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Structural Design of Laminated Glass Under Consideration of the Shear Coupling

According to German, European and US Standards

Conference Paper · September 2018

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Structural Design of Laminated Glass Under Consideration of the
Shear Coupling According to German, European and US Standards
Michael A. Kraus Martin Botz
Institute for Structural Engineering Institute for Structural Engineering
University of German Armed Forces University of German Armed Forces
85577 Neubiberg - Germany 85577 Neubiberg - Germany

Geralt Siebert
Professor for Building Physics and
Building Construction
University of German Armed Forces
85577 Neubiberg - Germany

Abstract
Polymeric materials recently gained increasing interest in modern civil engineering. Most often, polymers are used in
sealing systems, as structural sealants and as interlayer materials for laminated glasses in façade systems. Although
the chemical basis of the specific monomers for the mentioned applications are different, all polymer-based materials
commonly show distinct thermoviscoelastic behaviour. In the case of laminated glass, the actual time- and
temperature - dependent shear modulus of the polymeric interlayer is vital for the shear coupling and thus the
mechanical behaviour in terms of resulting stresses and deflections.
In this paper, the main theoretical foundations of thermoviscoelasticity for polymeric materials in the time domain are
introduced as the basis for further mechanical considerations with respect to the shear transfer in laminated glasses.
A revision of currently available design methods and standards for taking into account the shear coupling of the glass
panes in laminated glass applications is conducted. Furthermore a summary of the shear modulus data of a variety of
common interlayer products on the market for different design situations (i.e. combination of load duration and
temperature) is given. Different graphical representations of the data give a quick overview on the stiffness behaviour
of the different interlayers in specific design conditions.
By means of two examples out of engineering practice the differences and commons in the design approaches
according to EN 16612 / 16613, ASTM E1300 and DIN 18008 are highlighted. As the design equations deal differently
with safety concepts, single parts of the evaluation are shown in detail to gather an understanding for the differences
in the actual stress and deflection values. Finally an outlook on future considerations and open questions for the
design codes as well as research will be given.
Keywords: laminated (safety) glass, glass interlayers, design concepts and methods, glass engineering

1 Introduction
The use of glass in construction over recent decades is steadily growing due to the high architectural demand for
transparent building envelopes. With this, the use of polymers also increases. In the civil engineering context polymers
serve for example as adhesive between glass panes and supporting structure [11] [12], as edge sealant for insulating
glazing [7] or as interlayer in laminated glass (LG) and laminated safety glass (LSG), [6] [16] [17] [23]. Laminated
glass consists per definition of at least two glass panes laminated together by means of a polymeric interlayer. The
interlayer causes a shear coupling of the two glass panes under loading. The design of laminated (saftey) glass
(LG/LSG) is conservative in many cases as the shear transfer between glass and interlayer according to current
national design standards (DIN 18008) cannot be taken into account for the computation of the stress states in the
glass plates. However, many producers of interlayers recently started to determine the specific time- and temperature-
dependent material characteristics of their interlayer products to provide shear modulus values for certain design
situations or to obtain technical approvals with the explicit use of the shear transfer, [1] [2] [3] [4]. Having at hand
these technical approvals, the design process of the glass structures is allowed to take into account the shear transfer
between glass and interlayer. In addition, the shear moduli given in the technical approvals can also be used in
context, where it is legally allowed to consider the shear transfer as for example in the U.S. when designing according
to [5] or in the Netherlands with [18]. In case of designing intact laminates, the time and temperature-dependent
material behaviour can be described within the context of linear viscoelasticity using the Generalized Maxwell model
with associated ‘Time-Temperature-Superposition-Principle’ (TTSP). This article at first introduces to the theory of
thermorheology in the context of linear viscoelasticity and then examines the influence of considering the shear
transfer during the design calculation process on two systems from engineering practice. Finally a conclusion on the
obtained results and future research directions are given.

