TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Objectives

3. Theory

3.1Types/Methods of Grouting

3.2Grouting Materials

3.3Groutability

4. Applications of Grouting

5. Methodology to make grout curtain

5.1Pre Grouting Site Investigation

5.2Construction/Permeation Grouting for RCC/Rock fill dam foundation

6. Specification/Guidelines for Design of Grout Curtain (Relevant to IS Code)

7. Control Tests

8. Conclusions
GROUND MODIFICATION BY GROUTING
1. INTRODUCTION
Grouting is a process of ground improvement technique by injecting fluid or fluidized
material into subsurface soil or rock to modify the characteristics or functionality of the ground.
Grouting is generally done through boreholes and under pressure. The injected material is
referred to as the grout or grout material.
This report presents a concise study of different types of grouting, grouting materials,
groutability of soils, brief summary of various applications of grouting techniques, methodology
of performing pre-grouting site investigation and constructing a grout curtain, description of
important specifications for design of grout curtains and summary of control tests for quality
assurance and control.

2. OBJECTIVE
The primary objectives of grouting are categorized into four groups:
2.1 Strength: To produce stronger/denser soil or rock.
2.2 Stability: To fill voids which are otherwise inaccessible and may prevent adequate stress
transfer within the ground or from structure to the ground.
2.3 Permeability: To reduce the seepage in soils or rocks. For example, in the case of seepage
below the dams.
2.4 Others: For excavation support, underpinning, and stabilization for tunneling and even
densification for liquefaction mitigation.

3. THEORY

3.1 Types/Methods of Grouting

Based on way/mode in which grout material is transmitted to the ground, the grouting
method is classified into five types:
3.1.1 Slurry Grouting (Intrusion)
3.1.2 Chemical Grouting (Permeation)
3.1.3 Compaction Grouting (Displacement)
3.1.4 Jet Grouting (Erosion)
3.1.5 Fracture Grouting (Compensation)

3.1.1 Slurry Grouting

Slurry grouting, also called as intrusion grouting, a type of penetration grouting, is generally
applicable method for coarser sand, fractured rock above water table where, the grout material
enters by following different routes of voids, without disrupting the existing formations. With
specialized micro-fine materials and low viscosity, slurry grouts can be used to fine grained
sandy soils.

3.1.2 Chemical Grouting

Chemical grouting, also known as permeation grouting a type of penetration grouting, is
generally applicable method for medium to fine sand and silty-sands where, chemical solutions
(without suspended solids as in case of slurry grouts) will permeate through the voids in the soil
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mass and may contain dissolved materials that react directly with the soils being treated (for
example chemical additives that stabilize expansive soils).

3.1.3 Compaction Grouting

Compaction grouting also known as displacement grouting is generally applicable
method for granular materials (loose sands),equally above and below water table, where the soil
mass is displaced and densified by low slump mortar (around 25mm slump designed not to
penetrate soil voids or blend with soil) injected to form continuous grout bulbs.

3.1.4 Jet Grouting

Jet Grouting also known as replacement grouting is generally applicable method for wide
range of soil types ranging from cohesionless to plastic clays, above and below water table
where, grout material is injected at very high pressures (300 – 600 bars) through high velocity
jets (183 – 305 m/s) so that they hydraulically cut, erode, replace and mix the existing soil to
form very uniform, high strength, soil-cement columns.

3.1.5 Fracture Grouting

Fracture Grouting is a special type of Displacement Grouting with high pressure, also called
as compensation grouting, is generally applicable method for sandy to clayey soils, where high
pressure is applied which leads to splitting of ground (hydrofracture) and it leads to
interconnected fractures filled with grout to provide reinforcement as well as densification
(consolidation).

3.2 Grouting Materials

Grouting Materials may be grouped into two basic types (Bowen, 1981)

3.2.1 Suspension grouts:

Suspension grouts are two or multi phase systems. Water in association with cement, lime, soil,
etc. constitutes suspensions. Emulsion (asphalt or bitumen) with water is also included under
suspension. Suspension grouts are also referred to as particulate grouts (Mitchell, 1976).

3.2.2 Solution grouts:

Solution grouts are one phase systems containing mixture of two or more substances. Solutions
grouts are of two types: pure solution grouts and colloidal solution grouts.

