PRINCIPAL OF SMALL ARMS

Small Arms: Firearms, Cannon, and Guns in General

A gun is a mechanical device which expels a projectile. In most cases the projectile is a gyroscopically-
stabilized bullet which can accurately travel a large distance. Most guns burn solid propellants to produce high
pressure gas which drives the projectile through the barrel.

Some guns fire a single shot and are loaded manually. Others use manual repetition to load the next round.
Those described here use mechanical action to automatically load and in some cases fire the next round. The
subject of this document is the arrangement of mechanical action to accomplish that goal.

The term arm refers to a weapon that is hand held and can be transported by one person. Therefore a firearm is
a gun intended to be used and supported by a single individual. Machine guns are usually supported by a team
of at least one operator and one ammunition feeder. The machine gun is portable by one person, but the weapon
system is crew-served in operation. Smaller submachine guns or fully-automatic rifles such as true assault rifles
are individual weapons.

A cannon is an intermediate-sized gun, usually 20mm to 40mm in bore diameter. Cannon are included in
the small arms category but are usually vehicle-borne, rather than person-carried.

The small arms category includes pistols through cannon. Guns larger than cannon are used in tanks, ships,
artillery pieces and so on. They often have bore diameters 3 inches (76mm) or larger. They can be referred to as
"guns", but are not considered small arms. Mortars, which provide indirect fire and operate differently, are not
considered guns. Some artillery pieces can provide either direct or indirect fire. They too are not described
here. Gun can be used as a generic term to refer to the entire class of weapons described here or any members of
the class.

Note that the so-called "assault weapon" is a term invented by politicians seeking to ban semiautomatic versions
of military-looking arms, and some "ugly" shotguns and pistols. These firearms perform no differently from
"pretty" semiautomatic arms used in hunting, recreation and self-defense but are attacked due to their cosmetic
similarity to and casual confusion with true military arms. Perhaps the greatest problem is that these are the
exact type of arms recognized as protected for individual ownership by the U.S. Constitution. Nowhere do the
words "hunting" or "sporting purpose" appear in the Constitution. The Second Amendment is contract to keep
real power in the hands of the people, and not solely the government. This balances the legitimate purpose of a
government to provide for a common defense on specific occasions (i.e. a war recognized by our representatives
in Congress). "Assault weapon" is not a term recognized by any soldier, military officer, military scientist, small
arms expert, ballistician, or properly-trained criminologist. The true assault rifle is a very specific class that is
always a light rifle firing a light rifle cartridge fully-automatically. These are not readily available to the
American public, though one could argue that they do have a legitimate militia purpose.

Automatic and Semiautomatic Firearms

Automatic firearms load the next round of ammunition and in some cases fire the next round without user
intervention beyond activating the trigger. Guns which continue to fire as long as the trigger is activated and
ammunition is fed are fully automatic or machine guns.

Operationally, semiautomatic firearms are derived from automatic arms. They are a special category of
automatic arms where the firing cycle is interrupted so that only one round is fired each time the trigger is
activated and released. Because of this relationship, the term automatic firearm can refer to either automatic or
semiautomatic, or to both as a general class. However to prevent confusion, the more specific
term semiautomatic should be used to describe such arms, and automatic should only be used to describe fully-
automatic arms such as machine guns and submachine guns.

Fully automatic firearms are not readily available in the United States. Private ownership of fully automatic
firearms is possible but the requirements are fairly onerous. In many places such requirements make them
essentially impossible to own. Therefore most firearms with a military appearance one might find at a U.S. gun
store are semiautomatic.

Some fully automatic guns have operating modes where they fire a single shot or a burst of 2 or 3 shots. In the
former mode they operate semi-automatically, firing one round for each trigger pull. In the latter mode they
operate fully automatically, firing for example 3 rounds per trigger pull.

The purpose of burst firing is to increase hit probability. That is, more rounds for a given point of aim and
trigger actuation increases the likelihood of a hit, assuming the point of aim can be held relatively steadily
during firing. However, the mechanism which counts shots adds mechanical, training, and operational
complexity. It should also be acknowledged that with appropriate training and practice, users of regular fully
automatic guns (i.e., with no burst mode) can and should be able to fire short bursts through skillful trigger
manipulation.

Caliber, Bore Diameter

In small arms, caliber refers to bore diameter, that is the width of projectile and corresponding opening in the
barrel. A .50 caliber machine gun has a projectile width and barrel inner dimension close to one half inch in
diameter. A 7.62mm caliber gun fires a projectile nominally 7.62mm in diameter. The actual bullet and barrel
dimensions allow some room for rifling, bullet deformation, and so on within the limits of acceptable
interference friction.

In naval guns caliber usually refers to the length of the barrel, described as a multiple of bore diameters. A fifty
caliber four inch naval gun therefore has a four inch bore diameter and a barrel 200 inches long.

Gun Types

Guns can be divided into those that are fired hand-held and those that are braced against the shoulder for firing.
The former are called pistols, while the latter are referred to generically as long guns.

Generally soldiers are issued shoulder-fired rifles. Military officers may carry pistols as backup defensive arms.

Pistol

Pistol can refer to the general class of hand-fired guns. A more specific use of the term "pistol" is for self-
loading (semiautomatic), magazine-fed hand guns.

Another type of pistol is the revolver. Revolvers have a single barrel but use a rotating cylinder with multiple
chambers to provide a repeating action. Because this operating method is fundamentally different from self-
loading arms, operation of revolvers is not described further.

Pistol rounds are usually used at distances of less than 50 meters.

Rifle

A rifle is a shoulder-fired arm utilizing a relatively high-velocity round. They are capable of accurate fire out to
a few hundred meters.