2 Thermomechanics of Polymeric Interlayers and Mechanics of the Shear Transfer

Polymeric interlayers show a strong time and temperature dependent material behavior, c.f. [6] [16] [17] [23].
Depending on the application specifics and requirements, different interlayers are used in laminated glasses. In the
civil engineering context three main groups of interlayers are commonly used: poly-vinyl-butyral (PVB), ‘Ethylene-vinyl
acetate’ (EVA) and Ionomers (SentryGlass). For each interlayer in the past intensive research was conducted in order
to provide the material properties necessary for the design. In the intact state of a laminated glass, strains in the
interlayer are small and the material behavior can be described with the theory of linear viscoelasticity (LVE). Within
this theory the Generalized Maxwell-Model, c.f. Figure 1, and an associated Prony-series (Eq. (1)) can be used to
describe time-dependency within the stress-strain-correspondence, [19]. The Prony-series consists of K decaying
stiffness functions ( ⁄ ̃ ) with associated relaxation times ̃ and an equilibrium stiffness . Alternatively, the
Prony-series can be formulated using the standardized modulus ( ) , where corresponds to the shear
modulus at time , c.f. Eq. (1).

( ) ∑ ̃

( ∑ ( ̃ )) ( )

̃ ⁄

Figure 1. Generalized Maxwell-Model (left) and Prony-Series in the time domain (right)
In addition to the time-dependence, the temperature influence has to be taken into account within the Generalized
Maxwell element approach. For thermomechanical considerations, the glass transition temperature Tg is of special
importance, at it is the temperature (range) where the stiffness of the interlayer changes from a glass-like state with
relatively high stiffness to a rubberlike state with a relatively low stiffness. For PVB interlayers Tg varies within the
range of 10°C to 50°C, depending on the content of softener. However, the time and temperature dependence of
polymer interlayers can be connected with the time temperature superposition principle (TTSP), c.f. [15] [17]. The
TTSP states, that a stiffness curve at a given reference temperature can be used for predicting the stiffness over time
for various temperatures by applying a shift to the reference curve. The reference curve is usually called Master
Curve, c.f. [19]. The Master Curve itself is constructed by isothermal measurements of the interlayer modulus at
multiple temperatures and subsequent shifting by applying a shift factor aT to the time at which the measurement is
taken. Analyzing the shift factors used at each particular temperature delivers the shift factor - temperature -
relationship, which may possess a functional form such as the Arrhenius equation, the Williams-Landel-Ferry-Equation
or polynomial form, c.f. [19] [22] [4]. The Prony parameters (or ), ̃ and (or ) have to be determined
experimentally either via isothermal relaxation or creep experiments repeated at different temperatures or by using the
dynamic-mechanical-thermal analysis (DMTA) within significantly less time compared to the relaxation / creep tests,
c.f. [6] [16] [23]. After having obtained the experimental raw data, the unknown Prony-parameters have to be fitted to
the test data by means of a suitable identification method [15] [17]. For the thermomechanical description of a
thermorheologically simple polymer the Prony-series with an associated time-temperature superposition principle
(TTSP) and a reference temperature is sufficient.

3 Design according to DIN 18008, EN 16612 and ASTM E1300

Two systems are designed below. The systems differ in the support conditions of the laminated glass (the panes are
made from float glass). For system 1 a four-sided line whereas for system 2 a two-sided line support support is
considered. The dead weight of the pane and a live load is assumed as load cases, where the characteristic load is
gk = 0.25 kN/m² for dead weight and pk = 1.11 kN/m² for the live load. The live load represents either a wind gust load
over 3 seconds or a snow load on unheated building parts (with a load duration of 3 weeks) or on heated building
parts (with a load duration of 5 days). The same laminate composition and geometry is used for both systems. Figure
1 shows the geometry, structure and load of the laminated glass considered for design.

