Conjunction 

 
● Coordinating Conjunction 
Coordinating conjunction bring ideads together.
- F​or
- A​nd
- N​or
- B​ut
- O​r
- Y​et
- S​o 
○ Using Commas with Coordinating Conjunction 
If a coordinating conjunction is joining two i​ ndependent clauses​, it needs to 
have a comma with it. 
● Subordinating Conjunction 
A subordinating conjunction is a word that connects an ​independent clause​ to a 
dependent clause​. ​Check this for more information​. 

 
- After  - Now that 
- Although  - Since 
- As  - Though 
- As long as  - Unless 
- Because  - Until 
- Before  - When 
- Even if  - Where 
- If  - While 
- Once 
Consideration with Relative Pronoun 
- “who”, “that”, and “which” are examples of relative pronoun. In relative pronoun, one 
of those words act as the subject of the dependent clause. In subordinating 
conjunction, both sentences mostly have their own subject. 
- Relative pronoun: John is the guy w​ ho​ came over for dinner last week. 
- Subordinating conjunction: We talked about music and movies ​while​ we ate. 
● Correlative Conjunction 
 Correlative conjunctions are sort of like tag-team conjunctions. They come in pairs, 
and you have to use both of them in different places in a sentence to make them 
work. 
- either/or 
- both/and 
- whether/or 
- neither/nor 
- not only/but also 
- not/but 
- as/as 
- such/that 
- scarcely/when 
- as many/as 
- no sooner/than 
- rather/than 
● Axax 
 
Present and Past, Simple and Progressive 
● Simple Present 
○ The simple present says that something was true in the past, is true in the 
present, and will be true in the future. It expresses g ​ eneral statements of fact 
and timeless truths​. 
■ Water ​consists​ of hydrogen and oxygen. 
■ The world ​is​ round. 
○ The simple present is used to express ​habitual or everyday activities​. 
■ I ​get​ up at five ​every morning​. 
■ I ​always​ ​eat​ rice for lunch. 
● Present Progressive 
○ The present progressive expresses an activity that is i​ n progress at the 
moment of speaking​. It is a temporary activity that began in the past, is 
continuing at present, and will probably end at some point in the future. 
■ John ​is sleeping​ right now. 
■ I need an umbrella because it i​ s raining​. 
○ Often the activity is of a general nature: something generally in progress this 
week, this month, this year.  
■ I ​am taking​ five courses t​ his semester​. 
■ Susan i​ s writing ​another book ​this year​. 
● Stative Verbs 
○ Some english verbs have s​ tative m ​ eanings. They describe states: conditions 
or situations that exist. When verbs have stative meanings, they are usually 
not used in progressive. 
○ A verb such as t​ aste h ​ as a s​ tative​ meaning, but also a ​progressive m
​ eaning. 
 ■ He is t​ asting​ the sauce. → describes the action of the chef putting 
something in his mouth.  
■ The food t​ astes​ too salty. → describes the person’s awareness of the 
quality of the food (stative). 
○ For more verbs that have stative meaning, open page 15 Understanding and 
Using English Grammar. 
● Am/Is/Are Being + Adjective 
○ Be + ​ an ​adjective u ​ sually expresses a stative meaning. 
■ Ann is ​sick​ today 
■ Alex is ​nervous​ about the exam. 
○ Sometimes main verb ​be ​+ an a ​ djective i​ s used in the progressive. It is used in 
the progressive when it describes temporary, in-progress behavior. 
■ Jack doesn’t feel well, but he refuses to see a doctor. He is being 
foolish​. → Jack’s foolishness is temporary and probably 
uncharacteristic of him. → another examples of adjective that can be 
used with ​am/are/is being​: ​bad, careful, cruel, fair, foolish, funny, 
generous, good, illogical, impolite, irresponsible, kind, lazy, logical, loud, 
nice, noisy, patient, pleasant, polite, quiet, responsible, rude, serious, silly, 
unfair, unkind, unpleasant​. 
○ Age does not describe a temporary behavior. 
■ Incorrect: Mr. Smith is ​being old​. 
■ Correct: Mr. Smith is o ​ ld​. → another examples of adjective that cannot 
be used with a ​ m/are/is​ ​being​: ​angry, beautiful, handsome, happy, 
healthy, hungry, lucky, nervous, sick, tall, thirsty, young​. 
● Simple Past 
○ The simple past indicates that an activity or situation b ​ egan and ended at a 
particular time in the past. 
■ I ​walked​ to school yesterday. 
■ John ​lived​ in Paris for ten years, but now he lives in Rome. 
○ If a sentence contains ​when​ and has the simple past in both clauses, the 
action in the w ​ hen​ clause happens first. 