The term rifle derives from the rifling of the barrel. Rifling is typically helical ridges formed on the inside of the
barrel through hammering or drawing. As the projectile engages the rifling it imparts spin. The spin
gyroscopically stabilizes the flight of the projectile once it has left the barrel, giving it greater precision over
longer distances. Rifled barrels were a major military advance starting before 1800.

Pistol barrels are usually rifled.

Carbine

A carbine is usually a shorter, lighter rifle. It can also refer to pistol-caliber, shoulder-fired light arms. Carbines
were originally developed to improve the mobility of horse-riding cavalry soldiers.

Machine Gun

A machine gun is usually a rifle-caliber or larger, crew-served, belt-fed automatic firearm. Traditionally one
rifle-caliber machine gun is deployed per platoon-sized (8 person) unit. Larger machine guns, such as the .50
caliber Browning M2 are used in vehicle- or tripod-mounted applications.

Submachine Gun

A submachine gun is a pistol-caliber, magazine-fed, individual automatic firearm. In military environments they
are traditionally deployed in special operations commando units where mobility is key, or tank crews where
space inside the vehicle is tight. In police environments they are deployed in counter-terrorist or special
weapons units.

Since they usually have longer barrels than pistols submachine guns make more efficient use of pistol
ammunition and are effective out to about 100 meters, though traditionally they are deployed at shorter
distances. They are usually shoulder-fired for better accuracy.

Assault Rifle

A true assault rifle is a small, rifle-sized, fully-automatic arm chambered for an intermediate-power rifle round
such as 7.62 x 39mm (Soviet) or 5.56 x 45mm (NATO). Current examples include the AK-47, AK-74, M16,
and Steyr AUG. Note that true assault rifles are the fully automatic military versions, not the semi-automatic
versions commercially available in the U.S.
The recently designed FN P90 Personal Defense Weapon falls somewhere between the submachine gun and
assault rifle categories. It fires a small, light, 5.7 x 28mm rifle-caliber round but is about the size of a
submachine gun. The P90 was designed for support troops other than assault infantry, who need full-sized
assault rifles. The effectiveness of this new round in combat has not been fully determined.

Shotgun

A shotgun is a shoulder-fired arm. Most have barrels with smooth bores and fire loads of multiple lead or steel
shot (balls individually or collectively called shot). Shotguns are found in hunting, target shooting, military,
police, and self-defense applications. Shotguns can also fire slugs (a single large projectile) from smooth or
rifled barrels. Shot is effective to about 40 meters or less. Slugs are effective out to about 100 meters or less.
Shotguns are usually used at the shorter end of these ranges.

Cannon

Cannon are automatic guns of calibers 20mm to about 40mm, mounted on vehicles such as aircraft and armored
vehicles.

Ammunition Components

Cartridge

Cartridge firearms have been in service since the mid-1800s. In earlier designs such as flint-lock or percussion
cap arms, the propellant (powder) and the ignition mechanism were individual components which had to be
separately loaded or were part of the arm itself.
Modern cartridges have a case which holds bullet, propellant and primer in a single self-contained system. This
complete unit and the bullet fired from it are also referred to as a round or shell.

The cartridge is perhaps the single most important factor making modern firearms practical. The cartridge is a
stand-alone module of mechanical integrity sealing sensitive chemical compounds from the external
environment, and keeping together all the consumable components needed for firing one round. This key
development enabled the significant advance of arms technology starting in the latter half of the 19th century.

Bullet

The bullet is the projectile driven down the barrel by the pressure of hot, burning propellant gases. Bullet design
is a fairly specialized sub-field involving a much design and experimentation. Bullets must be aerodynamically
stable and have low drag at their design velocities. They must be soft enough to allow some deformation in the
rifling of the barrel. Bullets must have sufficient strength to withstand high acceleration during firing.

One of the topics not covered in this document is ballistics. Internal ballistics is the study of bullet and barrel
performance while the bullet is in the barrel. External ballistics studies the bullet in free flight from muzzle to
target. Terminal ballistics is the study of the effects of the projectile in the target medium. Targets studied
usually include armor plating, sheet metal, flesh, or flesh simulants such as ballistic gelatin. See
the Bibliography for some ballistics references.

It was the .50 caliber Browning rifle bullet which helped shape the first successful manned supersonic aircraft
(Chuck Yaeger's Bell X-1) since it was one of the few objects known to be aerodynamically stable at three
times the speed of sound.

Case

Cartridge cases are usually made of brass or steel, though some shotgun cases are made mostly or entirely of
plastic. As described above the case is the carrier which holds the propellant, primer and bullet securely. This
makes it practical to transport and deploy the components as a single module, greatly simplifying logistics and
use. To re-iterate, the important principle was to group the relevant components as a self-contained functional
unit.

The most important role of the case after feeding is the sealing of the breech. During firing the case expands
outward against the barrel chamber providing a gas-tight seal and preventing the high pressure gases from
entering the rest of the arm. Such a release could case a failure hazardous to the user, since usually only the
combined case/chamber/breech system has sufficient strength to withstand the high pressures generated. Since
the case expands under great pressure against the chamber, considerable force is required to overcome friction
in extracting the fired case from the chamber.

Primer

The modern cartridge's percussion primer was a major improvement in starting the ignition chain. Previously a
spark from a flint, heat from a smoldering match (a cotton cord), or an externally placed percussion cap
provided the source of ignition. The modern primer is cup-shaped and contains percussion (impact or pressure)
sensitive explosive compounds. When struck, the primer expels hot burning particles onto the propellant
(powder) contained in the cartridge.