Figure 2. Geometry, structure and load of the laminated glass panel to be designed

3.1 Design according to DIN 18008 (neglecting the actual shear transfer)

First, the design according to DIN 18008 is carried out without using a interlayer with technical approval for the shear
transfer, i.e. the design does not account for the actual shear modulus of the interlayer during the design
computations. The design value of the load action qd is computed as follows:

⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ( )

The stress and deformation can be calculated either by applying an equivalent thickness d* to the laminated glass
pane or alternatively designing a single pane of the symmetrical laminated safety glass with half the load acting. In the
first case, the equivalent thickness d* is calculated as follows:

√ √ ( )

Where d1 and d2 are the thickness of the single glass panes.

Tabulated solutions of the linear differential equation of plates are provided in [21] for loading under uniformly
distributed loads on rectangular and four-sided line supported glazings. Tables for area loads, line and point loads on
glass plates can also be found in [21]. This allows the maximum stress σmax and the maximum deflection wmax to be
computed directly by using the equivalent thickness d*. For the two-side linearly supported plates, the stress and
deflection can be determined by using the linear beam theory with Bernoulli's hypothesis using the statically
equivalent system of a single glass plate of thickness d1 of the laminated safety glass under half acting load. For
systems 1 and 2, the calculations are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Results for the design acc. to DIN 18008 neglecting the interlayer shear modulus

System Design Standard Maximum Stress σmax Maximum Deflection wmax

DIN 18008 – without p  a2 d N pa4

σ max    0,5437  10,87 wmax   0,0462  5,27mm
shear transfer *3 2 mm 2 3
d E Glas  d *
1
DIN 18008 – full σ max  4,70
N
wmax  1,06mm
shear transfer mm 2

DIN 18008 – without σ max 

1 M 1 p  a2 /8
    30
N 1 p b  a4
wmax    17,86mm
shear transfer 2 W 2 d i2 / 6 mm 2 2 76,8  EGlas  I i
2
DIN 18008 – full σ max  12,96
N
wmax  3,58mm
shear transfer mm 2

In addition, the results for a monolithic (fulls shear transfer) plate (d = 2 x 5 mm + 0.76 mm = 10.76 mm) are given
also in Table 1. The span between no and full shear transfer (monolithic plate) shows, that a more precise design
under consideration of the actual shear transfer makes sense. A non-linear design computation leads to only slightly
different results with the present systems and loads and is therefore not pursued here.
The resistance value for float glass is determined according to DIN 18008 in dependence of the system and load
case. The characteristic bending tensile strength of float glass is fk = 45 Mpa and is set to 1.8. The load cases wind
and snow are specified in the standard without a specification of the load duration. For the load case 'wind' kmod = 0.7
(corresponds to a wind load duration of 10 min) and for the load case 'snow' kmod = 0.4 (corresponds to a snow load
duration of 3 weeks) is set. For laminated glass, the design resistance value of float glass is allowed to be increased
by 10%. For double-sided linearly mounted glazing, the load-bearing resistance for edge under tensile stress must be
reduced to 80%. For linearly mounted glazing, the load-bearing resistance may be increased by a factor of kc = 1.8.
Taking into account all the aforementioned factors, the utilisations according to DIN 18008 can be computed. The
design resistance values for float glass as well as the utilisations for the load cases are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Utilizations for the design acc. to DIN 18008 neglecting the interlayer shear modulus

System Design Standard

Load
Case
Maximum Stress Resistance  Rd Utilization

f k  k mod  kc 45MPa  0.7  1.8

Wind σ Rd   1,1   1.1  34,65MPa
γM 1.8 0.31
1
45MPa  0.4  1.8
Snow  Rd   1.1  19.80MPa 0.55
1.8
DIN 18008
45MPa  0.7 1.8
Wind  Rd  1.1 0.8  27.72MPa 1.08
1.8
2
45MPa  0.4 1.8
Snow  Rd  1.1 0.8  15.84MPa 1.89
1.8