■ Rita s​ tood​ under a tree ​when it ​began​ to rain. 
■ When I d ​ ropped ​my cup, t​ he coffee s​ pilled ​on my lap. 
● Past Progressive 
○ Both actions occurred at the same time, but o ​ ne action began earlier and was 
in progress when the other action occurred. 
■ I ​was​ ​walking d ​ own the street when it began to rain. 
○ Sometimes the past progressive is used in both parts of a sentence when two 
actions are in progress simultaneously. 
■ While I ​was studying i​ n one room of our apartment, my roommate 
was having a ​ party in the other room. 
 
Perfect and Perfect Progressive Tenses 
● Present Perfect 
○ The present perfect expresses the idea that something happened (or never 
happened) b ​ efore now, at an unspecified time in the past​. The exact time it 
happened is not important. 
■ They h ​ ave moved​ into a new apartment. 
■ I ​have ​never​ seen ​snow. 
■ Jack ​hasn’t seen i​ t ​yet​. 
● The adverbs e ​ ver, never, already, yet, still, ​and ​just​ are 
frequently used with the present perfect. 
○ The present perfect also expresses the ​repetition of an activity before now​. The 
exact time of each repetition is not important 
■ We ​have had​ four tests s​ o far​ this semester. 
■ I ​have met​ many people s​ ince ​I came here in June. 
○ The present perfect, when used with ​for o ​ r s​ ince​, also expresses a situation 
that b
​ egan in the past and continues to the present​. 
■ I ​have liked c​ owboy movies ever ​since I was a child​. 
■ I ​have been ​here f​ or two weeks. 
● Notice the difference between ​since a ​ nd f​ or​: 
○ Since + a ​ particular time 
○ For ​+ a duration of time 
● Present Perfect Progressive 
○ This tense is used to indicate the d ​ uration ​of an activity that ​began in the past 
and continues to the present​. When the tense has this meaning, it is used with 
time words, such as f​ or, since, all morning, all day, all week​. 
■ I ​have been sitting ​here s​ ince ​seven o’clock. 
■ You ​have been studying ​for ​five straight hours. Why don’t you take a 
break? 
● Past Perfect 
○ The past perfect expresses an activity that was ​completed before another 
activity or time in the past​. 
■ Sam ​had ​already l​ eft b ​ y the time Ann got there. 
■ The thief simply walked in. Someone ​had forgotten t​ o lock the door. 
○ If either ​before o ​ r ​after i​ s used in the sentence, the past perfect is often not 
necessary because the time relationship is already clear. 
● Past Perfect Progressive 
○ The past perfect progressive emphasizes the ​duration​ of an activity that was ​in
progress before another activity or time in the past​.
■ The police ​had been looking ​for the criminal f​ or ​two years before they
caught him.
■ Eric finally came at six o’clock. I ​had been waiting f​ or him ​since
four-thirty.
○ This tense also may express an activity ​in progress close in time to another
activity or time in the past​.
 ■ When Judy got home, her hair was still wet because she ​had been
swimming.​
■ I went to Jane’s house after the funeral. Her eyes were red because she
had been crying.​

Future Tenses
● Simple Future
○ Will o​ r ​be going to​ is used to express future time.
■ Jack will finish his homework tomorrow.
■ Jack is going to finish his homework tomorrow.
○ When the speaker is making a prediction, either ​will ​or ​be going to i​ s possible.
■ Be careful! you ​are going to/will​ hurt yourself!
■ According to the weather report, it ​will/is going to ​be cloudy tomorrow.
○ When the speaker is expressing a prior plan (something the speaker intends to
do in the future because in the past he/she has made a plan or decision to do it),
only ​be going to i​ s used to express prior plan.
■ A: Why did you buy this paint?
B: I​’m going to paint m ​ y bedroom tomorrow.
○ To express willingness, use only ​will​.
■ A: The phone is ringing.
B: I’​ll ​get it.
● Expressing The Future in Time Clause
○ Time clause = ​when + ​ subject + verb, ​will ​or ​be going to i​ s NOT used in time
clause. The meaning of the time clause is future, but the ​simple present ​is used.
○ A time clause begins with such words as ​when, before, after, as soon as,
until, while.​ The time clause can come either at the beginning of the sentence or
in the second part of the sentence.
■ Bob will come soon. ​When Bob ​comes,​ we will see him.
■ They’re going to come soon. I’ll wait here ​until they c ​ ome​.
○ Sometimes the present progressive is used in a time clause to express an activity
that will be in progress in the future.
■ While I a ​ m travelling i​ n Europe next year, I​ ’m going to save money by
staying in youth hostels.
