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(7.1)
The wave equations for and are derived by taking the curl of and
(7.2)
For uniform isotropic linear media we have and , where and are in general
complex functions of frequency . Then we obtain
(7.3)
Monochromatic waves may be described as waves that are characterized by a single frequency.
Assuming the fields with harmonic time dependence , so that ( ) ( ) and
( ) ( ) we get the Helmholtz wave equations
(7.5)
1
Plane waves in vacuum
Suppose that the medium is vacuum, so that and . Further, suppose ( ) varies
in only one dimension, say the -direction, and is independent of and . Then Eq. 7.5
becomes
( ) (7.6)
( )
where the wave number . This equation is mathematically the same as the harmonic
oscillator equation and has solutions
( ) (7.7)
We see that the results are the same as in vacuum, except that the velocity of wave
propagation or the phase velocity is now instead of . Then the wave number is
(7.11)
( ) ( )
( ) (7.13)
2
Let us substitute the plane wave solutions (Eq. 7.12) into the Maxwell equations. This
substitution will impose conditions on the constants, , and , for the plane wave functions
to be solutions of the Maxwell equations. For the plane waves, one sees that the operators
where . The direction and frequency are completely arbitrary. The divergence
equations demand that
(7.15)
This means that and are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation . The
magnitude of is determined by the refractive index of the material
(7.16)
( ) ( )
This gives
| | | | (7.18)
The time averaged energy flux is given by the real part of the complex Poynting vector
( )
Thus the energy flow is
(7.19)
√ | | | |
3
7.2 Polarization and Stokes Parameters
There is more to be said about the complex vector amplitudes and . We introduce a right-
handed set of orthogonal unit vectors ( ), as shown in Fig. 7.1, where we take to be
the propagation direction of the plane wave. In general, the electric field amplitude can be
written as
(7.20)
where the amplitudes and are arbitrary complex numbers. The two plane waves
(7.21)
with
(7.22)
(if the index of refraction is real, and have the same phase) are said to be linearly
polarized with polarization vectors and . Thus the most general homogeneous plane wave
propagating in the direction is expressed as the superposition of two independent
plane waves of linear polarization:
( ) ( ) (7.23)
Fig 7.1
that is, is the phase of the -field component in the -direction. It is no restriction to let
(7.26)
4
since merely dictates a certain choice of the origin of . With this choice,
( ) ( ) ( ) (7.27)
or the real part is
( ) ( ) ( ) (7.28)
The -field is resolved into components in two directions, with real amplitudes and ,
which may have any values. In addition the two components may be oscillating out of phase by
, that is, at any given point , the maximum of in the -direction may be attained at a
different time from the maximum of in the -direction.
Polarization
A detailed picture of the oscillating -field at a certain point, e.g., , is best seen by
considering some special cases.
( )
( ) (7.29)
( ) ( )
Linearly polarized wave
If and have the same phase, i.e., ,
( ) ( ) (7.30)
( ) ( )
represents a linearly polarized wave, with its polarization vector with
( ) and a magnitude √ , as shown in Fig. 7.2.
5
Elliptically polarized wave
If and have different phases, the wave of Eq. 7.27 is elliptically polarized. The simplest
case is circular polarization. Then and :
( ) ( ) (7.32)
( )
At a fixed point in space, the fields are such that the electric vector is constant in magnitude,
but sweeps around in a circle at a frequency , as shown in Fig. 7.3. For ,
( ), the tip of the -vector traces the circular path counterclockwise. This wave is
√
Fig 7.3 Trace of the tip of the -vector ( ) at a given point in space as a function of time. The
propagation direction is point toward us. The traces for and are linearly polarized. The traces
for and are left and right circularly polarized, respectively.
Stokes Parameters
The two circularly polarized waves form a basis set for a general state of polarization. We
introduce the complex orthogonal unit vectors:
( ) (7.33)
√
6
They satisfy the orthonormal conditions,
(7.34)
{
Then the most general homogeneous plane wave propagating in the direction (Eq.
