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CATHERINE HODGE M c C O l D I C E N T R A L M I S S O U RSI T A T EU N I V E R S I T Y
LeROY D. M c D E R M O T T 1 C E N T R A L M I S S O U RSIT A T EU N I V E R S I T Y
THE CHINESE PROVERB "We see what is behind our Human Figures in the European Upper
eyes" captures one of the major dilemmas currently Paleolithic
engaging
- - - both anthropological scholarship and the
broader public. All of us look at the world and, at least Since ~ d o u a r dPiette (1895) and Salomon Reinach
partially, see what is inside our own heads. To the (1898) first described the distinctive small-scale sculp-
extent that we do not recognize this, we remain behind tures and engravings of human figures found in the rock
our cultural screens. shelters and caves of southern France, several hundred
The first images of the human body from the Euro- more European Upper Paleolithic figures have been
pean Upper Paleolithic, primarily three-dimensional, identified. The earliest of these, the so-called Stone Age
palm-sized female statuettes often referred to as Venus Venuses or Venus figurines, constitute a distinctive
figurines, offer a case in point. Though little consensus class and are among the most widely known of all
exists about why the figures were created or what pur- Paleolithic art objects. As a group they have frequently
poses they served, they have generally been interpreted been described in the professional and popular litera-
as sex objects made from a male point of view.' This t ~ eMost. ~ of the figures are about 150 millimeters in
view assumes women were passive spectators of the
height and depict nude women usually described as
creative mental life of prehistory, their bodies relevant
obese.
only as representative of male concerns and interests.
In spite of many difficulties in dating, there is grow-
The apparently exaggerated sexual attributes of the
ing belief that most of these early sculptures were cre-
figurines have often been seen as maacal symbols of
ated during the opening millennia of the Upper Paleo-
fecundity ultimately concerned with the increase of
lithic (circa 27,000-21,000 B.c.) and are stylistically
both animal and human populations.' Whether magical
distinct from those of the later Magdalenian.5 These
or not, the belief that these figurines reflect a symbolic
first representations of the human figure are centered
interest in sex and fertility has been most i n f l ~ e n t i a l . ~
in the Gravettian or Upper Perigordian assemblages in
Yet there is another plausible explanation for their crea-
France and in related Eastern Gravettian variants, es-
tion and purpose: the figurines began as a form of
pecially the Pavlovian in the former Czechoslovakia,
self-representation by women (McDermott 1985,1996).
and the Kostenkian in the former Soviet Union.
When examined, this proposal becomes so compelling
Most Pavlovian-Kostenkian-Gravettian (PKG)
that the only remaining question is, Why did it take so
statuettes are carved in stone, bone, and ivory, with a
long to consider the logical possibility that a female
few early examples modeled in a form of fired loess
point of view was involved?
(Vandiver et al. 1989). Carved reliefs are also known
from four French Gravettian sites: Laussel, La Mouthe,
Abri Pataud, and Terme Pialet. These images show a
formal concern with three-dimensional sculpted
masses and have the most widespread geographical
CATHERINE HODGE McCOlD is Professor, Department of History and distribution of any form of prehistoric art. This con-
Anthropology, Central Missouri State University, Warrensburg, MO 64093. trasts sharply with the two-dimensional form and re-
LeROY D. McDERMOTT is Associate Professor, Department of Art, Central stricted scope of later Magdalenian engraved and
Missouri State University, Warrensburg, MO 64093. painted figures. The unfortunate habit of collapsing
Figure 2
Additional figurines illustrating the same departures from anatomi-
cal accuracy seen in Figure 1. Above, left to right: Grimaldi "Statuette
en steatite jaune," Khotylevo No. 2 , Gagarino No. 4, and Avdeevo
No. 1. Below, left to right: Moravany and Kostenki nos. 1, 2 , and 4.