○ Occasionally, the present perfect is used in a time clause to emphasizes the
completion of the act before the other act occurs in the future.
■ I will go to bed ​after I ​have finished ​my homework.
● Future Progressive
○ The future progressive expresses an activity that will ​be in progress at a time in
the future​.
■ I will begin to study at seven. You will come at eight. I ​will be studying
when you come.
○ The progressive form of ​be going to i​ s ​be going to + be + -ing.​
 ■ Don’t call me at seven tomorrow. I ​am going to be interviewing n ​ ew
candidate.
● Future Perfect
○ The future perfect expresses an activity that will be ​completed before another
time time or event in the future.​
■ I will graduate in June. I will see you in July. ​By the time I see you,​ I ​will
have graduated​.
■ I ​will have finished ​my work ​by the time I go out on a date tonight.
● By the time i​ ntroduces a time clause; simple present is used in a
time clause.
● Future Perfect Progressive
○ The future perfect progressive emphasizes the ​duration​ of an activity that will be
in progress before another time or event in the future.​
■ I will go to bed at ten P.M. Ed will get home at midnight. At midnight, I will
be sleeping. I ​will have been sleeping​ for two hours by the time Ed gets
home.

Adverb Clauses
● Adverb Clauses of Time: Form

○
■ An adverb clause is one kind of dependent clause. A dependent clause
must be attached to an independent clause or main clause.
● Using Adverb Clauses to Show Time Relationships
○ After
■ After​ she graduates, she will get a job.
○ Before
■ I will leave ​before s​ he goes.
○ When: ​at that time
■ When I​ was in Chicago,​ I visited the museum.
○ While, as: ​during that time
■ While I​ was walking at the street, I​ saw Nadya in the store.
■ As I​ was walking at the street, I saw Nadya in the store.
○ By the time: ​one event is completed before another event. ​Notice the use of past
perfect and future perfect in the main clause.
■ By the time h ​ e arrived, w ​ e had already left.
■ By the time h ​ e comes, w ​ e will have already left.
○ Since: ​from that time to the present. ​The present perfect is used in the main
clause.
■ I ​haven’t seen h ​ im ​since ​he left this morning​.
■ I​’ve known ​him ​ever since I​ was a kid.
○ Until: ​to that time and then no longer.​
 ■ We stayed here ​until t​ he rain stopped.
○ As soon as, once: ​when one event happens, another event happens soon
afterward.​
■ As soon as/as i​ t stops raining, ​we have to go to the theater.
○ As long as, so long as: ​during all that time, from beginning to end​.
■ I will never speak to him again ​as long as/so long as ​I live.
○ Note: ​after ​and b​ efore ​are commonly used in the following expressions:
■ Shortly a ​ fter ■ Shortly ​before
■ A short time a ​ fter ■ A short time ​before
■ A little time ​after ■ A little time ​before
■ Not long ​after ■ Not long ​before
■ Soon ​after
● Subject-Verb Agreement: Using Expressions of Quantity
○ In most expressions of quantity, the verb is determined by the noun (or pronoun)
that follows of.
■ Some of the book ​is g ​ ood.
■ Some of the books ​are​ mine.
○ Exceptions: ​one of, each of, and every one of ​take singular verbs.
one of/each of, every one of ​+ plural noun = singular verb
■ One of m ​ y friends is here.
○ Subjects with ​none of a ​ re considered singular in every formal English.
■ None of t​ he boys is here.

Noun
● Using Nouns as Modifiers
○ When a noun is used as a modifier, it is in its singular form.
■ It is ​vegetable soup.​ →​ The soup has vegetables in it.
○ When a noun used is used as a modifier is combined with a number of
expression, the noun is singular and a hyphen (-) is used.
■ It was a ​two-hour t​ est.
● Count and Noncount Nouns
○ A count noun:
■ May be preceded by ​a/an ​in the singular.
● A chair, one chair
■ Takes a final ​-s/-es i​ n the plural
● Two chairs, some chairs, a lot of chairs, many chairs
○ A noncount noun:
■ Is not immediately preceded by ​a/an
■ Has no plural form, so does not take a final ​-s/-es
● Some furniture, a lot of furniture, much furniture
● Basic Article Usage
○ Using ​A​: Generic Nouns → ​A ​banana is yellow.
 ○ Using ​A o ​ r ​Some:​ Indefinite Nouns → Indefinite nouns are actual things (not
symbols), but they are not specifically identified.
■ The thing that I want to highlight here is how we use some alternative
words for ​some i​ n countable noun or uncountable noun. ​Some ​is often
used with indefinite plural count nouns and indefinite noncount nouns. In
addition to ​some​, a speaker might use ​two, a few, several, a lot of, e ​ tc.,
with plural count nouns, or ​a little, a lot of, e ​ tc., with noncount nouns.
