Mechanics

Physics 151

Lecture 18
Hamiltonian Equations of Motion
(Chapter 8)
What’s Ahead
„ We are starting Hamiltonian formalism
„ Hamiltonian equation – Today and 11/26
„ Canonical transformation – 12/3, 12/5, 12/10
„ Close link to non-relativistic QM
„ May not cover Hamilton-Jacobi theory
„ Cute but not very relevant
„ What shall we do in the last 2 lectures?
„ Classical chaos?
„ Perturbation theory?
„ Classical field theory?
„ Send me e-mail if you have preference!
Hamiltonian Formalism
„ Newtonian Æ Lagrangian Æ Hamiltonian
„ Describe same physics and produce same results
„ Difference is in the viewpoints
„ Symmetries and invariance more apparent

„ Flexibility of coordinate transformation

„ Hamiltonian formalism linked to the development of

„ Hamilton-Jacobi theory
„ Classical perturbation theory
„ Quantum mechanics
„ Statistical mechanics
Lagrange Æ Hamilton
„ Lagrange’s equations for n coordinates
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L 2nd-order differential
⎜ ⎟− = 0 i = 1,… , n
dt ⎝ ∂qi ⎠ ∂qi equation of n variables
„ n equations Æ 2n initial conditions qi (t = 0) qi (t = 0)
„ Can we do with 1st-order differential equations?
„ Yes, but you’ll need 2n equations
„ We keep qi and replace qi with something similar
∂L(q j , q j , t )
„ We take the conjugate momenta pi ≡
∂qi
Configuration Space
„ We considered (q1 ,… , qn ) as a point in an n-dim. space
„ Called configuration space
„ Motion of the system Æ qi = qi (t )
A curve in the config space
„ When we take variations,
we consider qi and qi as
independent variables
„ i.e., we have 2n independent variables in n-dim. space
„ Isn’t it more natural to consider the motion in 2n-dim space?
Phase Space
„ Consider coordinates and momenta as independent
„ State of the system is given by (q1 ,… , qn , p1 ,… , pn )
„ Consider it a point in the 2n-dimensional phase space
„ We are switching the
qi = qi (t )
independent variables
(qi , qi , t ) → (qi , pi , t ) pi = pi (t )

„ A bit of mathematical trick

is needed to do this
Legendre Transformation
„ Start from a function of two variables f ( x, y )
„ Total derivative is
∂f ∂f
df = dx + dy ≡ udx + vdy
∂x ∂y
„ Define g ≡ f − ux and consider its total derivative
dg = df − d (ux) = udx + vdy − udx − xdu = vdy − xdu
„ i.e. g is a function of u and y

∂g ∂g If f = L and ( x, y ) = ( q, q )
=v = −x
∂y ∂u L(q, q ) → g ( p, q ) = L − pq
This is what
we need
Hamiltonian Opposite sign from
Legendre transf.
„ Define Hamiltonian: H (q, p, t ) = qi pi − L(q, q, t )
„ Total derivative is
∂L ∂L ∂L
dH = pi dqi + qi dpi − dqi − dqi − dt
∂qi ∂qi ∂t
∂L
„ Lagrange’s equations say = pi
∂qi
∂L
dH = qi dpi − pi dqi − dt
∂t
„ This must be equivalent to Putting them
together gives…
∂H ∂H ∂H
dH = dpi + dqi + dt
∂pi ∂qi ∂t
Hamilton’s Equations
∂H ∂H ∂H ∂L
„ We find = qi = − pi and =−
∂pi ∂qi ∂t ∂t
„ 2n equations replacing the n Lagrange’s equations

„ 1st-order differential instead of 2nd-order

„ “Symmetry” between q and p is apparent
„ There is nothing new – We just rearranged equations
„ First equation links momentum to velocity
„ This relation is “given” in Newtonian formalism

