BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ELE 290

8.0 POWER UTILIZATION

8.1 Cables, conduits and trunking

This chapter is concerned with the selection of wiring cables for use in electrical installation. It
also deals with the methods of supporting such cables, ways in which they can be enclosed to
provide additional protection, and how the conductors are identified. All such cables must
conform in all respects with the appropriate British Standards.

Cable insulation materials.

a) Rubber
- Usually, wiring cables are insulated with vulcanised natural rubber(VIR).
- Properties of rubber (VIR):-
a) Insulation is organic
b) Subject to normal ageing process
c) Becomes hard and brittle over time
d) Will give satisfactory service if it is not disturbed.
- It is advisable that the old rubber insulation is replaced with a more modern cable.
- Synthetic rubber can be used for insulation and sheathing of cables for flexible and for
heavy duty applications.
- There are many variations for rubber that can be used, such as having the conductor
temperature ratings from 60˚C to 180˚C, oil – resistance and low ultra – violet radiation
depending on the formulation.

Paper
- Dry paper is an excellent insulator because of the hygroscopic properties.
- Hygroscopic means that it absorbs moisture from the air.
- Paper will lose its insulation properties if it becomes very wet.
- Because of this, paper insulated cables are sheathed with impervious materials, with
lead being the most common.
- Paper insulated lead covered (PILC) is traditionally used for heavy power work.
- The paper insulation is impregnated with oil or non-draining compound in order to
ensure its long term performance.
- PILC usually needs special jointing methods to ensure that the insulation remains sealed.
- PILC usually weights heavier than P.V.C or XLPE (thermosetting) cables. Therefore, P.V.C
or XLPE is usually chosen over PILC.

P.V.C
- P.V.C stands for polyvinyl Chloride.
- Usually used for low voltage cable insulation.
- P.V.C properties:
a) Clean to handle
b) Reasonably resistant to oil or other chemicals.
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c) Becomes hard and difficult to strip in cold condition (P.V.C should not be used in
temperatures below 5˚C)
d) Becomes soft at high temperatures. (must not be allowed to exceed 70˚C)
e) May be degraded by ultra-violet if exposed to sunlight
- If P.V.C is in contact with absorbent materials, the plasticiser may be leached out making
the P.V.C hard and brittle.
- However, there are special P.V.C that can be used in either below than 5˚C or greater
than 70˚C.

LSF (Low smoke and fume)

- Materials which have reduced smoke and corrosive gas emission in fire condition
compared to P.V.C have been available for some years.
- Normally, this type of insulation is used as sheathing compounds over XLPE or LSF
insulation.
- Give considerable safety advantages in situations where numbers of people may have to
be evacuated in the event of fire.

Thermosetting (XLPE)
- Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE)
- Has better electrical properties than P.V.C
- Used for medium – high voltage application.
- Higher resistance to deformation at high temperature. (Can be used in temperature up to
90˚C)
- Higher resistance to temperature will increase the useful current rating, especially when
the ambient temperature is high.
- Also available with LSF properties.

Mineral
- An excellent insulator, such as magnesium oxide, provided that it is kept dry.
- Has the hygroscopic property, same as the paper insulation. Therefore, this type of
insulation is sealed within a copper sheath..
- Properties of mineral insulation:
i) Totally fire-proof (operate at temperatures up to 250˚C)
ii) Inorganic thus non-ageing
iii) Great mechanical strength
iv) Waterproof
v) Resistant to radiation and electrical pulses
vi) Pliable
vii) Corrosion resistant
- In cases where the copper sheath may corrode, the cable is used with an overall LSF
covering, which reduce the temperature at which the cables may be allowed to operate.
- Special seals are used to terminate the cables in order to prevent the ingress of moisture.
- There are also special mineral insulated cables with twisted cores to reduce the effects of
electromagnetic interference.
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8.1.2 Cables

 Non armoured PVC insulated cables

1- PVC sheath
2- PVC insulation
3- Copper conductor (Solid/Stranded)

 Armoured PVC insulated cables

1- PVC oversheath
2- Melinex binder
3- PVC strings
4- Neutral conductor (black PVC covered wires)
5- Earth continuity conductor (bare copper wires)
6- PVC phase insulation
7- Copper conductors

 Rubber insulated (elastomeric) cables

1- Textile braided and compounded

2- 85˚C rubber insulation
3- Tinned copper conductor
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 Impregnated paper insulated lead sheath cables

1- PVC over sheath

2- Galvanised steel wire armour
3- Bedding
4- Sheath: lead or lead alloy
5- Copper woven fabric tape
6- Screen of metal tape intercalated with paper tape
7- Filler
8- Impregnated paper insulation
9- Carbon paper screen
10- Shaped stranded conductor

 Mineral insulated cables

1- LSF over sheath

2- Copper sheath
3- Magnesium oxide insulation
4- Copper conductors

 Consac cables

1- Extruded PVC or polythene over sheath

2- Thin layer of bitumen containing a corrosion inhibitor
3- Extruded smooth aluminium sheath
4- Paper belt insulation
5- Paper core insulation
6- Solid aluminium conductors
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 Waveconal cables