● I ate ​some b ​ ananas.
● I ate ​some f​ ruit.
○ Using ​The:​ Definite Nouns → A noun is definite when both the speaker and the
listener are thinking about the same specific things. Notice that ​the i​ s used with
both singular and plural count nouns and with noncount nouns.
● General Guidelines for Article Usage
○ Use ​the w ​ hen you know or assume that your listener is familiar with and thinking
about the same specific thing or person you are talking about.
■ The s ​ un ​is bright today.
○ Use ​the f​ or the second mention of an indefinite noun.
■ Yesterday I saw ​some dogs.​ ​The dogs w ​ ere chasing ​a cat. ​The cat w ​ as
chasing ​a mouse.​ T ​ he mouse​ ran into ​a hole. ​The hole ​was very small.
○ Do not use ​the ​with a plural count noun or a noncount noun when you are
making a generalization.
■ Apples ​are my favorite fruit.
■ Gold ​is a metal.
● Expressions of Quantity
○ Used with count nouns
■ One​ apple ■ A couple of ​apples
■ Each​ apple ■ A few a ​ pples
■ Every​ apple ■ Several ​apples
■ Two​ apples ■ Many a ​ pples
■ Both​ apples ■ A number of a ​ pples
○ Used with noncount nouns
■ A little ​rice
■ Much r​ ice
■ A great deal of ​rice
○ Used with both count and noncount nouns
■ No a ​ pples or N ​ o ​rice
■ some/any ​apples or ​some/any ​rice
■ A lot of/lots of a ​ pples or ​A lot of/lots of r​ ice
■ Plenty of ​apples or ​plenty of ​rice
■ Most ​apples or m ​ ost ​rice
■ All a ​ pples or ​all r​ ice
● Using ​a few ​and ​few​; ​a little a ​ nd ​little
○ A few a ​ nd ​a little g ​ ive a positive idea.
 ■ She has been here only two weeks, but she has already made ​a few
friends. ​→ Positive idea: ​She has made some friends​.
○ Few ​and​ little ​(without ​a​) give a negative idea they indicate that something is
largely absent. ​Very (​ +
​ few/little)​ makes the negative stronger, the
number/amount smaller.
■ I have (​very​) ​little money.​ I don’t even have enough money to buy food
for dinner. → Negative idea: ​I do not have much money; I have almost no
money at all.

Pronouns
● Personal Pronouns:
○ A singular pronoun is used in formal English to refer to an indefinite pronoun.
■ Somebody ​left ​his ​book on the desk.
■ Everyone ​has ​his or her ​own ideas.
○ Indefinite Pronouns:
■ Everyone ■ Somebod ■ Anybody
■ Everybody y ■ Anything
■ Everything ■ Somethin ■ No one
■ Someone g ■ Nobody
■ Anyone ■ Nothing
● Forms of Other
○ As adjective:
■ Singular: another book (​is​), the other book (​is​)
■ Plural: other books (​are​), the other book​s​ (​are​)
○ As pronoun:
■ Singular: another (​is​), the other (​is​)
■ Plural: others (​are​), the others (​are​)
● Common Expressions with ​Other
○ Each other ​and ​one another ​indicate a reciprocal relationship.
■ We write ​each other ​every week.
■ We write to ​one another e ​ very week.
● Those sentences mean that I write to him every week, and he
writes to me every week.
○ The other ​is used in time expressions such as t​ he other day, the other morning,
etc., ​to refer to the recent past.
■ Have you seen Ali recently?
Yes. I saw him just ​the other day​.
○ One after the other/one after another e ​ xpresses the idea that separate actions
occur very close in time.
■ They slipped into the water ​one after the other.​
○ Other than ​is usually used after a negative clause. ​Other than h ​ as the same
meaning with “except”
Modals
● Modals
○ The modal auxiliaries in English are ​can, could, had better, may, might, must,
ought (​ ​to)​ , ​shall, should, will, would.​
○ Modals do not take final ​-s/-es​, even when the subject is ​she, he, it​.
○ Modals are followed immediately by the simple form of a verb.
○ In the negative condition, ​must ​and h ​ ave to ​have different meaning.
■ Do not have to​ = lack of necessity.
● I can hear you. You ​don’t have to s​ hout.
■ Must not ​= prohibition.
● You ​must not ​tell any of my secret to anyone.
○ The past form of Should = ​should have + ​ ​past participle.​
■ I had a test this morning. I didn’t do well on the test because I didn’t study
for it last night. I ​should have studied​ last night.