In modern rifle and pistol rounds the primer is press fit and sometimes crimped into the back of the cartridge,
where the striker can reach it. Cannon rounds are usually electrically fired. That is, the primer is an electrical
device with two insulated, usually concentric terminals which is ignited through electrical current. In rimfire
rounds, the primer compound is in the fold at the back of case which also forms the extraction rim. The striker
impacts the rim, detonating the primer material.

Propellant (Powder)

The first part of the ignition chain is the primer. When struck, the primer detonates (it is a primary explosive
rather than a propellant) and begins to ignite the propellant (powder). The powder then burns at a controlled rate
appropriate to the particular bore diameter, projectile mass, barrel length, etc. Note that powder is not a primary
explosive, so in normal operation it burns relatively gradually rather than detonating. The burning propellant
generates high pressure gases which accelerate the projectile down the barrel. Smokeless powder is usually
composed of double base (twice nitrated) compounds and binders (glues) to hold grain shape.

Modern powders are extruded in the shape of rods or discs and come in a variety of sizes which together with
chemical composition affect the burning rate. Smaller-grained, fast-burning propellants are generally used in
higher velocity applications and larger-grained, slower-burning used in lower velocity rounds. Matching of
burning rates to bore diameters and projectile masses requires careful calculation and measurement of pressure
versus time. This is important to keep within the safe pressure limits of the barrel and rest of the system. Such
development can be aided by using piezoelectric cells or strain gauges feeding computerized data acquisition
systems. Once calibration procedures are established, these measurement systems are more efficient and simpler
to use than old-style mechanical copper crushers.

Gun Components

Barrel

The barrel is a tube which the bullet is projected. The pressure of gases driving a rifle bullet can reach about
fifty thousand pounds per square inch (3333 bar) and temperature 3500 degrees Fahrenheit (2200 C) in the
barrel. These rise and fall during the few milliseconds (thousandths of seconds) when the projectile is in the
barrel. So both thermal and mechanical stresses affect the barrel. Formulas which describe gas pressure and
projectile position and velocity have been determined experimentally, for example LeDuc's method. Pistol and
shotgun rounds operate at considerably lower pressures than rifle rounds at approximately one third.

As described above, barrels are usually rifled since the spin imparted by the rifling stabilizes the projectile in
flight, decreasing wind deflection, and increasing aerodynamic stability. Exceptions include shotguns which fire
a collection of projectiles with each shot, and anti-armor guns which fire light, high-velocity sub-caliber rounds.
The latter are usually fired from tanks with smooth bore barrels (barrels with no rifling).

The latter are usually surrounded by a sabot while in the barrel. The increased bore diameter occupied by the
sabot means pressure is applied over a larger surface area, resulting in a higher velocity. The sabot falls away
after the projectile leaves the barrel. The smaller projectile also has less frontal area to be affected by
aerodynamic drag and travels more efficiently to target. Saboted slugs and bullets are sometimes used in rifles,
shotguns, and black powder small arms.

Chamber
The chamber is the portion of the barrel or barrel extension which supports the cartridge case while it is in firing
position.

Trigger

The trigger is the user interface to the firing assembly. It can be activated by finger pressure, or it can be an
electro-mechanical device. In some systems the entire firing chain is electrical, for example in most 20mm and
larger cannon and a few .22 rimfire competition rifles. In those systems the trigger is a switch or electrical relay.

Sear

The sear is the portion of the trigger mechanism which directly holds and releases the bolt or striker. It
interfaces directly or indirectly with the trigger.

Striker (Firing Pin)

The striker is usually a small rod or hammer which impacts the primer of the cartridge, setting off its
percussion-sensitive charge and beginning the propellant ignition chain. The striker assembly sometimes
consists of multiple moving parts such as a hammer which hits a transfer bar or firing pin. Strikers are
sometimes implemented as firing pins. The more generic term striker is generally used here.

Receiver

The receiver is the body or frame of the gun to which the barrel, ammunition feeding devices, stocks or handles
attach, and in which bolt operates. The bolt often rides on rails, rods, or recesses in the receiver. The receiver is
sometimes divided into separate assemblies to facilitate cleaning, stoppage clearing, or other operational issues.
The receiver and operating parts inside are also called the action.

The receiver can be made from stamped sheet metal, cast and/or machined metal, high-technology plastics, or
combinations thereof. One of the most successful applications of a plastic receiver is the frame of the Glock
pistol. The frame has carbide (very hard metal) guides molded into it. The Glock's slide (bolt) is conventional
tool steel with a high-tech subsurface finish.

Bolt (Breech)

The bolt or breech constrains the cartridge in such a way that high pressure gases generated upon firing are kept
in the chambered case and barrel. This allows pressure to fall to safe levels before the action is opened to load
the next round or stop firing. The Operating Systems section describes various ways this can happen.

Bolt Carrier

Especially in designs which use rotary locking, the bolt and bolt carrier can be separate objects. The bolt
engages locking lugs in the receiver or chamber and the bolt carrier holds the bolt. Different methods of
accomplishing this are described in the next Functions section. The bolt carrier is usually larger and more
massive than the bolt.

Feed Components

Belts or spring-powered magazines commonly feed ammunition in automatic arms. These and other methods
are described below.
Magazine

Magazines enclose and move rounds typically under spring power. They can be organized into straight or
slightly curved boxes, drums, tubes, etc. Magazines may be fixed or detachable, with the latter far more
common in modern automatic arms. Fixed magazines are found in the M1 Garand, bolt action sporting rifles,
tubular magazines of shotguns, lever-action rifles, some rimfire rifles, an occasional old or new pistol design,
etc. Fixed magazines are built into the arm and are not normally removed.