3.2 Design according to EN 16612 and EN 16613

The design value of the action is calculated according to [9]:

⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ( )

At this point it should be noted that according to [9] the formula used here corresponds formally to that according to
[8], but when designing with [9] other partial safety factors are to be used than given in [8]. For the design acc. to the
draft European standard, a so-called shear transfer factor ω must first be determined. This can be determined by
means of a four-point bending test in a relaxation test. The test can be carried out isothermally for different
temperatures and ω can then be determined as a function of time and temperature using the test results. Values for ω
are already specified in the standard for various intermediate layer types. The intermediate layers are classified into
different stiffness families (classes 0, 1, 2).
In the standard, PVB, for example, is assigned to stiffness family 2 and is assumed here as an interlayer material.
Table 3. Load Cases and Shear Transfer Coefficients acc. to [3]

Load Case Load Duration Interlayer Temperature Range ω (Stiffness Family 2)

LC1 Wind Gust Load 3 Seconds 0° C < θ < 20° C 0.7

Snow Load
LC2 external canopies and roofs of 3 Weeks -20° C < θ < 0° C 0.3
unheated buildings

Snow Load
LC3 5 Days -20° C < θ < 20° C 0.1
roofs of heated buildings

Values for ω are given in table form for different load cases and corresponding temperature ranges (see Table 3).
Using these values and the glass structure, an effective thickness for calculating the stress, hef,σ, and deflection, hef,w,
can now be calculated using the following formulas according to [9]:

√ √∑ ∑ ( )

where are the thicknesses of the glass panes and is the distance of the midplanes of glass pane k
resp. j to the midplane of the glass laminate. As Table 3 shows, this standard takes into account the load duration as
well as temperatures. The design of the systems is shown exemplary for three load cases (LC) as given in Table 3.
For the wind load case with a load duration of 10 min, no values for ω are specified in the standard.
Therefore, the calculation is made here for the load duration of 3 seconds.
Table 4. Stress Resistances and utilizations for the design acc. to EN 16612 and EN 16613

Load hef,σ Maximum Stress σmax hef,w Maximum Deflection wmax

System ω
Case [mm] [MPa] [mm] [mm]
LC 1 0.7 10.24 3.83 9.82 1.04
1 LC 2 0.3 9.03 4.93 8.19 1.80
LC 3 0.1 7.91 6.42 7.04 2.83
LC 1 0.7 10.24 10.72 9.82 4.71
2 LC 2 0.3 9.03 13.80 8.19 8.13
LC 3 0.1 7.91 17.98 7.04 12.79

Table 5. Stress Resistances and utilizations for the design acc. to EN 16612 and EN 16613
Load
System Design Standard Maximum Stress Resistance σRd Utilization
Case
f k  kmod  ksp  kc 45MPa  1,0  1,0  1,0
LC 1  Rd    25,00MPa 0.15
M 1,8
f k  k mod  k sp  k c 45MPa  0,45 1,0 1,0
1 LC 2  Rd    11,25MPa 0.40
M 1,8
f k  k mod  k sp  k c 45MPa  0,49 1,0 1,0
LC 3  Rd    12,25MPa 0.57
M 1,8
EN 16612
f k  k mod  k sp  k c 45MPa  1,0  1,0  0,8
LC 1  Rd    20,00MPa 0.43
M 1,8
f k  k mod  k sp  k c 45MPa  1,0  1,0  0,8
2 LC 2  Rd    9,00MPa 1.53
M 1,8
f k  k mod  k sp  k c 45MPa  0,49 1,0  0,8
LC 3  Rd    9,80MPa 1.83
M 1,8

The calculation of , and for LF1 is now performed as an example, the other two load cases can be
computed analogously:

√ √ ( )

For the computation of stresses and deflections, the solutions of the plate equations are given in [21]. Table 4
summarizes the effective thicknesses as well as the maximum stresses and deflections. The resulting design stress
resistance values as well as the utilizations according to [9] and [10] are given in Table 5.