○ Be supposed to ​expresses the idea that someone expects something to
happen.
■ The game ​is supposed to b ​ egin at 10 PM.
● Making Suggestions
○ Let’s =​ ​let us.​ L ​ et’s i​ s followed by a simple form of a verb. Negative form is
Let’s + not​.
■ Let’s go ​to the theater.
○ Why don’t ​is used primarily in spoken English to make a friendly suggestion.
■ Why don’t ​we go now? → Let’s go.
○ Shall ​is used with ​I ​or ​we i​ n a question that the speaker is usually making a
suggestion and asking another person if s/he agrees with that suggestion.
■ Shall I open ​the windows? Is that okay with you?
● Degree of Certainty: Present time
○ Positive form: modal + be + adjective.
■ He ​is​ sick. → 100% sure.
■ He ​must be s​ ick → 95% sure.
■ He ​may be/might be/could be​ sick. → less than 50% sure.
○ Negative form: modal + not + be + adjective
■ He ​couldn’t be/can’t be ​sick. → 99% sure, the other modal use same
rule as in positive form.
● Degree of Certainty: Past Time
○ Positive form: modal + have been + adjective.
■ He ​was ​sick. → 100% sure.
■ He ​must have been ​sick. → 95% sure.
■ He ​may have been/might have been/could have been s​ ick. → less
than 50% sure.
○ Negative form: modal + not + have been + adjective. Negative form of degree of
certainty in past time use the same rule as in present time.
● Degree of Certainty: Future Time
 ○ 100% sure: He ​will be s​ ick tomorrow.
○ 90% sure: He ​should be/ought to be s​ ick tomorrow.
○ Guessing: He ​might be/may be/could be​ sick tomorrow
● Progressive Forms of Modals
○ Present time: modal + be + -ing
■ All of the light in Ann’s room are turned off. She ​must be sleeping​.
○ Past time: modal + have been + -ing
■ Sue wasn’t at home last night when we visited her. She ​must have been
studying ​at the library.
● Using ​Would ​to Express A Repeated Action in The Past
○ Would ​can be used to express an action that was repeated regularly in the past.
When ​would ​is used to express this idea, it has the same meaning as ​used to
(habitual past).
■ When I was a child, my father ​would/used to​ read me a story at night
before bedtime.
○ Used to e ​ xpresses an habitual situation that existed in the past. In this case,
would ​may not be used as an alternative. ​Would ​is used for regularly repeated
actions in the past.
■ I ​used to ​live in Jakarta.
● Expressing Preference: ​Would Rather
○ Would rather ​expresses preference
■ I ​would rather go ​to a movie tonight t​ han study g ​ rammar.
■ I​’d rather study h ​ istory than (​study​) biology. → if the verb is the same, it
usually is not repeated after ​than​.
○ Negative form: ​would rather + ​ ​not
○ The past form: ​would rather have + ​ ​past participle
■ The movie was okay, but I ​would rather have gone ​to the concert last
night.
○ Progressive form: ​would rather + be + -ing
■ I​’d rather be lying ​on a beach in India than (​be​) ​sitting ​in class right
now.
The Passive
● Form of the Passive: ​be + past participle
○ Mary​ (subject) ​helped​ (verb) ​the boy​ (object) → passive form → ​The boy
(subject) ​was helped​ (​ verb) by Mary.
● Using The Passive
○ Usually the passive is used without a ​by-phrase​. The passive is most frequently
used when it is not known or not important to know exactly performs an action.
■ Rice is ​grown i​ n India.
■ Our house ​was built i​ n 1980.
○ The ​by-phrase ​is included only if it is important to know who performs an action.
■ Life on the Mississippi was written ​by Mark Twain.
○ If the speaker knows who performs an action, usually the active is used.
● Indirect Object As Passive Subjects
○ Either an indirect object or a direct object may become the subject of a passive
sentence.
■ Someone gave ​Mrs. Lee (​ I.O.) ​an award​ (D.O)
● Mrs. Lee ​was given an award.
■ Someone gave ​an award​ ​(D.O.) ​to Mrs. Lee​ (I.O.)
● An award w ​ as given to Mrs. Lee.
● Passive Form of Modals and Phrasal Modals
○ Passive Form: ​modal + ​be ​+ past participle
■ Fres ​is supposed to be told a ​ bout the meeting.
■ Children ​should be taught t​ o respect their elders.
○ Past-Passive Form: ​modal + ​have been +​ past participle
■ The letter ​should have been sent l​ ast week.
■ This house ​must have been built o ​ ver 200 years ago.