3.3 Groutability
For good performance of grout, appropriate selection of grouting material should be done
based on grain size distribution of soil mass/ rock fractures. In general coarser and moderately
permeable soils require high viscosity grouts whereas low viscosity grouts are quite good for fine
grained soils of low permeability. The type/ method of grouting as per soil size distribution is
shown below:
Initial washing of the surface opening is needed to make them clean and clay free such
that grout may adhere properly. In fractured rock, prior injection of dilute silicate can make grout
penetration easy.

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 The three factors that determine the effect of rate of injection of grout are: (i) viscosity of
the grout (ii) permeability and (iii) shear strength of the soil.
The desirable properties of grouts are suitable rheological properties with low viscosity,
correct setting time, and maximum volume with minimal weight, strength, stability and
durability.

Fig: Soil Gradations applicable for different grouting methods. After Hayward Baker

4. APPLICATIONS OF GROUTING
The major application of grouting are briefly described below:
4.1 Water Cutoff / Seepage Control
The oldest area of grouting application is seepage control in rock under dams. The most
common type of cutoff wall used is slurry walls when a positive cutoff is required. Grouting is
less expensive method for seepage remediation and preventative seepage. Based on degree of
fracturing in rock near its surface a shallow blanket grout is placed through which a deep curtain
grout is injected. This curtain wall is cutoff wall which on extension of the clay core of the claws
and junction is made more carefully to avoid a seepage path through interface.
Grouting for water cutoff may consider a number of different grout methods, usually
depending on project requirements, the subsurface materials, and geologic/hydrologic conditions.
It may include: 1. Intrusion 2. Permeation 3. Jet Grouting 4. Fracture grouting.
Intrusion, permeation and fracture grouting have been used for preparing dam sides by
tightening of fractured and permeable abutment material and bedrock. Although jet grouting is
somewhat more expensive it provides more uniform and more effective barrier.

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4.2 Ground Support
Jet grouting can be extensively used for a range of ground support applications including earth
retention, excavation base support, shallow foundation support, underpinning, scour protection
(and remediation) around bridge piers, and stabilization for tunneling.

4.3 Ground Strengthening, Displacement, and Void Filling

Chemical grouting can be used to add strength to granular soils by means of binding
grains together. But the strength gain from chemical grouting may not be very large, at shallow
depth or where confining stress is low, the increase in strength may be significant enough to
prevent caving, sloughing, and/or raveling of loose granular materials.
Similarly, compaction grouting can be used to strengthen soft/loose ground by
displacement densification and through cemented inclusions. Compaction grouting has been
increase in bearing capacity, reducing settlements, releveling floor slabs, and mitigating
liquefaction potential. Installation of compaction grout columns adjacent to deep foundation
increases the bearing capacity of deep foundation by exerting an increase lateral stress, which in
turn provides significant improvement of side resistance.

4.4 Other Grouting Applications

1. Conventional ground anchors, 2. Soil nails, 3. Mini/Micro-piles are usually set with
grout. Grout can also be used for sealing piezometers in boreholes to isolate them from
infiltration, sealing sheet pile interlocks, and rehabilitation of sewer lines.

5.0 METHODOLOGY TO MAKE GROUT CURTAIN

Depending upon the material to be grouted (i.e., whether it is rock or natural soil or fill)
its quality (i.e., in terms of fissures, cracks, discontinuities, or density) and the purpose of
grouting (i.e., seepage control, temporary support, or strength or stabilization), a well planned
methodology has to be adopted to attain the desired result.
A complete pre-grouting site investigation has to be planned and undertaken in order to
decide several factors such as grout type, equipment, grouting technique, etc. Based on the nature
of work and number of drill holes, depth and pattern have to be designed and proper
methodology for appropriate injection has to be followed.

5.1 Pre-Grouting Site Investigation

It is important to do a complete site investigation before starting grouting operations so as
to decide the method of grouting and the extent of grouting required in a particular location.