Detachable box magazines with self-contained springs and followers are common on most individual arms.
Such magazines can be carried in a pre-loaded, ready state and quickly exchanged. Detachable magazines are
sometimes made into drums with a spiral or circular feed path. Box (stick) magazines are generally considered
more reliable.

Belts

Ammunition belts are usually used on machine guns of squad size and larger. Belts can be cloth or flexible
metal bands, or more commonly now, individual links held in position by the presence of each round. In the
latter case the links disintegrate when the round is chambered. The feed mechanism must be carefully designed
to discharge the loose links clear of the bolt, etc.

In U.S. practice, belts of .30 and .50 caliber (7.62 and 12.7mm) are delivered in steel cans with removable tops.
The 1980s designed FN Minimi (U.S. M249) uses a plastic box to hold its 5.56mm linked belt. The box attaches
to rails at the bottom of the arm. The minimi is unusual among machine gun designs in that it can also accept
M16 box magazines.

Strips

A strip is in essence a rigid belt. Fingers are formed in a strip of metal to hold each round. The strip usually
travels horizontally through the gun and rounds are fed from it like a belt. Short (3 round) strips are sometimes
joined to form a longer belt.

Clip

A clip usually holding 8 to 10 rounds is pressed as a unit into the magazine. In the M1 Garrand it is called an en
bloc clip. The clip remains in the gun until its last round is fired. That event usually ejects the clip and leaves
the bolt open for insertion of the next clip.
The clip itself has no spring, instead relying on the magazine spring and movement of the bolt to feed out
rounds. Clips should be designed so that either end can be inserted into the gun, simplifying their use. A
common complaint about clips is that less than full clips are difficult to remove from the gun. However clips are
otherwise convenient to use. Clip-fed guns are sometimes designed so that loose rounds can be inserted
individually into the magazine, with or without a clip in place.

Chargers (Stripper Clip)

Chargers hold ammunition rounds in such a way that they can be pushed into a magazine with finger pressure.
This is usually done in guns with fixed (non-removable) magazines or with a detachable magazine attached to
the gun. The charger usually engages guide slots above the magazine so rounds can be pressed down into the
magazine, and then the charger is discarded.

Chargers are sometimes designed for loading detachable magazines while outside the gun. Operationally this
serves a different function than described above.

Hopper

Designers have attempted, with little success, to feed from ammunition dumped loosely into a hopper. The idea
is that the hopper aligns each cartridge properly so it can be fed into the arm without other user intervention. As
Belleisen points out, belts are probably more practical since the loading function can be performed efficiently
off-line at a factory or in camp.

Cook-off

Cook-off is a problem where residual heat, often from automatic fire, causes a chambered round to ignite
spontaneously. This requires a relatively uncommon combination of high heat and unusually temperature-
sensitive ammunition.