„ Second equation is equivalent to Newton’s/Lagrange’s

equations of motion
Quick Example
„ Particle under Hooke’s law force F = –kx
m 2 k 2 ∂L
L= x − x p= = mx
2 2 ∂x
m 2 k 2
H = xp − L = x + x
2 2 p
Replace x with
p2 k 2 m
= + x
2m 2
„ Hamilton’s equations
∂H p ∂H Usual harmonic
x= = p=− = − kx
∂p m ∂x oscillator
Energy Function
„ Definition of Hamiltonian is identical to the energy
function h(q, q, t ) = qi ∂L − L(q, q, t )
∂qi
„ Difference is subtle: H is a function of (q, p, t)
„ This equals to the total energy if
„ Lagrangian is L = L0 (q, t ) + L1 (q, t )qi + L2 (q, t )q j qk
„ Constraints are time-independent
„ This makes T = L2 ( q, t ) q j qk

„ Forces are conservative See Lecture 4, or

Goldstein Section 2.7
„ This makes V = − L0 ( q )
Hamiltonian and Total Energy
„ If the conditions make h to be total energy, we can
skip calculating L and go directly to H
„ For the particle under Hooke’s law force
p2 k 2
H = E = T +V = + x
2m 2
„ This works often, but not always
„ when the coordinate system is time-dependent
„ e.g., rotating (non-inertial) coordinate system

„ when the potential is velocity-dependent

„ e.g., particle in an EM field

Let’s look at this

Particle in EM Field
„ For a particle in an EM field
m 2
L = xi − qφ + qAi xi We can’t jump on H = E
2 because of the last term, but

pi = mxi + qAi
mxi2
H = (mxi + qAi ) xi − L = + qφ This is in fact E
2
„ We’d be done if we were calculating h
„ For H, we must rewrite it using pi = mxi + qAi
( pi − qAi ) 2
H ( xi , pi ) = + qφ
2m
Particle in EM Field
( pi − qAi ) 2
H ( xi , pi ) = + qφ
2m
„ Hamilton’s equations are
∂H pi − qAi ∂H p j − qAj ∂Aj ∂φ
xi = = pi = − =q −q
∂pi m ∂xi m ∂xi ∂xi
„ Are they equivalent to the usual Lorentz force?
„ Check this by eliminating pi
d ∂Aj ∂φ
(mxi + qAi ) = qxi −q
dt ∂xi ∂xi
A bit of work
d
(mvi ) = qEi + q ( v × B)i
dt
Conservation of Hamiltonian
„ Consider time-derivative of Hamiltonian
dH (q, p, t ) ∂H ∂H ∂H
= q+ p+
dt ∂q ∂p ∂t
Hamiltonian is
∂H
= − pq + qp + conserved if it does not
∂t depend explicitly on t
„ H may or may not be total energy
„ If it is, this means energy conservation

„ Even if it isn’t, H is still a constant of motion

Cyclic Coordinates
„ A cyclic coordinate does not appear in L
„ By construction, it does not appear in H either
H ( q , p, t ) = qi pi − L( q , q, t )
„ Hamilton’s equation says
∂H Conjugate momentum of a
p=− =0
∂q cyclic coordinate is conserved

„ Exactly the same as in the Lagrangian formalism

Cyclic Example
„ Central force problem in 2 dimensions
m 2 2 2
L = (r + r θ ) − V (r )
2
pr = mr pθ = mr 2θ

1 ⎛ 2 pθ2 ⎞
H= ⎜ pr + 2 ⎟ + V (r ) θ is cyclic pθ = const = l
2m ⎝ r ⎠
Hamilton’s equations
1 ⎛ 2 l2 ⎞ ∂V (r )
= ⎜ pr + 2 ⎟ + V (r ) r=
pr l2
pr = 3 −
2m ⎝ r ⎠ m mr ∂r
„ Cyclic variable drops off by itself
Going Relativistic
„ Practical approach
„ Find a Hamiltonian that “works”
„ Does it represent the total energy?

