM (Breathe with
Interactive Music), hypertensive patients were guided towards slow and regular
breathing. The present study evaluates the efficacy of the BIM in lowering BP. We
studied 33 patients (23M/10F), aged 25-75 years, with uncontrolled BP. Patients were
randomized into either active treatment with the BIM (n = 18) or a control treatment with
a Walkman (n = 15). Treatment at home included either musically- guided breathing
exercises with the BIM or listening to quiet music played by a Walkman for 10 min daily
for 8 weeks. BP and heart rate were measured both at the clinic and at home with an
Omron IC BP monitor. Clinic BP levels were measured at baseline, and after 4 and 8
weeks of treatment. Home BP measurements were taken daily, morning and evening,
throughout the study. The two groups were matched by initial BP, age, gender, body
mass index and medication status. The BP change at the clinic was -7.5/-4.0 mm Hg in
the active treatment group, vs -2.9/-1.5 mm Hg in the control group (P = 0.001 for
75
systolic BP). Analysis of home- measured data showed an average BP change of -5.0/-2.7
mm Hg in the active treatment group and -1.2/+0.9 mm Hg in the control group. Ten out
of 18 (56%) were defined as responders in the active treatment group but only two out of
14 (14%) in the control group (P = 0.02). Thus, breathing exercise guided by the BIM
device for 10 min daily is an effective non-pharmacological modality to reduce BP.
Halámek, Josef, Tomás Kára, Pavel Jurák, Miroslav Soucek, Darrel P. Francis, L.
Ceri Davies, Win K. Shen, Andrew J. S. Coats, Miroslav Novák, Zuzana Nováková,
Roman Panovsk , Ji í Toman, Josef umbera, and Virend K. Somers. Variability of
phase shift between blood pressure and heart rate fluctuations: A marker of short-term
circulation control. Circulation, 2003, 108:292. Author email: Josef@isibrno.cz.
Abstract: Background : We postulated that the variability of the phase shift between blood
pressure and heart rate fluctuation near the frequency of 0.10 Hz might be useful in
assessing autonomic circulatory control. Methods and Results: We tested this hypothesis
in 4 groups of subjects: 28 young, healthy individuals; 13 elderly healthy individuals; 25
patients with coronary heart disease; and 19 patients with a planned or implanted
cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD recipients). Data from 5 minutes of free breathing and at 2
different, controlled breathing frequencies (0.10 and 0.33 Hz) were used. Clear
differences (P<0.001) in variability of phase were evident between the ICD recipients and
all other groups. Furthermore, at a breathing frequency of 0.10 Hz, differences in
baroreflex sensitivity (P<0.01) also became evident, even though these differences were
not apparent at the 0.33-Hz breathing frequency. Conclusions : The frequency of 0.10 Hz
represents a useful and potentially important one for controlled breathing, at which
differences in blood pressure-RR interactions become evident. These interactions,
whether computed as a variability of phase to define stability of the blood pressure-heart
rate interaction or defined as the baroreflex sensitivity to define the gain in heart rate
response to blood pressure changes, are significantly different in patients at risk for
sudden arrhythmic death. In young versus older healthy individuals, only baroreflex gain
is different, with the variability of phase being similar in both groups. These
measurements of short-term circulatory control might help in risk stratification for sudden
cardiac death.
Hanna, Thomas. Somatic Exercises™ for Full Breathing audiocassettes. Novato, Calif.:
Novato Institute for Somatic Research.
“For those needing to improve respiratory functions and who are concerned with the
relation of shallow breathing to coronary health.”
___________. Somatic Exercises™ for Rounded Shoulders and Depressed Chests

audiocassettes. Novato, Calif.: Novato Institute for Somatic Research.
“Reverses stooped, imbalanced posture that begins in middle years; also relieves
depressed breathing.”
Hasegawa, M. Nasal cycle and postural variations in nasal resistance. Ann. Oto Rhino.
Laryngol., 1982, 91:112-114.
76
___________, and E. B. Kern. The human nasal cycle. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 1977,
52:28-34.
___________, E. B. Kern, and P. C. O’Brien. Dynamic changes of nasal resistance.