7.23) can be expressed as the superposition of two circularly polarized waves:
( ) ( ) ( ) (7.35)
the trace of the tip of the -vector is an ellipse as shown in Fig. 7.4. For , the ratio of
semimajor to semiminor axis is |( ) ( )|.
Stokes parameters
The polarization state of the general plane wave (Eq. 7.35)
( ) ( ) ( ) (7.37)
(7.38)
7
and of the circular polarization basis
| | | | (7.40)
[ ] ( )
[ ] ( )
| | | |
The four parameters are not independent and satisfy the relation
(7.41)
The constant of proportionality is called the conductivity. For an electromagnetic plane wave
with direction of propagation (Eq. 7.12) described by
( )
( )
the Maxwell equation
(7.42)
becomes
( ) ( ) (7.43)
( ) (7.44)
Comparing Eq. 7.44 with Eq. 7.14, we can see that the transverse dispersion relation results in
(7.45)
√
8
Then the plane wave is expressed as
( ) ( ) ( ) (7.48)
Fig. 7.5 describes the incident wave ( ) travelling in the z-direction, the reflected wave
( ) travelling in the minus z-direction, and the transmitted wave ( ) travelling in the z-
direction. The interface is taken as coincident with the -plane at , with two dielectric
media with the indices of refraction, for and for . The electric fields, which are
assumed to be linearly polarized in the -direction, are described by
( ) (7.49)
{ ( )
( )
where
(7.50)
9
Therefore, the magnetic fields associated with the electric fields of Eq. 7.49 are given by
( )
( ) (7.51)
{
( )
Clearly the reflected and transmitted waves must have the same frequency as the incident
wave if boundary conditions at are to be satisfied for all . The -field must be
continuous at the boundary,
(7.52)
The -field must also be continuous, and for nonmagnetic media ( ), so must be the
-field:
( ) (7.53)
Eqs. 7.52 and 7.53 can be solved simultaneously for the amplitudes and in terms of the
incident amplitude :
(7.54)
The Fresnel coefficients for normal incidence reflection and transmission are defined as
(7.55)
We define the reflectance and the transmittance for normal incidence by the ratios of the
intensities
(7.57)
| | ( ) | |
( )
for any pair of nonconducting media. This is an expression of energy conservation at the
interface.
10
Oblique incidence
We consider reflection and refraction at the boundary of two dielectric media at oblique
incidence. The discussion will lead to three well-known optical laws: Snell’s law, the law of
reflection, and Brewster’s law governing polarization by reflection. Fig. 7.6 depicts the situation
that the wave vectors, , , and , are coplanar and lie in the -plane. The media for
and have the indices of refraction, and , respectively. The unit normal to the
boundary is . The plane defined by and is called the plane of incidence, and its normal is in
the direction of .
Refracted
( )
(7.60)
Reflected
( )
(7.61)
where
(7.62)
11
This condition has three interesting consequences. Using the vector identity
( ) ( ) (7.64)
and on the boundary, we obtain
( ) (7.65)
We substitute this into Eq. 7.63,
[ ( )] ( ) ( ) (7.66)
and similarly for the other members of Eq. 7.63. Since is an arbitrary vector on the boundary,
Eq. 7.63 can hold if and only if
(7.67)
This implies that
(i) All three vectors, , and , lie in a plane, i.e., and lie in the plane of
incidence;
(ii) Law of reflection: | | | | , thus
(7.68)
(iii) Snell’s Law: | | | | , thus
(7.69)
Boundary conditions and Fresnel coefficients
At all points on the boundary, normal components of and and tangential components of
and are continuous. The boundary conditions at are
() [ ( ) ] (7.70)
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ( ) ]
In applying the boundary conditions it is convenient to consider two separate situations: the
incident plane wave is linearly polarized with its polarization vector (a) perpendicular (s-
polarization) and (b) parallel (p-polarization) to the plane of incidence (see Fig. 7.7). For
simplicity, we assume the dielectrics are nonmagnetic ( ).