Automatic firearms cycle through the following functions for each shot fired:
1. Feeding
2. Obturating (Locking)
3. Firing
4. Extracting
5. Ejecting
6. Cocking
7. Feeding
8. For definitions of terms used in this section see: Definitions -- Feed Components.
9. Feeding is placing a cartridge in the chamber of the
barrel. For magazine-fed guns, feeding is usually a
single linear motion of pushing the round from the
magazine lips up a short ramp and into the chamber.
10. For belt-fed guns the cartridge usually needs to be
withdrawn rearward from the belt then pushed forward
into the chamber. In belt-fed guns with no separate
drive motor for the belt, the feed mechanism must also
advance the belt one position per cycle. In magazine
guns, the magazine spring advances the cartridges.
11. Obturating (Locking)
12. Locking
, or
obturati
ng, is
restraining the cartridge so that it helps seal
gasses in the chamber while pressures are high. For
pistol rounds, simple spring force and bolt mass is
sometimes enough to meet this need. When this
is not enough, various mechanisms have been devised
to directly delay opening of the breech or to add
moving mass. One way to increase the moving mass is to
allow the barrel to move, locked together with the
recoiling bolt or slide. This is called recoil
operation and is described in two different
forms in the Operating Systems section.
13. Higher pressures encountered in rifle rounds usually
require a strong, positive method of locking the bolt to
the barrel. The most common way to do this is with
a bolt which rotates, causing locking lugs on the bolt
to engage corresponding recesses or interrupted
threads behind the chamber or in a barrel extension.
14. Another way to positively lock is to tip an end of the bolt
up or down to engage recesses in the receiver. In other
designs a separate small breech lock slides
perpendicularly to the bore axis to join slots in
the bolt with the receiver. In large guns such as some
artillery or naval designs, or in the manually
operated falling blockarms such as the Sharps
rifle or modern Thompson Contender arms, the entire bolt moves laterally in a strong receiver.
Especially in large guns the bolt is also called abreech block.
15. Firing
16. Firing is the sequence of events which ignites the propellant charge in the cartridge. As described in
the Definitions section the cartridge primer contains a small amount of percussion-sensitive explosive.
 When a striker hits the primer with sufficient mechanical shock it detonates the primer material. This
sends hot burning particles of primer material into contact with the propellant, beginning its burning. In
single-shot and semiautomatic operation, each activation of the trigger permits only one shot. In fully-
automatic operation the entire operating cycle repeats while the trigger is pressed and ammunition is fed.
17. There are many ways to organize the mechanical firing
chain. Probably the most common striker is a slender
steel rod called a firing pin. In most cases it is struck at
the rear by a rotary hammer. Energized by the hammer,
the firing pin then strikes the primer. In other designs, the
firing pin is propelled directly by its own spring, or the
hammer impacts the primer directly without an
intervening firing pin. In modern revolvers the hammer
usually hits a transfer bar which is moved into position
only when the trigger is pressed. With the transfer bar in
proper position, the striker can hit the transfer bar which
hits the primer. With the transfer bar out of position, the
gun should not discharge inadvertently if the gun is
dropped on its hammer or muzzle.
18. In guns with firing pins, they are sometimes
made floating, meaning the firing pin can move freely
within the bolt or receiver. A floating firing pin, if massive enough, may cause unintentional ignition if it
rides in a forward-moving bolt. The bolt is stopped by the round and chamber, but the firing pin
continues to move forward due to its own inertia. If the firing pin's momentum is great enough, the
primer can be detonated. To lessen this possibility firing pins are often equipped with springs which
force them away from the primer. These springs are weak enough that they do not significantly impede
the impact of the hammer on the firing pin. They are strong enough only to counter the inertia of the
firing pin itself.
19. Perhaps the simplest firing method is a fixed striker in the form of a
protuberance on the face of the bolt. The fixed firing pin strikes the
primer when the round is chambered. While mechanically very
simple, an exposed, fixed firing pin opens the dangerous possibility of striking the primer when the
round is not in the chamber. The pin itself can also be damaged since it is exposed.
20. In an unusual method called advanced primer ignition the fixed firing pin deliberately strikes the
primer before the round is fully chambered. While this would seem to violate the principle of allowing
combustion only when the breech is fully closed, the reason for it is clever. Since the bolt at that time is
still moving forward the round is chambered shortly after ignition. Recall that all of the propellant
powder does not ignite instantaneously, rather it burns in an orderly fashion in order to keep chamber
pressures within safe limits. With advanced primer ignition the propellant gets a "head start" which more
makes efficient use of cycling time and helps shorten it.
21. Some rounds are electrically ignited. For example, cannon rounds usually have primers with concentric
electrical terminals. When a round is chambered, electrical contacts on the breech are pressed into
contact with the primer terminals. The rounds are are ignited by passing current through the primer
charge.
22. A different form of electrical ignition used in some competition .22 rimfire arms is to pass current
through an electrode or heating element which is in direct contact with the rim. The resulting heat sets
off the primer material in the rim. The lock time, that is delay between pressing the trigger and ignition
of the round, is said to be greatly shortened. Since a gun held by a human competitor is always moving,
however slightly, shortened lock times can increase shooting precision.
23. Extracting
24. In a sense, extracting the empty case from the chamber
after firing is the inverse of feeding. In feeding, a
cartridge pushed towards the chamber and guided by
ramps, feed lips, and the cartridge itself, will usually
arrive at the chamber without additional positive
control of the round. However when the case is
extracted the only components guiding its rearward
movement may be the extractor and the constraining
presence of the chamber. Also since firing case
expands it against the chamber walls under great
pressure, freeing it requires considerable force. For
these reasons removing the spent case requires an
extractor hook.
25. The extractor is attached to the bolt so that it slips over
the rim of the cartridge when the round is fed or
chambered. When the bolt opens, the extractor pulls
and guides the case from the chamber.
26. There are various ways to design the extractor but in
general it is a latch using spring tension to allow it to
snap over the rim when moving forward but retain the
rim when moving rearward.
27. Ejecting
28. The empty case must be removed from the action so
the next round can be fed. The ejector usually tips the
case out of the gun by pressing against the the back of
the case opposite the ejection port. The ejector can be a
fixed piece of metal which strikes the case when it and the
bolt reach a certain position. This is called a fixed ejector.
Another type of ejector is a spring powered plunger in the
face of the bolt. When the case is free of the chamber, the
plunger forces the case to flip out of the port.
29. In order for this arrangement to work the extractor and
ejection port are on the same side and the ejector is towards
the opposite side of the bolt. On guns which can be made to
eject either on the left or right (for left- or right-handed
users) these parts must be reversed about the bore axis.
30. In belt-fed guns where the belt-type is disintegrating, the
feed mechanism discards the empty belt links and the
ejection system expels the empty cases. Disintegrating link
belts are common on small arms machine guns. In the case
of belt-fed systems where the belt remains intact and the
feed system is closed, the extraction mechanism must place
the empty case back in the belt. Modern Gatling cannon,
especially those used in aircraft or enclosed spaces, often
feed and extract this way.
31. Cocking
32. Cocking is preparing the firing chain for the next round. In
systems with a rotary hammer, cocking is usually a matter
of the bolt pressing the hammer back down into engagement
with the sear as the bolt moves rearward. In systems with a spring powered striker or a fixed striker the
sear usually catches the striker or bolt after it has reached its rear limit and starts to move forward.
 33. In fully-automatic guns with a separate striker and bolt, some mechanism must be provided to release
the sear once the fresh round is fully chambered.

Automatic firearms can operate in a variety of ways:

1. Inertia (Blowback)
2. Delayed Inertia (Delayed Blowback)
3. Short Recoil
4. Long Recoil
5. Gas
6. Gatling
7. Chain

These different systems are sometimes combined, especially in larger arms such as artillery pieces. Even in
small arms, designers can and have mixed and modified them in a variety of ways, so the categorizations about
which systems are used in different circumstances (for example in pistols versus rifles) are simply guidelines.

As this is a general discussion, some clever details of unusual and eclectic designs aren't explored. See for
example the caseless Heckler & Koch G11, rotating-feed FN P90 Personal Defense Weapon, gas-delayed Steyr
GB pistol, gas-operated IMI Desert Eagle pistol, etc. That said, most of the characterizations in this section fit
actual practice well.

Inertia (Blowback)

In an inertia-operated gun (also known as blowback) there is no positive locking between the bolt and barrel.
Instead, the mass of the bolt and force of the recoil spring oppose the rearward force generated by the fired
cartridge long enough for gas pressures to fall to safe levels. Case extraction and bolt-to-receiver friction also
resist the recoil force acting to open the bolt. (Recoil is also applied to the rest of the gun but the bolt has a
much smaller mass so is accelerated more.) This method of operation is appropriate for lower pressure pistol
cartridges.