5.1.1 Geology of the Dam Sites:

The investigation should include at least a geological survey and investigation drilling.
Geological survey consists of studying general geology of the area with the help of mapping
methods and exploratory drillings to establish faults, fissures, folds, etc. It is necessary to collect
more data as much as possible about the geology of the dam site. A detailed investigation may
include:

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a) Geological Surface Mapping
It shows the distribution of different types of rock, rock formations, surfacial deposits, faults,
folds, ground water aquifers etc.

b) Study of aerial photographs

Aerial photography is used particularly in making topographic maps.

c) Explorations and Study of cores and other information from drill holes
Detailed explorations are carried out by drilling boreholes and collecting samples for laboratory
tests, to determine the shear strength, grain-size and permeability, etc. in the precise locations
where grouting has to done.

d) Permeability testing
In addition to these above tests, a field permeability test is a must for proper estimation of the
design pumping pressures, grouting pattern, and type of grout.
Permeability is the capacity of water to flow through the folds and fractures .It is important
parameter for checking the efficiency of the grouting done. During permeability tests right
position and inclination of exploration of drill holes is to be chosen which can be done by using
geological mapping and aerial photography. The most popular permeability unit used in grouting
is Lugeon.
1 Lugeon Unit = 1 Liter/m of test length /min at 10 bars
Most of the times, tests are conducted under this pressure .To calculate Lugeon Unit test the
formula is: Lugeon Unit = Liters/meter/minute X ( )
Examples as per the values of Lugeon Units
a) 1 lugeon unit hardly requires grouting
b) 10 lugeon unit justify grouting to reduce the most important seepages
c) 100 lugeon is met example, in heavily jointed sites with relatively open joints
Three drill holes are taken with the different water level pumped into the holes under the
pressure. Packer is used for sealing of test section.
Investigations are done at different levels in the holes to find the position of the high or low
permeability zones. Basis on this result, depth of the required grouting is calculated.

5.2 Construction methodology:

5.2.1 Staggering sequences:

Grout curtains are usually constructed by the split spacing method with all holes in the
curtain having the same depth. The primary spacing used is 6-8m and splits are made until the
required permeability is reached.

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 Fig: Staggering Sequence (left) Split spacing method (right) Houlsby method

Houlsby (1990) proposed another way to construct the grout curtain .It is based on three
stages of holes (primary, secondary and tertiary) each having different depth. If an area with high
absorption is detected at the bottom of the hole. The next stage on either side of this one can be
drilled dipper. So the curtain is reinforced at this weak point .If necessary, quaternary and
quinary holes can also be drilled. The primary spacing is 12 m in most of the cases but can also
be less (6 m minimum) where permeability are low enough to ensure very few connections, in
this case the number of series used can be reduced.

5.2.3 Injection Method:

The successful implementation of grouting project very much depends on the skill and
precision with which the grouting process is executed adopting an appropriate injecting
technique .In selecting a grouting method following aspects have to be satisfied
a) Soil or rock of different characteristics should be treated individually.
b) It should be possible to treat short sections of bore holes in any desired sequence and repeat
the injections if necessary
c) Leakage around the bore holes should be prevented.
In the normal practice individual grouting of each hole is done .However, group-grouting
(more than one holes are grouted simultaneously) is occasionally undertaken when rock
condition permit. In “curtain grouting” deep barrier is constructed to prevent the passage of
water through the foundation, holes are grouted in stage. Grouting activities are mandatory for
strengthening and water sealing.

5.2.4 Methods of Injection:

a) Grouting from the Bottom
A grout hole of 50 -75 mm diameter is drilled to full planned depth. In rigid soil or intact
rock strata a self-expanding packer is placed directly above the lowest zone and grout is pumped
in. The procedure is repeated after the packer is raised and fixed to the next zone. Thus the drill
hole is grouted successively offered. In soft or unstable soil the drill hole must be supported by a
casing and it also provides a good seal between the packer and borehole walls .The casing is
raised progressively with packer. In fissured rock, a particularly permeable stratum can be
isolated using a double packer.

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b) Grouting from the Top
In this method, holes are drilled down to the seam closest to the surface and grouting is
carried out. Holes are then cleaned by washing and drilling continued to the next seam. The
grouting process is then done. Subsequent washing followed by further and drilling and repeated
grouting are done until the entire operation is completed. This method gives a low output
.However, by this method, short passes can be treated individually and there is no risk of leakage
along the hole into the underground zone. This method is quite useful for heterogeneous strata
and provides improvement of the upper zones and should any weakness exist, deals with it
automatically.

6. SPECIFICATIONS/ GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN OF GROUT CURTAINS

The approach to the design of a grout curtain is not similar to conventional design of civil
structures using approved codes like that to design a building. The basic guidelines to be
considered in the design are as follows:
6.1 Geological Consideration
The data already obtained from the exploration of the foundation should be analyzed to
assess the characteristics of foundation rocks and the location and orientation of faults, seams,
cavities, joints and bedding planes and discontinuities.
The permeability values of foundation strata at various depths should be used for the
design since the stages and spacing of the holes for grouting should be based on this data.