Figure 4 Figure 5
View of her own upper body by 26-year-old female who is five View of upper body of Willendorf figurine from same perspective
months pregnant and of average weight. used in Figure 4.
shared boundary is the abdomen at the level of the lateral bulge of the gluteus medius muscle, while the
navel, which is also the widest part of the body in the distal gluteus maximus of the buttocks proper is oc-
visual field. The apparent misrepresentation of height cluded entirely or reduced to a foreshortened fragment.
and width in the figurines results from the visual expe- The structure of the visual information inherent in this
rience of this anatomical necessity. The location of the point of view explains not only the lateral displacement
eyes means that for an expectant mother the upper half of adipose tissue or fatty thighs but also the continuum
of the body visually expands toward the abdomen, of regional variation. Many Russian pieces have what
whereas the lower half presents a narrow, tapering appear to be unnaturally long loins or flanks and atro-
form. Efforts to represent the information contained in phied or disproportionately short buttocks, while fig-
these two views naturally resulted in the lozenge com- ures from the West (Luquet 1934) present supposedly
positional formulation, which others have seen as ana- upside-down buttocks (see Figure 3). What have been
tomically "incorrectnproportions (see Figures l and 2). seen as buttocks in the past are really properly posi-
The perception of distortion is similarly resolved in tioned glutei medii muscles. When correctly viewed
a woman's view of the side and back of her own body. from above, the backsides of the statuettes from Les-
When one rotates at the hips and raises an arm to look pugue, Grimaldi, and Willendorf, which make no ana-
down the side, one's field of vision includes an expand- tomical sense from any other point of view, are optically
ing strip of lower torso and then a diminishing view of transformed into highly naturalistic, foreshortened im-
the leg. The feet may or may not be visible, often being ages of the lower back above a correctly located tail-
obscured by the intervening body. From above, the bone (see Figures 8 and 9).
forward projecting mass of the thigh and the posterior Other Upper Paleolithic peoples may have pre-
location of the calf muscle are identical with a similar ferred the more difficult of the two routes by which the
view of the bent-knee posture seen in numerous figu- human backside can be directly inspected. In an over-
rines (see Figures 6 and 7). The outline of this oblique the-shoulderview, the dual masses of the glutei maximi
silhouette coincides not only with the arrangement of muscles appear to project posteriorly into the visual
muscles seen in these images, but with the buttocks or field exactly as in the rare rearward enlargement of
profile image that dominates the later Upper Paleo- the buttocks identified as steatopygia. Seen in only
lithic: Magdalenian I11 through VI, circa 13,000to 9,000 three pieces from Italy and southern France ("Le
B.C. (Leroi-Gourhan 1968:493). Polichinelle," Savignano, and Monpazier), this condi-
Depending on the effort expended to rotate and tion nevertheless demonstrates that the possibilities for
look under the arm at one's backside, a woman's view self-inspection echo the actual range of regional and
will either encompass a lateral segment of the lower cultural variations encountered. It is possible that cul-
back to the tailbone or, with greater exertion, include a tural differences in feminine self-inspectionroutines-
strongly foreshortened, silhouetted sliver of the upper with some cultures in Italy and southern France prefer-
buttock. With or without maximal rotation, the view of ring to look over the shoulder while other cultures
this region will be dominated by the more proximal looked under the arm-account for the regional vari-
Figure 6 Figure 7
Woman's view of the side of her own body. View of side of Willendorf figurine from same perspective.
F E M A L EV I S I O N I N THE U P P E RP A L E O L I T H I C/ CATHERINEH O O G EMCC010 AND L E R O YD . M C D E R M O T T 323
Figure 8 Figure 9
Woman's under-the-arm view of her own buttocks. View of buttocks of Willendorf figurine from perspective similar to
that used in Figure 8.
ations encountered. Again, what had been puzzling ex-
tremes of human representation become surprisingly focus on war and royalty. These Upper Paleolithic figu-
realistic when considered from the probable point of rines were probably made at a time when there was
view employed by their feminine creators. similarly significant population increase along with cul-
The idea that women sought to gain and preserve tural and economic restr~cturing.~ The early to middle
knowledge about their own bodies provides a direct and Upper Paleolithic was characterized by productive
parsimonious interpretation for general as well as idio- changes that harnessed energy and by reproductive
syncratic features found among female representations changes that helped make possible the population ex-
from the middle European Upper Paleolithic. The needs pansion and technological changes that followed in the
of health and hygiene, not to mention coitus and child- later European Upper Paleolithic.' Could women have
birth, ensure that feminine self-inspection actually oc- made a recognizable contribution to the fluorescence
curred during the early Upper Paleolithic. Puberty, of art and technology seen in the opening millennia of
menses, copulation, conception, pregnancy, childbirth, this era? Anything they did to improve their under-
and lactation are regular events in the female cycle and standing of reproduction and thereby reduce infant and
involve perceptible alterations in bodily function and maternal mortality would clearly have contributed to
configuration (Marshack 1972). Mastery and control of this productive and reproductive change. Perhaps the
these processes continues to be of fundamental impor- figurines served as obstetrical aids, the relative sizes of
tance to women today. It is possible that the emergence the abdomens helping women to calculate the progress
and subsequent propagation of these images across of their pregnancies.