Blowback operation is usually found in pistols chambered for rounds smaller than 9mm Luger and in
submachine guns such as the Swedish Carl Gustav, Sten, Uzi, and Gordon Ingram's MACs. While simple and
reliable, in submachine gun applications blowback usually requires a strong recoil spring and relatively massive
bolt. Combined with the usual open-bolt, fixed-striker firing mechanism this means the point of aim tends to
shift when the bolt is released by the sear. (This is called firing from an open bolt since the entire bolt, rather
than just a striker or hammer, is held back by the sear.)

Blowback submachine guns can require a lot of force to cock, given the usual short travel of the bolt. The stiff
springs used also contribute to high cyclic rates which can mean rapid ammunition consumption and difficult
control. Submachine guns are commonly used with shoulder stocks, straps, slings and/or forward grips to help
ameliorate these tendencies.

In semi-automatic pistols of smaller calibers such as .22, .25 or .380 (9mm short), the operating forces are
smaller, but smaller overall masses can diminish controllability. Inertia operated pistols are usually hammer or
internal striker fired from a closed slide. This is a benefit in that there are no large masses moving around to
upset aim when striker is released.
In the Uzi and other modern submachine guns the bolt wraps around the barrel, shortening overall length for a
given bolt mass. In these guns the bolt moves inside a receiver. In most pistols, including the rare examples of
machine pistols, a slide takes the place of the bolt, containing the striker, extractor, breech and bulk of the
moving mass.

Some blowback machine guns fire from a closed bolt, improving first shot precision. Others have been made to
leave the bolt open after the first round or string of automatic fire, improving cooling and reducing the
possibility of cook-off. These features have operational advantages but also increase mechanical complexity.
Added complexity is generally a liability in small arms design since it can reduce reliability. Simpler is usually
better, so it's perhaps a tribute to persistence in development and use that more complex mechanisms have been
made to perform effectively.

Delayed Inertia (Delayed Blowback)

In delayed inertia operation the bolt again is not positively locked and the energy to cycle the system comes
from recoil forces driving the bolt rearward. The difference is that initial opening of the breech is delayed,
typically through mechanical disadvantage.

This delay can be accomplished in a variety of ways. For example the WWI-era Schwarzlose machine gun has
links between the bolt and receiver which require kinetic energy to rotate. Due to their arrangement, as the bolt
first moves these links start to turn, absorbing rotational energy. As the bolt moves back further, the leverage
changes and the energy in the links is transfered to the bolt.

Another method of delaying blowback is to require small masses, usually in the bolt, to move at near right
angles relative to the bolt just after firing. While these masses appear to lock the bolt to the receiver they
actually act as levers to effectively multiply their mass and the bolt's against internal recoil forces.

The most successful modern examples of delayed inertia or delayed blowback arms are the Heckler & Koch G3
rifles and MP5 submachine guns and their derivatives. In the 1950s HK licensed this design by former Mauser
engineer Vorgrimmler who was then working at the Spanish CETME laboratory. Vorgrimmler reportedly
derived the CETME rifle from his earlier work on the WWII-era Mauser model 45 assault rifle.

HK describes their operation as roller-locked, delayed-blowback. In these designs when the bolt is closed,
rollers carried in the bolt are wedged into receiver recesses. On firing, the rollers must be forced out of the
recesses at great mechanical disadvantage, delaying opening of the bolt, even with full power 7.62mm NATO
(.308 Winchester) rifle cartridges used in the G3. The G3 and MP5 fire from a closed bolt and are manufactured
to very high standards resulting in excellent accuracy, especially as mass produced military arms. Despite
utilitarian stamped and spot-welded sheet-metal construction and painted finishes, their simple and smooth
operation make them highly reliable and comfortable to fire.

Short Recoil

In recoil-operated systems the bolt and barrel are locked together and free to recoil for a certain distance. In
short recoil they remain together only a small distance, usually a few millimeters for pistols or the distance of a
few calibers for machine guns. Reaching that point, the barrel stops recoiling and bolt continues. Short recoil
designs can be further divided into those that decelerate the barrel and those that accelerate the bolt. In either
case the change of relative velocities means the bolt and barrel separate (they relatively accelerate apart),
beginning case extraction. As with inertia operation, cycling energy comes from recoil forces, this time applied
to both the free-moving barrel and bolt masses, rather than the bolt alone as in inertia arms.

Deceleration can be accomplished by unlocking the bolt from the breech and simply stopping the movement of
the barrel. This is the method used in the John Browning-designed M1911 ("Colt .45") pistol and the vast
majority of modern semi-automatic pistols 9mm and larger (Glock, Smith and Wesson, FN/Browning Hi-
Power, SIG Sauer), which are largely derived from his design. In the M1911 a movable link tilts the barrel
down and out of engagement with slide recesses. The Hi-Power, Glock and other recent designs simplify this by
utilizing a downward-angled ramp on the barrel/chamber which contacts a fixed stud in the frame, moving the
barrel down and out of engagement with the slide. In both cases the link or stud also arrest the barrel's rearward
movement, with the slide continuing on and extracting the spent case.

Today, the most common short recoil designs where the bolt
is accelerated are John Browning's .30 and .50 caliber (7.62
and 12.7mm) M2 machine guns. The .50 caliber M2 is still in
wide use in western countries, where it can be found for
example on the cupola of the M1 Abrams tank. In the M2
machine gun, a cam track in the receiver moves a rectangular
breech lock on a barrel extension out of engagement with the
bolt during the first 10 millimeters of recoil. The barrel
extension then strikes a short, curved lever which through
mechanical advantage accelerates the bolt rearward. The extension and attached barrel halt when the extension
encounters a stop, while the bolt continues rearward.