6.2 Depth of the Grout Curtain

The choice of the depth is a crucial point and some guidelines exist to help engineers and
designers.
The main purpose of a grout curtain is to lengthen the seepage path and to limit the flow
in the foundations.
The easiest way to reduce it is to find a low permeability layer below the dam foundation.
Then, it may be possible to extend the grout curtain in it to take advantage of the underground.
If it’s not possible, the curtain should be drilled in a layer of lower permeability. The
depth of the grout curtain depends upon the type and conditions of the rock mass with respect to
its permeability.

Empirical Criteria:
The following empirical criteria may be used as a guide, which is based on going
practice: (In each case D represent the depth of grout curtain in m and H represents the height of
reservoir water in m.)

D = 2/3 H + 8 (Indian Standard IS 11293: 1993)

D = 1/3 H + C, where C = 8 to 25m (USBR, most documented design method)

D = 3/4 H (ATLAS COPCO (1999) US Grouting Equipment Sales Company)

D = H (Ewert (2003), European Practice)

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 A grout curtain depth equal to the height of the head of water is too deep for a very high
dam. Similarly a grout curtain can be deeper than the height of a low dam by using these
guidelines.

6.3 Drilling of Grout Holes

Percussion drills can be used for drilling the grout holes provided the foundation rock is
of a type that will produce granular cuttings, rather than slimes.
In case of rocks having weaknesses such as faults and seams it is recommended that at
least one hole should be bored with suitable boring machines which are capable of recovery of
rock cores and which will facilitate inspection of bore hole walls.
Diamond core drilling permits the examination of cores and the location of seams by
means of a TV borehole camera.

6.4 Inclination of Grout Holes

The aim of orientation of grout holes is to cut as many grout holes as possible and thus
the orientation, plan and inclination of grout holes depend upon the type of joints and other
discontinuities in the foundation rock.
It is very essential to incline the holes to cross as many vertical joints and fractures as
possible and fill them with grout material.
The most common practice is to drill holes inclined towards upstream at 5 to 10 degrees
with the vertical. (Indian Standard IS 11293 (Part 2): 1993)

6.5 Rows of Grouting: Single or Multiple Rows

A simple row will be adequate if the grouting is conducted with good quality assurance
with thorough assessment of grouting results and all weak spots treated with appropriate
attention. A single row curtain requires tight spacing of holes to ensure that the curtain is
continuous. The gradient obtained is steeper than for across a multiple row curtain and can cause
problems in a weak material.
A multiple rows curtain is wider and results in a less steep gradient which may be
required in weak materials. The spacing between holes can be greater than for a single line
curtain and the holes can have an opposite drilling direction to increase the chance of crossing
faults. In this last case, the first row has to be completed before beginning on the second one.
Finally grout curtain with multiple rows requires more drilling, more grout materials and more
time, so is more expensive.

6.6 Spacing of Grout Holes

Single line grout curtains are generally used. The usual practice is to try a widely spaced
system of primary boles at a spacing of 6 m to 8 m, followed by secondary and tertiary holes at a
progressively smaller spacing till the desired results are obtained. But, hole-spacing less than one
meter should be avoided.

6.7 Set Times of Grout Mix

Control of where the grout material finally ends up may be adjusted by adding
dispersants, retarders, or accelerators to the mix. Fast (quick) set times may be desired to limit
the radius of injected materials, particularly in stratified soils with more permeable lenses or in

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gravelly soils and fractured rock with wide fissures. Fast set times may also be necessary if being
applied where there is moving groundwater that would otherwise tend to transport the grout
away from the area intended for treatment. Set times may be evaluated by ASTM C191 or C953.

6.8 Grouting Injection Pressure

Too high grouting pressures may result one or more of the following:
1. Grout will travel unnecessary far through extensive dilation of fissures and joints in the rock.
2. Hydraulic fracturing of the rock mass may occur.
3. Washout of infillings in fractures.
4. Uplift in the foundation
All of the above will lead to excessive grout absorption and reduce the quality of grouting
works and may lead to excessive cost.
If the grouting pressure used is too low, the grout material will not completely fill the
faults and fissures and the grout curtains will not reduce the leakages and lengthen the seepage
path through bed rock. In this case, the cost of grouting may be wasted and remedial measures
may become necessary to rectify the situation.
There are three different guidelines to proceed.
1. The GIN Method: According to LOMBARDI (2003) “The fundamental principle of GIN-
Method (GIN: Grouting Index Number) is to reduce the grouting pressure as a function of
volume of grout injected”. The aim of this method is to limit the losses of grout material,
simplify the grouting procedure, save the costs of unnecessary permeability tests and reduce the
risk of hydro-jacking and hydro-fracturing. A maximum pressure, a maximum volume of
grouting, and the GIN ( a maximum intensity), curve determines the limit of grouting procedure.
The monitoring during the execution of grouting works allows knowing when these limits are
reached, and then the process is stopped.