Annals of Otology, 1979, 88:66-71.
Hendrick, Gaye. Conscious Breathing: Breathwork for Health, Stress Release, and
Personal Mastery. New York: Bantam, 1995.
Heyda, Alicja. An impact of the conscious connected breathing training on emotional

states. The Healing Breath: A Journal of Breathwork Practice, Healing and Spirituality,
2003, 5(2). Article available online:
http://www.healingbreathjournal.org/collected_authors_healingbreathjournal.pdf.
Hoopes, Aaron. Breathing training for martial artists. Shotokan Karate Magazine, no.
72. Article available online: http://everything- zen.netfirms.com/skm%20articles.htm.
___________. Understanding Chi & Breathing. Kungfu Magazine. Article available

online: http://ezine.kungfumagazine.com/ezine/article.php?article=573.
Huan, Zhang Yu, and Ken Rose. A Brief History of Qi. Paradigm Publications, 2001.
International Society for the Advancement of Respiratory Psychophysiology. See

website: http://cscwww.cats.ohiou.edu/isarp/.
Ishii, J., T. Ishii, and M. Ito. The nasal cycle in patients with autonomic nervous
disturbance. Acta Otolaryngol. (Stockh) Suppl., 1993, 506:51-56.
Jones, Brian. Changes in cytokine production in healthy subjects practicing Guolin

Qigong: A pilot study. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2001, 1(8).
Article available online: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882/. Author email:
bmjones@ha.org.hk.
Abstract: Guolin Qigong is a combination of meditation, controlled breathing and

physical movement designed to control the vital energy (qi) of the body and consequently
to improve spiritual, physical, and mental health. Practice of Qigong has been reported to
alter immunological function, but there have been few studies of its effects on cytokines,
the key regulators of immunity. Numbers of peripheral blood cytokine-secreting cells
were determined by ELISPOT in 19 healthy volunteers aged 27-55 before they were
taught the practice of Qigong and after 3, 7 and 14 weeks of daily practice. The effect of
Qigong on blood cortisol was also examined. Numbers of IL4- and IL12-secreting cells
remained stable. IL6 increased at 7 weeks and TNF; increased in unstimulated cultures
and 3 and 7 weeks but decreased at these times in LPF and SAC-stimulated cultures. Of
particular interest, IFN-secreting cells increased and IL10-secreting cells decreased in
PHA-stimulated cultures, resulting in significant increases in the IFN:IL10 ratio. Cortisol,
a known inhibitor of type 1 cytokine production, was reduced by practicing Qigong.
Jones, Philip. Breathing for meditation. Yoga Today, Apr 1981, 5(12):38.
77
Kauffman, F., I. Annesi, and J. Chwalow. [Title unknown.] European Respiratory
Journal, Nov 1997, 19(1):2508-2514.
Self-evaluation of respiratory deterioration was significantly predictive of death from all
causes.
Killian, K. J., D. D. Bucens, and E. J. Campbell. Effect of breathing patterns on the

perceived magnitude of added loads to breathing. Journal of Applied Physiology, 1982,
52:578-584.
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arrhythmia with respect to respiratory phase. Methods of Information in Medicine, 2000,
39:153-156. Article available online.
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33:139-146.
Lai, J. S., C. La n, M. K. Wong, and S. H. Teng. Two year trends in cardiorespiratory

function among older tai chi chuan practitioners and sedentary subjects. JAGS, 1995,
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and body composition among geriatric tai chi practitioners. Archive of Physical Medicine
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Lee, Myeong Soo, Byung Gi Kim, Hwa Jeong Huh, Hoon Ryu, Ho-Sub Lee, and
Hun-Taeg Chung. Effect of Qi-training on blood pressure, heart rate and respiration
rate. Clinical Physiology, May 2000, 20(3):173-6. PMID: 10792409.
Abstract: To examine the physiological effects of Korean traditional Qi- training, we