In recoil operation the bolt and barrel are locked together initially. In the most successful deceleration and
acceleration short recoil designs, namely Browning's M1911 pistol and M2 machine gun, locking is
accomplished by tipping the barrel or sliding a lock vertically in the bolt. In his other designs bolts lock the
breech by tipping into receiver recesses. Linear or tilting locking motions rather than bore-axial rotary locking
could perhaps be said to be one trademark of Browning designs.

It's perhaps worth noting that Browning was one of the pioneers of automatic firearms. His designs are arguably
some of history's most successful. When America joined the fight against totalitarian domination of Europe in
World War I, Browning donated his designs to the war effort of the United States, rather than profiting greatly
by licensing them. John Browning's deep devotion to the principles of freedom led him to this.

Long Recoil

As with short recoil operated systems, in long recoil the bolt and barrel also recoil freely. In long recoil instead
of the barrel stopping relatively early, bolt and barrel recoil together until they reach the end of travel at the
back of the receiver. Since the combined masses of the barrel and receiver are relatively large, these types of
systems tend to have longer cycle times leading to slower,
smoother operation.

In long recoil designs the bolt and barrel usually have

independent return springs. Once they reach the rearward end
of their extention, the bolt engages a catch and extraction
begins. The barrel freely returns to its forward position,
clearing the cartridge from the barrel's chamber and allowing it
to eject. In closed bolt designs the bolt then moves forward
chambering a fresh round, ready for the next shot.

Long recoil is often found in large naval guns or artillery

pieces. In small arms it's quite rare, one notable exception
being the Browning Automatic shotgun. One might wonder if
allowing the barrel to move from shot to shot would be a
detriment to precision. Apparently as long as the barrel is designed to return to position consistently (and
actually does) this is not a problem.

Gas

Prior to the start of World War 2 there was considerable debate about the merits of equipping every soldier with
a self-loading rifle in place of the previous generation's manually-cycled bolt-actions. One argument raised was
that doing so would increase ammunition supply burdens and perhaps discourage careful marksmanship.
However, by the end of the war it had become accepted practice on the German side to issue intermediate-
caliber, fully-automatic assault rifles to some troops, and most major armies had semi-automatic and automatic
arms widely deployed.

Most of the self-loading rifles designed during and after WWII have been gas-operated. These contrast with
blowback and recoil systems in that operating energy comes from tapping expanding high-pressure gases at the
barrel instead of from recoil. Examples include the U.S. M1 Garrand, M1A, and M1 Carbine, Simonov rifle
(SKS), Automat Kalashnikov (AK),
Swedish Ljungman, the late Eugene
Stoner's AR10 and AR15 (M16), FN
FAL, M60 and M249 Minimi machine
guns. (Perhaps the most notable
exceptions are the Heckler &
Koch delayed blowback designs
described in that section. The HK
system arguably has had more impact in
the submachine gun realm than among
rifles.)

Gas-operated designs vary in how the

gas is tapped, and how gas energy is transferred to the bolt
carrier. All listed above except the FAL use rotary locking
bolts which follow helical cam tracks in their carriers or
receivers. In the Garrand, SKS
and AK families, and most
modern light to medium
machine guns, gas impinges
directly on operating rods fixed to the bolt carrier and located below or above
the barrel. In the Ljungman and Stoner designs a narrow steel tube carries the
pressurized gas back to small operating cylinders on the bolt and carrier. In the M1 carbine and more recent
designs such as Eugene Stoner's Amarlite AR-18, Australia's Leader, Singapore's Sterling-designed SAR rifle
family, Korea's Daewoo rifle, and Heckler & Koch's 1998 G36, a small, low-mass tappet is the only moving
part in contact with the gas. (The latter designs are essentially derived from Stoner's work.) The tappet
accelerates rapidly due to its low mass and imparts its momentum by striking an operating rod connected to or
striking the bolt carrier.

Because gas residue can potentially jam the system and be difficult to dislodge, most gas operating systems are
claimed to posses self-cleaning or non-user-maintenance parts. For example the gas tube on the AR15 is not a
user maintenance item, though the cylinder and other bolt parts it operates on are meant to be cleaned. The gas
tube is not replaced under regular maintenance but can be if the armorer deems necessary. After correcting
propellant materials incompatible with the jungles of Vietnam, the AR15 gas system has worked well. The gas
piston on the AK has sharp forward edges which in theory scrape burnt propellant buildup off the walls of the
gas cylinder and vent it out the relief ports.

Pressure at the gas port rises quickly when the bullet passes the port, and it begins to drop after pressures in the
barrel and gas cylinder equalize. The barrel's gas port must be far enough from the breech to allow pressures to
fall to safe levels before the breech begins to open. The main way to influence this timing is to adjust the
distance from the breech to the gas port. For rifles the distance is usually at least 10 inches or 25 centimeters.
Breech opening can be delayed further through mechanical disadvantage, free travel in unlocking mechanisms,
recoil dampers, bolt mass, and so on.

Perhaps the cleanest solution to gas operation (pun?) is the tappet which localizes gas and propellant residue in
the tappet/cylinder area and away from the rest of the system. However, long operating rods used with tappets
or direct impingement increase and spread out the moving mass, which tends to shift the point of balance when
operated. The tappet and cylinder are sometimes sealed as a unit and are often claimed to be self-cleaning.