1- Extruded PVC over sheath

2- Aluminium wires
3- Rubber anti-corrosion bedding
4- XLPE core insulation
5- Solid aluminium conductors

Table below gives the maximum conductor operating temperature for the various types of cables.
The maximum operating temperature for PVC is set at 70˚C, even though the cables can operate at
higher temperature up to 90˚C, because the jointers used to connect the cable may be unable to
tolerate temperatures more than 90˚C. The minimum cross-sectional area for the cables are also
shown in the table below.
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8.1.3 Cables for overhead lines

Any of the cables listed in the previous subsection are permitted to be used as overhead
conductors provided that they are properly supported. Normally, the cables used will comply
with the British Standard referring particularly to special cables for use as overhead lines. Such
cable includes those with an internal or external catenary wire, which is usually of stell and is
intended to support the weight of the cable over the span concerned.

Since overhead cables are installed outdoors, they must be chosen and installed so as to offset
the problems of corrosion. Since such cables will usually be in tension, their supports must not
damage the cables or its insulations. Flexible low voltage cables have conductors of cross-
sectional area of 4mm2 or greater whilst flexible cords are sized at 4mm 2 or smaller. Generally,
electrician is nearly always concerned with flexible cords rather than flexible cables.

 Braided circular

1- PVC over sheath

2- Plain copper wire braided
3- Inner PVC sheath
4- PVC coloured insulation
5- Copper conductors

 Unkinkable

1- Rubber layer collectively textile braided semi-embedded

2- Rubber insulation (60˚C resistant) for cores
3- Tinned copper for cores
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 Circular sheathed

1- Rubber/PVC sheath
2- Rubber/PVC insulation (60˚C resistant) for cores
3- Tinned copper for cores

 Braided circular insulated with glass fibre

1- Glass braided overall

2- Silicone rubber insulation
3- Stranded copper for insulation

 Single core PVC insulated non-sheated

1- PVC insulation
2- Plain copper core

Flexible cables should not normally be used for fixed wirings, but if they are used, they must be
visible throughout their entire length. The maximum mass which can be supported by each flexible
cord is listed in the table below.

Maximum mass supported by twin flexible cords

Cross sectional area (mm2) Maximum mass to be supported(kg)
0.5 2
0.75 3
1.0 5
1.25 5
1.5 5
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 XLPE cross sectional

XLPE cables

Power cables

Fire resistant power cables

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8.2 Protection against Over-current

As well as providing protection against electric shocks, electrical installation must be protected
from excess current (overcurrent) which may damage equipment or cause a fire. Overcurrent can
be divided into two(2) categories:-
i) Overload current
ii) Short circuit current

8.2.1 OVERLOAD CURRENT

Overload current usually occurs because:-

- equipment is overload
- installation is abused
- badly designed installation
- installation has been modified by an incompetent person

The danger in all such cases is that the temperature of the conductors will increase to such an extent
that the effectiveness of any insulating materials will be impaired.

The device used to detect such overload currents, and to break the circuit when they occur are the:

1. Fuse ( rewireable/replaceable )
2. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

In order to protect against overload current, the protective devices must be rated greater than or at
least equal to the design current; and the current carrying capacity of the cables must be greater
than or equal to the rating of the protective devices.

8.2.2 SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

An overload current is perhaps no more than twice or three times of the normal circuit current
rating, but for a short-circuit current, it is likely to be several hundred, or even several thousand
times than the normal circuit current rating. In these circumstances, the circuit protection must
break the fault current rapidly, before danger is caused through overheating or mechanical stress.

The current likely to flow under short circuit conditions is called the prospective short -circuit
current (IP), the value of which can be measured using a special test instrument, (where the circuit
has been installed), or obtained from the supply authority.

Prospective short circuit current is the highest electric current which can exist in a particular
electrical system under short circuit conditions.If the device used for overload protection is also
capable of breaking a prospective short circuit current safely, it may be used for both overload and
short circuit protection.
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Overload protective device can provide both overload and short circuit protection if the device has a
breaking capacity not less than the value of I P and:-

1. Design current of the circuit is less than the nominal current setting of the device
2. The current carrying capacity of any circuit conductors is more than the nominal current
setting of the device.
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8.3 Fuses
Types of fuses:-

i) Semi enclosed/rewireable fuse

ii) Cartridge fuse
iii) High breaking capacity fuse

 Semi-Enclosed/Rewireable Fuses

Advantages of a rewireable fuse

- No mechanical moving parts

- Cheap initial cost
- Simple to observe whether element has melted or not
- Low cost of replacing element

Disadvantages of rewireable fuses

- Danger of insertion with fault on installation

- Can be repaired with incorrect size fuse wire
- Element cannot be replaced quickly
- Deteriorate with age
- Lack of discrimination
- Can cause damage in conditions of severe short-circuit

Semi enclosed/rewireable fuses must be fitted with fuse elements in accordance with the
manufacturers instruction. In the absence of such instructions, the fuse must be fitted with a single
element of plain or tinned copper wire of the appropriate diameter.
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 Cartridge Fuses

Advantages of cartridge fuses

- Small physical size

- No mechanical moving parts
- Accurate current rating
- Not liable to deterioration

Disadvantages of cartridge fuses

- More expensive to replace than rewireble fuse elements

- Can be replaced with incorrect cartridge
- Not suitable where extremely high fault current may develop
- Can be shorted out by the use of silver foil
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 HBC Fuses

The barreal of a high breaking capacity fuse is made from high grade ceramic to withstand the
mechanical forces of heavy current interruption. The plated caps of both sides of the fuses provides
good electrical contact.