investigated the changes in blood pressure, heart and respiratory rates before, during and
after ChunDoSunBup (CDSB) Qi- training. Twelve normal healthy CDSB Qi- trainees
(19-37 years old; trained for 1.3 +/- 0.2 years; 9 men and 3 women) volunteered to
participate in this study. Heart rate, respiratory rate, systolic blood pressure and rate-
pressure product were significantly decreased during Qi- training. From these results, we
suggest that CDSB Qi- training has physiological effects that indicate stabilization of
cardiovascular system.
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chemoreflex control in humans. Journal of Physiology, 2001, 534:595-603.
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78
Middendorf, Ilse, and Juerg A. Roffler. The breathing self: The experience of breath as
an art to healing yourself. The Journal of The International Association of Yoga
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respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Department of Sports Sciences, Waseda University,
Tokorozawa Saitama 359, Japan.
Ng, Beng-Yeong. Qigong- induced mental disorders: A review. Australian and New
Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 1999, 33(2):197-206.
Abstract: Objective: Thisreview article aims to explore current opinions on Qigong-

induced mental disorders, an entity which is unfamiliar to Western psychiatrists. Method:
Relevant literature published in Chinese and English is reviewed. Results: The review is
divided into three sections: first, there is brief consideration of the historical development
of Qigong in traditional Chinese medicine and its role in psychiatry; second, there is a
review of the literature published on Qigong deviations and Qigong- induced mental
disorders; and third, there is a discussion on the aetiological role of Qigong in these
conditions. Conclusions: Qigong remained veiled in secrecy and available only to the
elite until the early 1980s. Despite the widespread use of Qigong, there is a conspicuous
lack of controlled data regarding its effects on mental health. Qigong, when practised
inappropriately, may induce abnormal psychosomatic responses and even mental
disorders. However, the ties between Qigong and mental disorders are manifold, and a
causal relationship is difficult to establish. Many so-called “Qigong-induced psychoses”
may be more appropriately labelled “Qigong-precipitated psychoses,” where the practice
of Qigong acts as a stressor in vulnerable individuals.
Nunn, J. F. Control of breathing (Chapter 4). In J. F. Nunn, Applied Respiratory
Physiology, 3d ed. London: Butterworths, 1987.
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78-85.
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Rees-Evans, Dean. Buteyko Institute Method: The evolution of breathing for health.
Article available online: http://www.byregion.net/articles-healers/Buteyko_Method.html.
Rottenberg, J., F. H. Wilhelm, J. J. Gross, and I. H. Gotlib. Respiratory sinus

arrhythmia during resolution of tearful crying among depressed and nondepressed
individuals. Psychophysiology. In Press.
79
Ruggieri, V., M. L. Amoroso, A. Balbi, and M. T. Borso. Relationship between
emotions and some aspects of respiratory activity: Morphology of the chest, cyclic
activity, and acid-base balance. Perceptual Motor Skills, 1986, 62:111-117.
Rundcrantz, H. Postural variations of nasal patency. Acta Otolaryngol., 1969, 68:435-

443.
Sakakibara, M., and J. Hayano. Effect of slowed respiration on cardiac

parasympathetic response to threat. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1996, 58:32-37.
Sheppard, Roar. ‘Seon-do’ practice. The Korea Times, 8 Jun 2005. Author email:
nukeroar@hotmail.com.
“After many years in Korea, I’m just beginning to break the Korean shell and experience
its rich spiritual culture. Korea has much more to offer the world than kimchi and ‘the red
devils.’ I’d like to introduce the world to the Korean form of meditation called ‘Seon-do’
Practice. It’s more than 5,000 years old and precedes Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism
and others. The focus is on the ‘living’ breath, which can only be found by focusing on
the ‘Dan-jeon’ spot. Dan-jeon is known as ‘tan-tien’ in Chinese and ‘hara’ in Japanese.
Yoga uses a chakra to describe the location but doesn’t use methods to store energy there:
which is the main point of using the Dan-jeon, located five inches below the navel.
“The essence of Seon-do practice is in concentrating on the breathing point, after having
controlled your emotions, practiced muscles exercises, and lowered your consciousness.
You’ll find that this is not mindfulness—but mindlessness. Masters throughout Asia have
searched for correct Dan-jeon breathing, understanding that it’s the origin of all breathing
techniques, but many have not had the patience or the correct teacher to learn it. Even
now, we receive phone calls from monks from time to time asking how to do the
breathing method!
“Meditation in the ‘lotus position’ is not emphasized until your breathing point has been
found, and it takes six months of lying down breathing just to find the location . . .”
Singh, Virendra. Thoracic pressure and nasal patency. Journal of Applied Physiology,
1987, 62(1):91-94. PMID: 3558199
Abstract: Maximum nasal flow rate in the right and left no strils was simultaneously
determined during expiration with the help of two flowmeters in 10 healthy subjects in
different postures and in two patients, one with Horner’s syndrome and the other with
facial palsy. It was found that pressure on the hemithorax from any surface (i.e., lateral,
anterior, posterior, or superior) leads to reduced patency of the ipsilateral nostril but
increased patency of the nostril on the opposite site. In the patient with Horner’s
syndrome, the nostril on the affected side rema ined blocked even on compression of the
opposite hemithorax, and in the one with facial nerve palsy, the nostril on the affected
side remained patent despite compression of the hemithorax on that side. The findings
suggest that compression of hemithorax leads to changes in the congestion of the nasal
80
mucosa that may be mediated through autonomic nerves.
Skarbek, A. A psychophysiological study of breathing behaviour. British Journal of