In contrast, the AR15 system with it's relatively light and quick-moving bolt and springs is very pleasant to fire,
with perceived recoil not much more than a .22 rimfire rifle. The low felt recoil also derives from the light-
recoiling 5.56mm NATO (.223 Remington) round the AR15 is traditionally chambered for. (The AR15 has
been adapted to 9mm, 7.62mm, and probably other calibers by Colt's
Manufacturing, Stoner/Knights, ArmaLite(Eagle Arms).) At the time of its original design, the plastic furniture
and aluminum forgings of the AR15 made for a radically lightweight military rifle. Stoner's ground breaking
design remains successful more than 40 years after initial development.

While more accurate due to better manufacture and a tighter-tolerance design, the AR15 cannot match the
simplicity of the AK system. The AK system has been copied or licensed and is manufactured in greater volume
than any other military rifle design. Licensed models are produced in many communist or former Soviet-aligned
nations throughout the world. Some Western AK derivatives include Finnish Models 60 and 62/76 made by
Valmet, the Valmet-derived Israeli Galil, and the Galil-derived South African R4.

The AK uses the popular and successful design features described above of rotating bolt and fixed operating rod
attached to the bolt carrier. The bolt has a single follower which engages a cam track in the receiver and a single
locking lug. Most AK receivers are stamped and welded sheet metal with blued or painted finishes. The top
cover is traditionally sheet metal. Furniture is usually wood and sometimes plastic. Frame parts at the front and
rear of the receiver are cast or machined and riveted to the receiver.

The AK bolt assembly is driven by a helical spring surrounding a rod attached to a removable carrier behind the
bolt. The rear of the spring/rod carrier forms the latch which retains the top cover. The spring carrier also keeps
the bolt carrier on guide rails in the receiver. Disassembly is accomplished by pressing the latch, removing the
cover, withdrawing the spring/rod carrier and pulling back then lifting up the bolt carrier from the stamped sheet
steel guide rails. That this is accomplished with two major parts groups and can be performed in less time than
it takes to describe is a testament to the elegant simplicity of the design. The overall simplicity of the system
also lends outstanding reliability in dusty or humid environments found in desert or jungle.

As with most engineering issues there is no singularly perfect solution. All have tradeoffs which must be
weighed against each other and evaluated in the context of the system and expected operating environments.
One thing is clear however: simpler is better.

Gatling

The Gatling gun is perhaps the historically oldest operating system described here. Unlike blowback, recoil and
gas operation, cycling energy is typically not derived from the fired cartridge but from external sources. Though
fundamentally different from the other systems and never found in man-portable form, Gatling's current
significance warrants inclusion here.

When first deployed around 1865 Gatling's guns employed hand cranks to control cycling and firing. In most
modern applications cycling energy comes from external electric or hydraulic motors. The significant task of
accelerating massive ammunition feed belts is also usually delegated to motors. Note that some models do
derive partial operating energy from ammunition gases. The continuous rotary motion of the barrels and smooth
movement of other elements helps attain high cyclic rates. These motions resemble those found in high-speed
manufacturing systems.

The modern Gatling gun is usually composed of 3 to 7 barrels in a circular array.

In operation, the barrels and inner receiver rotate together. Independent bolts,
one aligned and moving with each barrel, follow a helical cam track in the outer
receiver. The cam track controls the feeding, locking, and extracting functions by
moving each bolt fore and aft relative to its barrel. The timing of the system is
fixed by the position of the bolt in track versus rotation. Each bolt typically
contains its own striker or other firing device. (Cannon cartridges are usually
electrically primed.)

Until about 1950 the Gatling gun was considered a 19th century anachronism.
Then, demand for longer-range rapid-fire aircraft guns saw the revival of this
concept in the form of the 20mm Vulcan automatic cannon. The Vulcan cannon,
and its' copies and derivatives remain widely deployed in fighter aircraft
throughout the world. Other special applications include use with the awesomely
powerful 30mm round in the Fairchild A-10 "tank buster" ground attack aircraft,
and the 20mm Phalanx Close In Weapons System (abbreviated CIWS and
pronounced "see-wiz") used aboard U.S Navy ships as a last-ditch defense
against sea-skimming missiles such as Exocet. The Gatling-derived Vulcan
system was also scaled down for use in helicopters and fixed-wing gunships
during the Vietnam era as the 7.62mm NATO-cartridged General Electric Minigun.

Chain

The Hughes Chain Gun is often misconceived to operate on the Gatling principle but is in fact an entirely
different and novel system. Like the Gatling gun, the Chain gun cycles using external energy from a motor, but
in this fixed, single-barrel design the motor drives a roller chain that moves the bolt forward and backward. Ian
Hogg describes a 7.62mm version in Military Small Arms of the 20th Century:
The chain is driven by an electric motor, and a shoe on the chain engages in the bolt, carries it forward to
chamber a round, holds it closed, then retracts it to extract the spent case. Cams rotate the bolt head to lock into
the barrel and also actuate the firing pin as the bolt locks. A dynamic brake on the motor ensures that when the
trigger is released the bolt stops in the open position, so that there is no danger of cook-off. The belt feed is also
driven by the motor, independently of the bolt mechanism, so that there is ample power to handle long belts,
particularly in a vehicle bounding over rough country. The Chain Gun is particularly well suited to tank
installation since case ejection is forward, under control, and the relatively long bolt closure dwell time reduces
the amount of fumes released into the vehicle. The Hughes Chain gun is one of the few new operating principles
which have appeared in recent years[.]

The Chain Gun is developed in calibers ranging from 7.62 NATO through 30mm, and it is found for example
aboard the US Army Apache Helicopter and in the Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle. This simple and direct
system has several advantages in low-cyclic-rate, vehicle-mounted applications.