● The Passive With ​Get
○ Get + Adjective → Get ​may be followed by certain adjectives. ​Get ​gives the idea
of change -- the idea of becoming, beginning to be, growing to be.
■ I’m getting hungry​. → I wasn’t hungry before, but now I’m beginning to
be hungry.
○ Get + Past Participle → Get m ​ ay also be followed by a past participle. The past
participle functions as an adjective; it describes the subject. The passive with ​get
is common in spoken English, but is often no appropriate in formal writing.
■ I stopped working because I ​got tired.​
■ They​ are getting married n ​ ext month.
● Participial Adjectives
○ The ​present participle ​serves as an adjective with an active meaning. The noun it
modifies performs an action. The ​past participle ​serves as an adjective with a
passive meaning.
■ It is a ​confusing ​problem. ​→ The problem confuses the students.
They are ​confused ​students​. → The students are confused by the
problem.
■ It is ​an amusing s​ tory​. → The story amuses the children.
The ​are​ ​amused ​children. →​ The children are amused by the story.
Noun Clause
● Noun Clause
○ Independent clause​ (or ​main clause​) is a complete sentence. It contains the main
subject and verb of a sentence.
■ Sue lives in Tokyo.
■ Where does Sue live?
○ Dependent clause ​(or ​subordinate clause​) is not a complete sentence. It must be
connected to an independent clause.
■ Where Sue lives
○ Noun clause​ is a dependent clause connected to an independent clause. It is
used as a subject or an object.
■ I know ​where Sue lives​. → ​Where Sue lives ​is a ​noun clause​.
○ Noun phrase​ is also used as a subject or an object.
■ His story w ​ as interesting. → ​His story i​ s a noun phrase.
● Noun Clause Beginning With A Question Word
○ In a noun clause, the subject precedes the verb. Do not use question word order
in a noun clause. Notice: ​does, did, a ​ nd ​do a
​ re used in questions, but not in
noun clauses.
■ Question: Where does she live? → Noun Clause: I don’t know ​where she
lives​.
■ Question: What did he say? → Noun Clause: I couldn’t hear ​what he
said​.
○ Compared to a question word, the subject of the question is placed in front of the
verb ​be i​ n the noun clause.
■ Question: Who is she? → Noun Clause: I don’t know ​who she is.​
■ Question: Whose house is that? → Noun Clause: I wonder ​whose house
that is.​
○ A noun clause subject takes a singular verb.
■ Question: What should they do? → Noun Clause: ​What they should do
is obvious.
● Noun Clauses Beginning With ​Whether O ​ r ​If
○ When a yes/no question is changed to a noun clause, ​whether ​or ​if i​ s used to
introduce the clause. (Note: ​Whether i​ s more acceptable in formal English, but ​if
is quite commonly used, especially in speaking)
■ Question: Will she come? → Noun Clause: I don’t know ​whether/if she
will come​.
○ Notice the patterns when ​or not ​is used.
■ I wonder ​whether or not s​ he will come.
■ I wonder ​whether/if s​ he will come ​or not.​
● Question Words Followed by Infinitives
○ Question words (​when, where, how, who, whom, whose, what, which)​ and
whether​ may be followed by an infinitive.
■ I don’t know ​what I should do. ​→ I don’t know w ​ hat to do​.
 ■ Jim told us ​where we could find it. → ​ Jim told us ​where to find it​.
● Noun Clauses Beginning With ​That
○ The word ​that​, when it introduces a noun clause, has no meaning in itself. It
simply marks the beginning of the clause.
■ He is a good actor. → I think ​that h ​ e is a good actor​.
● Quoted Speech
○ Quoted speech ​refers to reproducing words exactly as they were originally
spoken. Quotation marks (“...”) are used.
■ She said,”My brother is a student.”
● Reported Speech
○ Reported speech r​ efers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said.
If the reporting verb is simple past, the verb in the noun clause will usually also
be in past form.
■ She said she​ watched​ TV everyday.
■ She said she ​was watching​ TV.
○ Should, ought to, and might do not change to a past form.
■ She said she ​should watch​ TV.
○ The present tense is retained even in formal English when the reported sentence
deals with a general truth.
■ She said the world ​is​ round.
○ In reported speech, an imperative sentence is changed to an infinitive. ​Tell i​ s
used instead of ​say​ as the reporting verb.
■ “Watch TV” → She ​told m ​ e t​ o watch ​TV.

Adjective Clause
● Introduction
○ Adjective Clause: is a dependent clause that modifies a noun. It describes,
dentifies, or gives further information about a noun.
○ Adjective clause use pronouns to connect the dependent clause to the
independent clause. The ​adjective clause pronouns (​ relative pronouns)​ a
​ re ​who,
whom, which, that, ​and ​whose​.