Psychiatry, 1970, 116:637-641.
Sroufe, I. A. Effects of depth and rate of breathing on heart rate and heart rate variability.
Psychophysiology, 1971, 8:648-655.
Stein, Emily,and Leah Brzuszkiewicz. The relationship between nostril dominance and
preferred handedness. Poster presentation at St. Lawrence University Festival of Science,
Canton, New York, Apr 2001.
Abstract: The classic nasal cycle is a pattern where congestion on one side of the nose is
accompanied by decongestion of the other side. Past studies have investigated various
aspects of this biological occurrence, and great variability was found. Flanagan and
Eccles (1997) and Fisher, Liu, and Lund (1994) reported that a nasal cycle was exhibited
in approximately 80% of the population. However, others, such as Gilbert (1989) and
Winkler, Combs, and Daley (1994) reported that only 20% of the population displayed
these cyclic changes. In addition, different studies have reported huge differences (from
48 minutes to 7.3 hours) in the average length of the nasal cycle. A goal of the present
study was to account for some of this large variability in nasal cycling behavior by
considering a person’s preferred handedness. Since some studies have reported evidence
that odorant sensitivity differs between the left and right nostril, and that this difference
varied if a person was right-handed or left-handed (Hummel, Mohammadian & Kobal,
1998; Youngentob, Kurtz, Leopold, Mozell, Hornung (1982, but cf., Zatorre & Jones-
Gotman, 1990), we hypothesized a relationship between handedness and nostril
dominance.
We tested 20 healthy males, 11 right- handed subjects (RH) and 9 left-handed subjects
(LH). Nasal airflow was measured once every 15 minutes for a 6 hour period. The
participants were confined to three separate rooms, and monitored to ensure participation
in only stationary activities. A nasal flowometer was constructed to measure the relative
airflow of the two nostrils. Hot wire anemometers were secured in place on the apparatus
and connected to a Mac Lab recording system. In order to obtain a reading, with their
mouths closed, the participants exhaled through their noses onto the anemometers. The
probes measured various aspects of nasal airflow such as maximum slope, maximum
peak, mean flow, and volume. Since all four of these measurements identified the same
nostril as being dominant, maximum peak was chosen as the representative measure of
airflow. Following each nasal flowometer measurement, participants were asked to
provide a self- report concerning which nostril they thought was the one with the
dominant airflow.
Although LH were found to have more nasal cycle shifts than RH, based on both
maximum peak and self-report, these differences were not significant. For LH, the left
nostril was significantly more likely dominant, while the opposite was true for RH, for
both maximum peak and self-report. Self- report was not a very reliable measure when
81
compared with physiological measures of airflow. This study demonstrates for the first
time a relationship between nostril dominance and handedness.
Stevenson, I., and H. Ripley. Variations in respiration and in respiratory symptoms

during changes in emotion. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1952, 14:6.
Stockstedt, P. The physiologic cycle of the nose under normal and pathologic conditions.
Acta Otolaryngol., 1952, 42:175-179.
Stough, Carl, and Reece Stough. Dr. Breath: The Story of Breathing Coordination.
New York: The Stough Institute, 1981. See also http://www.carlstough.org.
Tweeddale, P. M., I. Rowbottom, and G. J. McHardy. Breathing retraining: Effect on