(a) s-polarization
The -fields are normal to , therefore (i) in Eq. 7.70 is automatically satisfied. (iii) and (iv) give
(7.71)
and
( ) (7.72)
while (ii), using Snell’s law, duplicates (iii). With Eqs. 7.71 and 7.72, we obtain the s-pol Fresnel
coefficients,
12
√ (7.73)
and
√ (7.74)
√
where, using Snell’s law, we could write
√ ( ) (7.75)
(b) p-polarization
The -fields are normal to , therefore (ii) in Eq. 7.70 is automatically satisfied. (iii) and (iv) give
( ) (7.76)
and
( ) (7.77)
while (i), using Snell’s law, duplicates (iv). With Eqs. 7.76 and 7.76, we obtain the p-pol Fresnel
coefficients,
(7.78)
√
and
√ (7.79)
√
For normal incidence, ( ) ( ), because we assign opposite directions
for and for p-polarization.
Fig 7.7 Reflection and refraction with polarization (a) perpendicular (s-polarization) and (b) parallel (p-
polarization) to the plane of incidence
13
For certain purposes, it is more convenient to express the Fresnel coefficients in terms of the
incident and refraction angles, and only. Using the Snell’s law, , we can
write
then
(7.80)
( )
Similarly,
( ) (7.81)
( )
(7.82)
( ) ( )
and
( ) (7.83)
( )
Brewster’s angle and total internal reflection
We next consider the dependence of and on the angle of incidence, using the Fresnel
coefficients.
Brewster angle
We see that in Eq. 7.88 vanishes when . Using Snell’s law, we can determine
Brewster’s angle at which the p-polarized reflected wave is zero:
( )
or
(7.84)
14
Fig 7.8 Reflectance for s- and
p-polarzation at an air-glass
interface. Brewster’s angle is
can exist only if , i.e., the incident and reflected waves are in a medium of larger index
of refraction than the refracted wave.
15
For waves incident at , the refracted wave is propagated parallel to the surface. There can be
no energy flow across the surface. Hence at that angle of incidence there must be total
reflection. For incident angles greater than the critical angle , Snell’s law gives
Then Eqs. 7.74 and 7.79 indicates that and both take the form
| | | |
The result is that for all . This perfect reflection is called total internal
reflection. The meaning of this total internal reflection becomes clear when we consider the
propagation factor for the refracted wave:
( )
(7.87)
( )
where
(7.88)
√ √
With the wavelength of the radiation, . This shows that, for , the refracted wave is
propagating only parallel to the surface and is attenuated exponentially beyond the interface.
The attenuation occurs within a few wavelengths of the boundary except for .
Goos-Hänchen effect
An important side effect of total internal reflection is the propagation of an evanescent wave
across the boundary surface. Essentially, even though the entire incident wave is reflected back
into the originating medium, there is some penetration into the second medium at the
boundary. The evanescent wave appears to travel along the boundary between the two
materials. The penetration of the wave into the “forbidden” region is the physical origin of the
Goos-Hänchen effect: If a beam of radiation having a finite transverse extent undergoes total
internal reflection, the reflected beam emerges displaced laterally with respect to the
prediction of a geometrical ray refected at the boundary.
16
Fig 7.10 Geometrical interpretation of
the Goos-Hänchen effect, the lateral
displacement of a totally internally-
reflected beam of radiation because of
the penetration of the evanescent wave
into the region of smaller index of
refraction.