„ Purist approach
„ Construct covariant Hamiltonian formalism
„ For one particle in an EM field

„ Don’t expect miracles

„ Fundamental difficulties remain the same
Practical Approach
„ Start from the relativistic Lagrangian that “works”
L = −mc 2 1 − β 2 − V (x)
∂L mvi
pi = = Did this last time
∂vi 1− β 2

H =h= p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 + V ( x)
„ It does equal to the total energy
„ Hamilton’s equations
∂H pi c 2 pi ∂H ∂V
xi = = = pi = − =− = Fi
∂pi p 2 c 2 + m2 c 4 mγ ∂xi ∂xi
Practical Approach w/ EM Field
„ Consider a particle in an EM field
L = −mc 2 1 − β 2 − qφ (x) + q ( v ⋅ A)
„ Hamiltonian is still total energy

H = mγ c 2 + qφ Can be easily checked

= m 2γ 2 v 2 c 2 + m2 c 4 + qφ
„ Difference is in the momentum pi = mγ vi + qAi

H = (p − qA) 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 + qφ
Not the usual linear momentum!
Practical Approach w/ EM Field
H = (p − qA) 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4 + qφ
„ Consider H – qφ
( H − qφ ) 2 − (p − qA)2 c 2 = m2 c 4 constant

„ It means that ( H − qφ , pc − qAc) is a 4-vector,

and so is ( H , pc) Similar to 4-momentum (E/c, p) of
a relativistic particle
Remember p here is not the linear momentum!
„ This particular Hamiltonian + canonical momentum
transforms as a 4-vector
„ True only for well-defined 4-potential such as EM field
Purist Approach
„ Covariant Lagrangian for a free particle Λ = 12 muν uν
µ ∂Λ pµ p µ
p = = mu µ H=
∂uµ 2m
„ We know that p0 is E/c
„ We also know that x0 is ct…
Energy is the conjugate “momentum” of time
„ Generally true for any covariant Lagrangian
„ You know the corresponding relationship in QM
Purist Approach
„ Value of Hamiltonian is
pµ p µ mc 2
H= = This is constant!
2m 2
„ What is important is H’s dependence on pµ
„ Hamilton’s equations 4-momentum
µ µ µ
dx ∂H p dp ∂H conservation
= = =− =0
dτ ∂pµ m dτ ∂xµ
„ Time components are
d (ct ) E d ( E c)
= =γc =0 Energy definition
dτ mc dτ and conservation
Purist Approach w/ EM Field
„ With EM field, Lagrangian becomes
Λ( x µ , u µ ) = 12 muµ u µ + qu µ Aµ p µ = mu µ + qAµ
muµ u µ ( pµ − qAµ )( p µ − qAµ )
H= =
2 2m
„ Hamilton’s equations are
dx µ ∂H p µ − qAµ dp µ ∂H ( pν − qAν ) ∂Aν
= = =− =−
dτ ∂pµ m dτ ∂xµ m ∂xµ
„ A bit of work can turn them into
du µ ⎛ ∂Aν ∂Aµ ⎞
m = q⎜ − ⎟ uν = K µ
dτ ⎜ ∂x ∂x ⎟ 4-force
⎝ µ ν ⎠
EM Field and Hamiltonian
„ In Hamiltonian formalism, EM field always modify
the canonical momentum as p Aµ = p0µ + qAµ
With EM field Without EM field

„ A handy rule:
Hamiltonian with EM field is given by replacing pµ
in the field-free Hamiltonian with pµ – qAµ

„ Often used in relativistic QM to introduce EM interaction

Summary
„ Constructed Hamiltonian formalism
„ Equivalent to Lagrangian formalism
„ Simpler, but twice as many, equations

„ Hamiltonian is conserved (unless explicitly t-dependent)

„ Equals to total energy (unless it isn’t) (duh)

„ Cyclic coordinates drops out quite easily

„ A few new insights from relativistic Hamiltonians
„ Conjugate of time = energy
„ pµ – qAµ rule for introducing EM interaction