anxiety and depression scores in behavioral breathlessness. Journal of Psychosomatic
Res., 1993, 38:11-21.
Weil, Andrew. The art of breathing. Dr. Andrew Weil’s Self Healing, May 1998, pp. 1,
6-7.
___________. Breathing: The Master Key to Self Healing audiocassettes. 100 minutes.
Available from P.O. Box 792, Mt. Morris, IL 61054, 888-3DR-WEIL.
Werntz, D. A., R. G. Bickford, F. E. Bloom, and D. S. Shannahoff-Khalsa.

Alternating cerebral hemispheric activity and lateralization of autonomic nervous
function. Human Neurobiology, 1983, 2:39-43. PMID: 6874437.
Abstract: Alternating dominance of cerebral hemispheric activity was demonstrated in

humans by use of the electroencephalogram (EEG). Relative changes of electrocortical
activity have a direct correlation with changes in the relative nostril dominance, the so-
called nasal cycle. The nasal cycle is a phenomenon where efficiency of breathing
alternates predominantly through right or left nostril with a periodicity ranging from 25 to
greater than 200 minutes. Relatively greater integrated EEG value in one hemisphere
correlates with predominant airflow in the contralateral nostril, defining a new
interrelationship between cerebral dominance and peripheral autonomic nervous function.
___________, R. G. Bickford, and D. Shannahoff-Khalsa. Selective hemispheric

stimulation by uninostril forced nostril breathing. Human Neurobiology, 1987, 6:165-
171. PMID: 3449485.
Abstract: We have previously demonstrated by the integration of EEG amplitudes, that an

ultradian rhythm of alternating cerebral dominance exists in humans. This rhythm is
tightly coupled with the nasal cycle, since its lateralization correlates with shifts in
airflow through the left and right nostrils, where relatively greater integrated amplitudes
in one hemisphere correspond to predominant airflow in the contralateral nostril. The
nasal cycle is known to be regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of
the autonomic nervous system. This dynamic lateralization of alternating activity in the
82
autonomic nervous system exists in other peripheral structures and is also likely to be the
mode of regulation of the cortical rhythm. This paper shows that forced nostril breathing
in one nostril produces a relative increase in the EEG amplitude in the contralateral
hemisphere. This phenomena was demonstrated in 5 out of 5 untrained subjects. These
results suggest the possibility of a non-invasive approach in the treatment of states of
psychopathology where lateralized cerebral dysfunction have been shown to occur.
Westcott, M. R., and J. Huttenloar. Cardiac conditioning: The effects and implications
of controlled and uncontrolled respiration. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1961,
61:353-359.
White, Michael Grant. Emotions and breathing. Article available online:

http://www.breathing.com/articles/emotionsandbreathing.htm.
___________. Health benefits attributable to Optimal Breathing. Article available online:

http://www.breathing.com/benefits.com.
Zerah, F., A. Harf, L. Perlemuter, H. Lorino, A. M. Lorino, and G. Atlan. Effects of

obesity on respiratory resistance. Chest, May 1993, 103(5):1470-1476.
Ongoing Research
Ginger Carrieri-Kohlman, RN, DNSc, FAAN

Professor
Department of Physiological Nursing
UCSF School of Nursing
521 Parnassus Avenue, #N611Y
San Francisco, CA 94143
Tel.: 415-476-4131
Email: Ginger.Carrieri-Kohlman@nursing.ucsf.edu
Seeking funding from NCAMS for research on Yoga and dyspnea. Contacted IAYT
8/19/02.
Lee Lieske
Email: Lee@emrcorp.com
Studying the relationship between Chinese Qigong exercises and Indian Yoga asanas. Is
trying to find exercises that are most commonly used to affect each of the zang and fu
organs and exercise routines that exercise them in the correct manner. Contacted IAYT
06/01.
Philip Stevens, BSc (Psych, Physiol), BSc (hons) (Physiol)