GIN Curve and Grouting Path

GIN

V
Fig: Limiting curve for Grouting process of a single borehole

2. The US Practice: P = 0.25 x D

3. The European Practice: P = D
In each case P is the Pressure (bar) and D is the depth (m)

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6.9 Refusal Criteria
During grouting work, the pumping continues until there is no absorption at maximum
pressure specified. But sometimes grout takes can continue during a long time with very high or
very few values. So to avoid having too high useless grout takes or loosing too much time, it’s
necessary to fix refusal criteria and determine when to stop the pumping. Those cannot be based
on formula and calculation depending of the environmental and material factors. Most of the
time, they are the results of the past experience of the designers and the contractors which find
the best proportions between time, cost and efficiency. So the refusal criteria adopted are:
1. Termination of the grouting at maximum 300 kg cement/m maximum
2. Refusal of grout if flow rate ≤ 6 L/min at maximum pressure during 15 minutes

7. GROUTING CONTROL TECHNIQUES AND TESTS

Some engineers say that the success of grouting can only be assessed after the job is
completed, when seepage measurements or settlement observations for the structure under
operating conditions are available. However, a number of variables must be carefully monitored
and controlled to ensure that applications are successful.

1. Monitoring the important variables.

Monitoring techniques has greatly improved efficiency and quality, as well as provided a
good record for later review. Grout injection control systems are “new technologies” routinely
used for continuous real-time monitoring and data acquisition of variables such as:
a. Grout mix, Injection Location and Grouted Volumes
b. Grout Taken as a function of Injection Pressure
c. Grout Flow rate
d. Grout Volume

2. Observing ground heave

Surrounding ground heaving should be observed in the case of grouting with high pressures i.e.,
for intended fracturing (hydrofracture) in a rock foundation.

3. Recording piezometer levels

Piezometer levels should be recorded periodically in order to monitor the pore pressures due to
seepage water. The piezometer levels should show a lower value of pressures in order to indicate
the reduction of seepage in the vicinity of grouted zone.

4. Digging Inspection Pits

Inspection Pits can be dug to visually test the grouted columns in the case of jet grouting or to
visually test the grout bulbs in the case of compaction grouting during the process of trial grout
mixes or during the record keeping of grout quality.

5. Retrieving core samples for examination and laboratory testing

The study of the number of drilling cores retrieved from the dam site and the permeability testing
from these holes is the major step in the preparation of the longitudinal geological section of the
dam site which is an essential base for the design of an efficient grout curtain in the preliminary
phase.

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6. Photographing walls of boreholes for visual inspection (particularly effective if grout has been
dyed)

7. Conducting pressuremeter tests, possibly penetration tests

8. Conducting borehole permeability tests

8. CONCLUSIONS
For the design of the curtain itself, the use of specifications/guidelines is not sufficient,
because the design of grout curtain is not simple like the design of buildings (by using some
codes) so the experience and the results obtained on previous projects should be studied as well.
The proper methodology for grouting should be selected on the basis of geological field
investigations only and the success of the grouting procedure depends upon the actual
identification of field conditions rather than the use of some practice thumb-rules.

9. REFERENCES
9.1 Books:
1. Engineering Principles of Ground Modification, Hausmann
2. Geotechnical Engineering, Gulhati and Datta
3. Ground Improvement Techniques, Patra
4. Ground Improvement Techniques, Raj
5. Soil Improvement and Ground Modification Methods, Elsevier Inc.

9.2 Publications and Reports:

1. Bureau of Indian Standard (1993). “Guidelines for the Design of Grout Curtain: Part 2:
Masonry and Concrete Gravity Dams”. IS 11293
2. Richard S. (2013) “Design of Grout Curtain under Rock-fill Dam on Basaltic Foundation”

9.3 Websites
1. https://www.youtube.com/user/HaywardB
2. https://www.haywardbaker.com/

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