● Relative Pronouns Used as The Subject
○ Who ​= used for people, ​which ​= used for things, ​that​ = used for both people and
things.
■ I thanked the woman ​who/that​ helped me. → I thanked the woman. ​She
helped me.
■ The book ​which/that i​ s on the table is mine. → The book is mine. ​It ​is
one the table.
■ Incorrect Example: The book is mine ​that ​is on the table.​ → An adjective
clause closely follows the noun it modifies.
● Relative Pronouns Used as The Object of A Verb
■ The man ​who(​ ​m​)​/that ​I saw ​was Mr. Jones. → The man was Mr. Jones. I
saw ​him.​
 ■ The movie ​which/that ​we saw last night ​wasn’t very good. → The movie
wasn’t very good. We saw ​it ​last night.
● Relative Pronouns Used as The Object of A Preposition
○ In ​very formal English​, the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective
clause.
■ She is the woman ​about whom I​ told you.​ → She is the woman. I told
you ​about her​.
■ The music ​to which w ​ e listened last night w ​ as good. → The music was
good. We listened ​to it ​last night.
○ Usually, however, in everyday usage, the preposition comes after the subject and
verb of the adjective clause.
■ She is the woman ​who(​ m ​ ​) ​I told you a
​ bout.​
■ The music ​which w ​ e listened ​to ​last night w ​ as good.
○ If the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective clause, only ​whom o ​ r
which m​ ay be used. A preposition is never immediately followed by ​that ​or ​who​.
● Using ​Whose
○ Whose i​ s used to show possession. It carries the same meaning as other
possessive pronoun used as adjectives: ​his, her, its, a ​ nd ​their.​ Like possessive
pronoun, ​whose i​ s connected to a noun. Both ​whose ​and the noun it is
connected to are placed at the beginning of the adjective clause. ​Whose ​cannot
be omitted.
■ His bicycle → whose bicycle
■ Her composition → whose composition
■ I know the man ​whose bicycle ​was stolen​. → I know the man. ​His
bicycle ​was stolen.
■ The student ​whose composition I​ read w ​ rites well. → The student writes
well. I read ​her composition.
● Using ​Where i​ n Adjective Clause
○ Where i​ s used in an adjective clause to modify a place (​city, country, room,
house, etc)​ . If ​where i​ s used, a preposition is NOT included in adjective clause. If
where i​ s not used, the preposition must be included.
■ The building ​where h ​ e lives ​is very old.
■ The building ​which/that ​he lives i​ n i​ s very old.
■ The building ​in which ​he lives i​ s very old.
● Using ​When ​in Adjective Clause
○ When ​is used in an adjective clause to modify a noun of time. (​year, day, time,
century, etc​). The use of preposition in an adjective clause that modifies a noun
of time is somewhat different from that in other adjective clause: a preposition is
used preceding ​which​. Otherwise, the preposition is omitted. (omitted =
dihilangkan).
■ I’ll never forget the day ​when ​I met you.
■ I’ll never forget the day ​that ​I met you.
 ■ I’ll never forget the day ​on which ​I met you. → I’ll never forget the day. I
met you ​then (​ ​on that day​).​
● Using Adjective Clause to Modify Pronouns
○ Adjective clauses can modify indefinite pronouns (e.g., ​someone, everybody​).
Object pronouns (e.g., ​who(m), that, which​) are usually omitted in the adjective
clause.
■ There is ​someone (whom) I​ want you to meet.
■ Everything ​he said ​was pure nonsense.
■ Anyone w ​ ho​ w
​ ants to come ​is welcome.
○ Adjective clause can modify ​the one(s) ​and ​those​.
■ Paula was ​the only one I​ knew at the party.
■ Scholarships are available for ​those ​who need financial assistance.​
● Punctuating Adjective Clauses
○ General guidance for the punctuation of adjective clause.
1. DO NOT USE COMMAS IF​ the adjective clause is necessary to identify
the noun it modifies.
2. USE COMMAS IF ​the adjective clause simply gives additional information
and is not necessary to identify the noun it modifies.
○ Example:
■ The professor​ ​who teaches Chemistry 101​ is an excellent lecturer. → No
commas are used. The adjective clause is necessary to identify which
professor is meant.
■ Professor Wilson,​ who teaches Chemistry 101, ​is an excellent lecturer.
→ Commas are used. The adjective clause is not necessary to identify
Professor Wilson. We already know who he is: he has a name. The
adjective clause simply gives additional information.
■ The man who(m)/that I​ met yesterday ​teaches Chemistry.