Ph.D. candidate in collaboration with the department of Complementary Medicine in the
School of Health Sciences and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
RMIT University
Email: research@yogalinks.net
83
Conducting the following research project:
Electrophysiological Correlates of Yoga Breathing Techniques
Various styles of breathing are promoted as beneficial. Inhalation and exhalation
methods often differ widely, however, with various combinations of abdominal
&/or thoracic dominance being favored. Different rhythms of breathing, from
hyperventilation to very-slow-rate, are used, often with various esoteric and/or
medical claims. Validation studies are few, particularly comparative studies of
more than one technique. While certain, specific breathing practices have been
studied so far that show differential effects on brain laterality and cardiac
autonomic variations, no study to-date has described and cross-correlated the
effects of the all the main, breathing techniques commonly promoted in yoga
classes today.
This project seeks to:
1. catalogue and describe the various breathing techniques available today using standard,
anatomical, physiological, psychological and medical-terminologies.
2. explore the relationship between certain breathing techniques by measuring abdominal
and thoracic inputs and their concomitant-effects on the brain, heart and autonomic-
nervous-system using electrophysiological recordings (EEG and ECG) on human
subjects over time.
3. uncover functional brain and cardiac autonomic- nervous-system interactions using
conscious, controlled, yoga-based, breathing techniques that may have relevance in
preventing and/or dealing with certain cardiac problems prevalent today.
As certain types of breathing can profoundly impact on human physiology and
psychology, this study will help better understand the neurophysiological implications
underpinning various yoga, meditation and relaxation techniques. It may even have
relevance in non-pharmacological management of stress, hyp ertension, depression,
stroke, cardiac problems, sleep disordered breathing and asthma.
Equipment required to complete this study will include:
EEG to give measures of localised, hemispherical brain-activity, which can be correlated

with other ancillary measures of autonomic nervous activity such as lateralised nasal-
airflow and lateral peripheral-temperature.
ECG to provide relative changes in heart rate variability. Cardiac parasympathetic and
sympathetic activity can then be assessed using respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and
pre-ejection period (PEP). The cardiac system allows both parasympathetic and
sympathetic activity to be reliably and concurrently estimated, with strong consensus in
the literature identifying RSA and PEP as the most validated, non- invasive measures of
cardiac parasympathetic and sympathetic activity, respectively.
Your participation would initially involve completing an online yoga and health-
questionnaire that takes around 15 minutes. Various volunteers in certain locatio ns
84
around Australia will be required for the experimental trials that involve simple breathing
practices for about 1-hour while measurements are taken and recorded on a laptop.
The experimental part of the project involves 15 minutes preparation time to attach
medical recording equipment to your abdomen, chest and scalp and then approximately ½
-1 hour to complete the breathing tests. These will measure breathing muscle movements,
heart-rate and brain-wave activity in conjunction with your breathing. Your total time
commitment should only take 1½ - 2 hours.
Data collection will involve standard, non- invasive medical-recording equipment to test
normal breathing using specific respiratory muscles. All electrical equipment is full
shielded from the electricity grid as it runs on batteries and all equipment is medically
approved for clinical and human research use in Universities, Hospitals and Clinics
around Australia and overseas. All information collected will be coded so you will not be
personally identifiable and kept secure at RMIT University for academic research
purposes only. Non- identifying results will be reported in a manner that protects your
anonymity.
If you have any queries regarding this project, want more information, or wish to be
considered for the experimental trials, please contact me on 0419 806 066 or
research@yogalinks.net
85

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Yoga and Breathing

Compiled by: Trisha Lamb

Last Revised: April 27, 2006

© International Association of Yoga Therapists (IAYT) 2005

International Association of Yoga Therapists

—Candace Pert, Molecules of Emotion

NOTE: See also the “Nose” bibliography.

___________. Your Breath as a Bridge to Penetrate Asana workshop. Iyengar Yoga

Allison, J. Respiratory changes during the practice of the technique of Transcendental

Ambikananda Saraswati, Swami. Principles of Breathwork. London: Thorsons, 1999.