3.3 Design according to DIN 18008 in combination with a Technical Approval

According to DIN 18008, the shear transfer can be taken into account for interlayers with technical approvals. In the
following, an design example using [1] is given, the numerical computations are performed with the FEM software
ANSYS, version 17.2. The two glass layers and the interlayer are modeled with volume elements but are meshed as
SolidShell elements. The contact between glass and interlayer is bonded, the element size is set to 20 mm for all
bodies on the basis of a preliminary mesh study. The boundary conditions are considered on the basis of system
description for system 1 and 2 and the load cases. The Young's modulus of the glass is set to EGlas = 70,000 MPa and
the Poisson's ratio is taken as ν = 0.23. For the interlayer a Poisson's ratio of 0.49 is assumed. Stresses and
deflections are computed geometrically linear. There are two ways of incorporation of the interlayer shear modulus
into the numerical computation:
 The parameters of the Prony series and the associated time temperature superposition principle (TTSP) are
entered directly into the FEA program and the load duration and temperature is set inside the FEA program.
 The Prony series is evaluated using spreadsheet programs for the corresponding load duration and temperature
to obtain the shear modulus, which is assigned to the interlayer as a characteristic material property.
In the context of this paper, the second variant is used. To enable a comparison with the European standard [9], the
same load cases are assumed here.
Table 6. Shear Modulus in dependence of the load duration and temperature acc. [1]

Load Case Load Duration Shear Modulus G [MPa]

LC 1 3 seconds 258.6 @0°C 240.91 @10°C 147.35 @20°C

LC 2 3 weeks 241.83 @-20°C 148.83 @-10°C 25.75 @0°C

LC 3 5 days 254.43 @-20°C 60.54 @0°C 0.63 @20°C

The highest temperature in the load cases are selected to determine the shear modulus, which is on the safe side. To
show how much the shear modulus varies over the temperature, the shear modulus is given for three temperatures
(highest, medium, lowest). Table 6 shows the respective shear modules for the three load cases. Table 8 shows the
results of the FEM computations using the Prony series.
Table 7. Maximum stresses and deflections and utilizations for the design acc. to DIN 18008 together with [1]

Load
System Maximum Stress σmax [MPa] Maximum Deflection wmax [mm] Utilization
Case

LC 1 0°C / 10°C / 20°C 0°C / 10°C / 20°C

0.14
4.74 / 4.75 / 4.76 1.10 / 1.10 / 1.12

1 LC 2 -20°C / -10°C / 0°C -20°C / -10°C / 0°C

0.25
4.75 / 4.76 / 4.90 1.10 / 1.12 / 1.24

LC 3 -20°C / 0°C / 20°C -20°C / 0°C / 20°C

0.38
4.74 / 4.81 / 7.53 1.10 / 1.16 / 3.11

LC 1 0°C / 10°C / 20°C 0°C / 10°C / 20°C

0.49
13.40 / 13.40 / 13.40 3.76 / 3.76 / 3.76

2 LC 2 -20°C / -10°C / 0°C -20°C / -10°C / 0°C

0.85
13.40 / 13.39 / 13.39 3.76 / 3.78 / 3.94

LC 3 -20°C / 0°C / 20°C -20°C / 0°C / 20°C

1.13
13.40 / 13.37 / 17.94 3.76 / 3.83 / 8.15

3.4 Design according to ASTM E-1300

According to ASTM E-1300, the shear coupling can be taken into account either by using the design diagrams in [5] or
using the shear transfer method in appendix X9 of [5]. In the following the design using the diagrams in [5] is
conducted, the design according to X9 of [5] is skipped due to reasons of brevity of this article.
In a first step the 3-second equivalent load for LC 2 und LC 3 (snow loads) is calculated by evaluating the load
duration factors using formula X5.1 from [5]. The duration factors are Ssnow,30d = 2.35 and Ssnow,5d = 2.10 for 5 days.
The design values for wind (LC 1) and snow actions (LC 2, LC 3) are calculated according to [5]:

⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ( )

⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ( )

⁄ ⁄ ⁄ ( )
The nonfactored loads (NFL) are determined from Figure A1.32 of [5] for System 1 and from Figure A1.43 of [5] for
System 2, c.f. Table 8. The glass type factor for float glass in LG reads GTF = 1.0 (for 3s duration load). The load
resistance LR = NFL GTF can thus be computed to the values given in Table 8. The deflections of System 1 are
(roughly) estimated using Figure A1.32 of [5] and for System 2 using Figure A1.43 of [5]. The load resistance and
deflection values as well as the utilisations are summarized in Table 8.
Table 8. Load resistances and utilizations for a design acc. to [5]

System Load Case Load Resistance [kPa] Load Utilization Deflection [mm] Deflection Utilization

LC 1 7.00 0.19 ~1 0.06

1 LC 2 7.00 0.41 ~2 0.12

LC 3 7.00 0.37 ~2 0.12

LC 1 1.40 0.97 ~8 0.50

2 LC 2 1.40 2.04 ~17 1.02

LC 3 1.40 1.84 ~15 0.98

The method described in X9 of [5] is formally the same as in [9] (EN 16612). The difference is on the one hand in the
nomenclature ([5] uses Γ instead of ω for the shear transfer coefficient) and on the other hand, [5] allows to compute Γ
more specifically for the load cases instead of [9] prescribing ω values, c.f. Table 3. Despite [5] accounts more
accurately for the computation of Γ, it does not prescribe the boundary conditions (load duration and temperature) for
evaluating Γ for specific load cases other than 3 second wind and 30 day snow. The computation of the effective
thicknesses was already shown in Eq. (6) hence, a further evaluation of the design acc. to X9 of [5] is not considered
within this article due to reasons of brevity.

4 Summary, Conclusion and Outlook

A graphical comparison of the result of the designs according to the four design approaches is given in Figure 3. For
load cases 1 and 2 it is shown that the interlayer stiffness is that high causing the resulting stresses and deformations
to be close to those for the monolithic glass pane. Even for the most unfavourable snow load case (load duration 5
days at a temperature of 20°C) the stresses for system 1 are still approx. 30% and for system 2 almost 40% lower
than according to DIN 18008 without using the shear transfer. This shows that the Technical Approval approach is
appropriate for an economic design of glass laminates. However, the results also show that the influence of the
interlayer shear transfer is system-dependent and different standards capture the time and temperature dependent
stiffness behavior very differently.

Figure 3. Utilizations according to the design standards for the two systems
In this article, the scientific polymer-physical and thermomechanical principles for describing the time- and
temperature-dependent behaviour of polymers were explained. The Prony-series representation of the interlayer
stiffness with the associated TTSP was introduced, hence the reader of this article is now able to understand the
backgrounds of recently obtained Technical Approvals as well as the design approaches (stiffness family with shear
transfer coefficient ω in [9] or shear transfer coefficient in [5]). The influence of the shear transfer in different load
situations was demonstrated by means of a comparative design study using two systems from engineering practice.
The influence of the interlayer stiffness on the stresses and deformations occurring in the laminated glass as a
function of load duration, temperature, system boundary conditions and calculation approach was determined. It could
 be shown that the design with incorporation of the shear transfer leads to significantly more economic results than the
common design practice according to [8] without the use of Technical Approval or [8]. It should be noted that for
reasons of brevity within this article just two systems could be studied. In other conditions, the effects of the interlayer
shear coupling may be greater or smaller depending on the system under consideration. Overall, it can be stated that
the investigation of the material behavior of polymeric interlayers in laminated glass is of significant importance for the
design practice with regard to economic efficiency and safety. Despite that, a global agreement on how to simplify and
harmonize different design approaches would be favorable in engineering practice.

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