■ Mr. Lee, ​whom I met yesterday​, teaches Chemistry. → When commas
are necessary, the pronoun ​that m ​ ay not be used (only ​who, whom,
which, whose, where, ​and ​when​ may be used), and object pronouns
cannot be omitted.
● Using Expressions of Quantity in Adjective Clauses
○ An adjective clause may contain an expression of quantity with ​of:​ ​some of,
many of, most of, none of, two of, half of, both of, neither of, each of, all of,
​ he expression of quantity
several of, a few of, little of, a number of, etc. T
precedes the pronoun. Only ​whom, which, ​and ​whose a ​ re used in this pattern.
Commas are used.
■ In my class there are 20 students, ​most of ​whom ​are from Asia. → In my
class there are 20 students. Most of ​them ​are from Asia.
■ He gave several reasons, ​only a few of ​which ​were valid. → He gave
several reasons. Only a few of ​them w ​ ere valid.
● Using Noun + ​of which
 ○ An adjective clause may include ​a noun + of which. T ​ his pattern carries the
meaning of ​whose. ​A comma is used.
■ We have an antique table, ​the top of which ​has jade inlay. → We have
an antique table. ​The top of it ​has jade inlay.
● Using ​Which t​ o Modify A Whole Sentence (informal)
○ The pronouns ​that a ​ nd ​this c​ an refer to the idea of a whole sentence which
comes before. An adjective clause with ​which ​may modify the idea of a whole
sentence.
■ Tom was late, ​which ​surprised me​. → Tom was late. ​That s​ urprised me.​
● Reducing Adjective Clauses to Adjective Phrases
○ CLAUSE: A clause is a group of related words that contains a subject and a verb.
○ PHRASE: A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain a subject
and a verb.
○ Only adjective clauses that have a subject pronoun (​who, which, o ​ r ​that​) are
reduced to modifying adjective phrases.
○ There are two ways in which an adjective clause is changed to an adjective
phrase.
1. If the adjective clause contains the ​be ​form of a verb, omit the pronoun
and the ​be ​form.
2. If there is no ​be ​form of a verb in the adjective clause, it is sometimes
possible to omit the subject pronoun and change the verb to its ​-ing f​ orm.
○ If the adjective clause requires commas, the adjective phrase also requires
commas.
○ Example:
■ CLAUSE: The man ​who is talking t​ o John i​ s from Korea.
PHRASE: The man ​talking t​ o John i​ s from Korea. (1)
■ CLAUSE: The ideas ​which are presented ​in that book a ​ re good.
PHRASE: The ideas ​presented ​in that book a ​ re good. (1)
■ CLAUSE: English has an alphabet ​that consists ​of 26 letters.
PHRASE: English has an alphabet ​consisting ​of 26 letters. (​ 2)
■ CLAUSE: Anyone ​who wants t​ o come with us ​is welcome.
PHRASE: Anyone ​wanting t​ o come with us ​is welcome. (2)
■ CLAUSE: George Washington, ​who was the first president of the United
States, ​was a wealthy colonist and a general in the army.
PHRASE: George Washington, ​the first president of the United States,
was a wealthy colonist and a general in the army.

Gerunds and Infinitive

● Gerunds
○ A ​gerund ​is the ​-ing ​form of a verb used as a noun. A gerund is used in the same
ways as a noun, i.e., as a subject or as an object.
■ Walking i​ s a good exercise.
○ A gerund is frequently used as the object of a preposition.
 ■ We talked ​about going ​to Canada for our vacation.
■ I​’m used to sleeping w ​ ith the windows open. → ​to i​ s a preposition, not
part of an infinitive form, so a gerund follows.
■ We talked ​about not going ​to the meeting, but finally decided we should
go. → Negative form.
● Infinitives
​ ​the simple form of a verb.​
○ An infinitive = ​to +
■ I ​hope to see ​you again soon.
■ Mr. Lee ​told me to be h ​ ere at ten o’clock. → Verb + (pro)noun + infinitive
■ I was told to be h ​ ere at ten o’clock. → passive form.
○ Ask, expect, would like, want,​ and ​need​ may or may not be followed by a
(pro)noun object.
■ I ​expect to pass ​the test. → Compare with → I think I will pass the test.
● Infinitive of Purpose: In order to
○ In order to i​ s used to express purpose. It answers the question “Why?”. ​In order
is often omitted. To express purpose, use (​in order​) t​ o​, not ​for​, with a verb. ​For
can be used to express purpose, but it is a preposition and is followed by a noun.
■ He came here ​(in order) to ​study English.
■ INCORRECT​: He came here ​for studying E ​ nglish.
■ I went to the store ​for some bread/to buy some bread.
○