Fig. 7.10 shows a geometrical interpretation of the Goos-Hänchen effect. We can estimate the
displacement . Rigorous calculation shows that depends on the polarization of
the incident radiation:
(7.89)
( )
( ) (7.90)
( )
( ) (7.91)
where the damping constant has the dimensions of frequency. The amplitude of oscillation is
small compared to the spatial variation of the field (e.g., size of atom
nm). Assuming that the field varies harmonically in time with frequency as , the
dipole moment contributed by one electron is
(7.92)
17
If there are molecules per unit volume with electrons per molecule, and there are
electrons per molecule with binding frequency and damping constant , then the dielectric
constant is given by
( ) (7.93)
( ) ( ) ∑
( )
(7.98)
( )
Evidently the wave is exponentially attenuated because the damping absorbs energy. The
intensity of the wave ( | ( )| ) falls off as . The relation between ( ) and is
(7.99)
18
The general features of the real and imaginary parts of ( ) around a resonant frequency are
shown in Fig. 7.11. Most of the time ( ) (or the index of refraction with small ) rises
gradually with increasing frequency (normal dispersion). However, in the immediate
neighborhood of a resonance ( ) drops sharply. Because this behavior is atypical, it is
called anomalous dispersion. Notice that the region of anomalous dispersion coincides with the
region of maximum absorption.
Drude model: Electric conductivity at low frequencies
If the density of free electrons (i.e., in Eq. 7.93) is ,
(7.100)
( ) ( )
( )
where ( ) is the contribution of the bound electrons. With the Ohm’s law and
where the fields are harmonic in terms of , the Maxwell-Ampere equation
becomes
( ) (7.101)
Comparing Eq. 7.101 with Eq. 7.100, we obtain an expression for the Drude conductivity:
(7.102)
( )
( )
where the scattering time
(7.103)
( ) (7.104)
The scattering times of the common metals are on the order of s, thus ( )
for Hz.
High-frequency limit: plasma frequency
At frequencies far above the highest resonant frequency Eq. 7.93 becomes
(7.105)
( )
where the plasma frequency is defined as
(7.106)
19
Some typical electron densities and plasma frequencies are listed below.
( ) ( )
Metal
Semiconductor (doped)
Semiconductor (pure)
Ionosphere
The dispersion relation is
√ ( ) √ (7.107)
or
(7.108)
For , is pure imaginary, therefore the light exponentially decays and penetrates only a
very short distance in the medium. The plasma frequencies of common metals are in the UV,
and hence the visible light is almost entirely reflected from metal surfaces and the metals
suddenly become transparent in UV.
Fig 7.12
20
Form of the wave packets
(i) Square wave packet
Fig 7.13
( ) ∫ ( ) ∫
√ √
( ) ( ) (7.112)
[ ] √ √
√
As the pulse length becomes small, i.e., more tightly localized, then , which is the
bandwidth of ( ), becomes larger. The pulse length and the bandwidth have the relation
(7.113)
Fig 7.14
(7.115)
∫ √
√
21
The pulse length and the bandwidth have the inequality relation
(7.116)
Fig 7.15
( ( )| ) [ ( )| ] (7.119)
| (7.120)
22
The phase velocity is the speed of the individual wave crests, whereas the group velocity is the
speed of the wave packet as a whole, i.e., the speed of the envelope propagation. For light
waves the dispersion relation between and is given by
( ) (7.121)
( )
The phase velocity is
( ) (7.122)
( )
The group velocity is
( )
|
( ) ( ) ( )
| ( ( ))| | |
( )
(7.123)
Gaussian pulse propagation through a uniform, lossless, and dispersive medium
We assume the dispersion relation
( )
The group and the phase velocities at are
and
A Gaussian pulse
( )
√
located at at is propagating in the direction. The corresponding Fourier
amplitude is
( )
( ) √
( )
( ) ∫ ( )
√
( ) ( )
√ ∫
( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
√ ∫
( )
( )
( ) [ ]
( ) ( )
23
The pulse envelop is
( )
| ( )| [ ]
( ) ( )
Fig 7.16
24
7.7 Causality and Kramers-Kronig Relations
25