___________. Conscious Breathing: The Bridge to the Unconscious audiotape. Reading,

Contents: Introducing asana practice, Introducing breath in asana, Introducing vinyasa,

Found that breathing exercise therapy after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty

Ariyadhamma, Ven. Mahathera Nauyane. Ânâpâna Sati: Meditation on Breathing.

ASTHMA. See “Asthma” bibliography.

Badawi, K., R. K. Wallace, and D. Orme -Johnson, et al. Electrophysiologic

Balayogi Bhavanani, Ananda. Swarodaya vigjnan: A scientific analysis of the nasal

Contents: Introduction, Traditional views on Swara Yoga (rhythmicity of the swara,

___________, and Smt. Devasena Bhavanani. The importance of pranayama in yogic

___________, Madanmohan, and Kaviraja Udupa. Acute effect of mukh bhastrika (a

Abstract: Feedback from muscles stimulates ventilation at the onset of passive

Bhargava, R., M. G. Gogate, and J. F. Mascarenhas. Autonomic responses to breath

___________. Significance of nostrils in breathing. Yoga-Mimamsa, 1968, 10(4):1-12.

___________. Effect of head turning on lung ventilation. Indian Journal of Chest

___________. New findings in the field of research on pranayama. In Abstrakty I.

___________. Study of respiratory functions during Kapalbhati - part I. The Yoga

___________, and P. V. Karambelkar. Significance of nostrils in breathing. Yoga-

___________, and P. V. Karambelkar. Effect of yoga training on vital capacity and

Bhramari: The bumble bee. Bindu, no. 10.

Block, R. A., D. P. Arnott, B. Quigley, and W. C. Lynch. Unilateral nostril breathing

Abstract: Relative nostril efficiency (nasal cycle) is related to hemispheric EEG

Blokhin, I. P., and T. M. Shanmugan. Asana I dýchanie [Asanas and breathing].

Blumenthal, J. A., C. F. Emery, D. J. Madden, R. E. Coleman, M. W. Riddle, F. R.

Subjects were randomized to an aerobic exercise condition (cycle ergometry), nonaerobic

Boerstler, Richard W. Comeditation: A thanatological aid. International Journal of

Breathing exercises. Article available online:

Breathing lessons: Comparing breath practices in yoga and three schools of

Exhale and hold: Richard Rosen on the breath in yoga.

“Includes instructions in calming, quieting breathing practices, including: 2:1 breathing,

Provides “a comprehensive approach to the fundamentals of yoga breathing.”

___________. A fresh look at pranayama: Part 3: Breath retention. Spectrum: The

___________. A fresh look at pranayama: Part 4: Therapeutic pranayama. Spectrum: The

Exhale and hold: Richard Rosen on the breath in yoga.

___________. Pranayama: The Kripalu Approach to Yogic Breathing CD. 65 minutes.

___________. Achieving peak performance: The complete breath. Yoga International,

___________. Slowing down: The practice of 2-to-1 breathing. Yoga International,

CO2 elimination in pranayama. Yoga-Mimamsa, Jul 1974, 17(2):3-28.

Complete breath. Yoga Today, no. 1., pp. 30-32.

COPD. See the “COPD and Emphysema” bibliography.

___________. Relaxation and energy: Abdominal breathing and asana. Yoga

For information on Jackson’s BreathPlay CDs, see http://www.breathplay.com.

Examines Integral, Kripalu, Ashtanga, Iyengar, Viniyoga, and Kundalini Yoga.

___________. On your exhalation. Yoga Journal, Jan/Feb 2003, p. 62.

On the correct way to breathe while doing asanas.

“You know from yo ur own practice that pranayama—breath control—has profound

Abstract: The impact of meditation on cardiorespiratory synchronization with respect to

Dana Laboratory. Initial research project—the breath. Research Bulletin, Eleanor M.

Davidson, Teresa. The neurophysiology of the control of breathing. Yoga Rahasya,

Breathing skills may improve performance in darts, running, public speaking,

“Less than 10 percent of the population breathes efficiently, according to chronic-pain

___________, P. A. Date, and M. L. Gharote. Changes in SGOT enzyme activity after

Desikachar, T. K. V. Tools of Transformation: Breath as the Mirror workshop. 6th

Desiraju, T. Effect of meditations and pranayamas in promoting homeostasis in normal