Europe occurred precisely because they played a didac- Arguing for the value of using Darwinian evolution
tic function with actual adaptive consequences for as a framework in cultural anthropology and archaeol-
women. ogy, Steven Simms (1987:12) suggests that selection
should be examined on the individual as well as the
group level. These figurines might have been used to
Population, Reproduction, and Natural gain greater control of reproduction over time, thus
Selection offering an example of natural selection in action. As
Roosevelt has pointed out, "The existing information in
In interpreting female images in pre-Columbianart, the ethnographic literature is scattered and cryptic, but
Anna Roosevelt explores the hypothesis that "the fig- women in many preindustrial societies are known to
ures were specifically related to a cult of human female make images of females, children, or genitals to aid in
fertility, a demographic strategy appropriate for the conception" (1988:15). Decreasing depictions of preg-
expanding economies of early sedentary agricultural nancy over time, which Jean-Pierre Duhard's (1993b)
societies" (1988:5). She suggests that the images are work shows, would offer some support for this hypothe-
characteristic of chiefdoms or early states and that they sis. Analyzing these and other Paleolithic figures as a
disappeared shortly after state development, with its gynecologist, Duhard reports that 68 percent of the
Gravettian figures show evidence of pregnancy as op- 4. See Abramova 1967; Bahn andvertut 1988;Burkitt 1934;
posed to 36 percent from the Magdalenian, although Conkey 1987; Delporte 1979, 1993; Duhard 1993a; Feustel
Patricia Rice (1981), who includes cave art in her analy- 1967; Gamble 1982; Giedion 1962; Graziosi 1960; Gvozdover
sis, infers a much lower pregnancy rate. 1989; Hadingham 1979; Hancar 1939-40; Jelinek 1975, 1988;
Leroi-Gourhan 1968,1982;Luquet 1930,1934;Marshack 1972,
Whether o r not McDermott's hypothesis is ulti-
1991; McDermott 1985; Pales and de Saint Pereuse 1976;
mately accepted, it suggests a number of directions that
Passemard 1938; Pfeiffer 1982; Praslov 1985; Putnam 1988;
might productively be explored by anthropologists. A Saccasyn-Della Santa 1947; Ucko and Rosenfeld 1967; and
great deal more needs t o be known about patterns of White 1986.
production and reproduction a t specific sites and over 5. See Delporte 1979:226,1993:243and Dobres 1992a:245.
time. Marcia-Anne Dobres (1992a) points out that the 6. See Dobres 1992a, 1992b; Gvozdover 1989; Hadingham
rich finds of PKG figurines in the domestic context a t 1979:222; Nelson 199351; and Pales and de Saint Pereuse
important Russian sites-under floors and in storage 1976:93.
pits and niches-could b e particularly rewarding in 7. See Gamble 1983; Jochim 1983, 1987; Mellars 1989; and
locating meaningful associational patternings, includ- Mellars and Stringers 1989.
ing perhaps the identification of areas where figurines 8. See Conkey 1983; de Beaune and White 1993; de Son-
were made and used. Another area of possible research neville-Bordes 1974; Jochim 1987; and Leroi-Gourhan
involves exploring stylistic variations by region to see 1968:498.
if they support the suggestion that cultural differences
in body inspection routines (under the arm versus over
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4
New Approaches in the Search for Meaning? A Review of Research in "Paleolithic Art"
Margaret W. Conkey
Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 14, No. 4. (Winter, 1987), pp. 413-430.
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4
Interaction and Alliance in Palaeolithic Society
Clive Gamble
Man, New Series, Vol. 17, No. 1. (Mar., 1982), pp. 92-107.
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7
Major Issues in the Emergence of Modern Humans
Paul Mellars
Current Anthropology, Vol. 30, No. 3. (Jun., 1989), pp. 349-385.
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References Cited
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LINKED CITATIONS
- Page 2 of 2 -
New Approaches in the Search for Meaning? A Review of Research in "Paleolithic Art"
Margaret W. Conkey
Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 14, No. 4. (Winter, 1987), pp. 413-430.
Stable URL:
http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0093-4690%28198724%2914%3A4%3C413%3ANAITSF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-D
NOTE: The reference numbering from the original has been maintained in this citation list.