An accurately machined element usually made of silver is shaped to give the HBC fuse a precise
characteristic.

This type of fuse may be fitted with an indicator bead which shows when it is blown.

Advantages of HBC fuse

- Consistent in operation
- Reliable
- Discriminates between overload currents of short duration(eg. Motor starting) and high
fault current.

Disadvantages of HBC fuse

- Expensive

HBC fuse construction

HBC fuse consists of several parallel strips of pure silver with notches cut at predetermined positions.
A short length of pure tinfoil is wrapped round the centre notch of each strip.

The silver strips are spot-welded to silver plated copper end rings. This type of construction provides:
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- Freedom from deterioration

- Limiting the temperature rise
- Lowers the melting point of the combination
- Enables the fuse to operates at a fusing factor in the order of 1.4 without excessive
temperature rise.
- Greater thermal capacity
- Longer time lag
- Quick clearing of the short circuit current

All cartridges are filled with silica sand to ensure quick and efficient arc extinction in all conditions of
operations.

8.3.1 Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)

Types of MCB’s:

1) Thermal and magnetic

2) Magnetic hydraulic
3) Assisted bi metal

Advantages of MCB’s

- Fixed tripping characteristic

- Only trip for sustained overloads, not transient overloads
- Location of fault in circuit can be easily identified
- Tamper proof
- Supply can be quickly restored back to loads
- Multiple unit rates available

Disadvantages of MCB’s

- Mechanically moving parts

- Expensive
- Regular testing is needed to ensure satisfactory operation
- Characteristics affected by ambient temperature
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 Thermal magnetic circuit breaker

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards, incorporate
both techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short
circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to less extreme but longer-term over-current conditions.

 Magnetic circuit breaker

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with the
current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those of the solenoid. The circuit
breaker contacts are held closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases beyond the
rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's pull releases the latch which then allows the contacts to
open by spring action. Some types of magnetic breakers incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature
using a viscous fluid. The core is restrained by a spring until the current exceeds the breaker rating.

During an overload, the speed of the solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits
brief current surges beyond normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipm ent, etc.
Short circuit currents provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position
thus bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect the
current rating of a magnetic breaker.

1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip

and reset the circuit breaker.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the
contacts together or apart.
3. Contacts - Allow current when
touching and break the current when
moved apart.
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic strip
6. Calibration screw - allows the
manufacturer to precisely adjust the
trip current of the device after
assembly.
7. Solenoid
8. Arc divider / extinguisher
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 Assisted bimetal circuit breaker

Time delay characteristic is provided by a thermally operated bi metal element which may be either
directly or indirectly heated. Instantaneous tripping in short circuit conditions is achieved by
arranging for a powerful magnetic pull to deflect the bimetal.

With assisted bimetal tripping the MCB will display a normal time delay characteristic for small and
moderate overloads. This delay will be reduced to instantaneous operation in short circuit
conditions.

8.3.2 Residual Current Device (RCD).

RCD not only gibe protection against fire risk, but it also give adequate protection against shock risks.

RCDs are designed to prevent electrocution by detecting the leakage current, which can be far
smaller (typically 5-30 milliamperes) than the currents needed to operate conventional circuit
breakers or fuses (several amperes). RCDs are intended to operate within 25-40 milliseconds, before
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electric shock can drive the heart into ventricular fibrillation, the most common cause of death
through electric shock.

(1) outgoing load conductors

(2) terminals
(3) reset button
(4) contacts
(5) solenoid
(6) differential current transformer
(7) The sense circuitry
(8) The test button
(9) orange test wire

A residual current device (RCD), similar to a residual current circuit breaker (RCCB), is an electrical
wiring device that disconnects a circuit whenever it detects that the electric current is not balanced
between the energized conductor and the return neutral conductor. Such an imbalance is sometimes
caused by current leakage through the body of a person who is grounded and accidentally touching
the energized part of the circuit. A lethal shock can result from these conditions. RCDs are designed
to disconnect quickly enough to mitigate the harm caused by such shocks although they are not
intended to provide protection against overload or short-circuit conditions.

Current taken by the load is fed through two equal and opposing coils in the differential current
transformer. When phase and neutral current are balanced, they produces equal fluxes in the
transformer.
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If more current flows in the phase side than in the neutral side, an out of balanced flux will be
produced, and this will be detected by the detector coil. (Fault condition)

The fault detector coil opens the contactors by energizing the trip coil. This will isolate the circuit
from faults.

Functional testing of RCD operation should be carried out by operating the test button at regular
intervals. Initial and periodic inspection and testing procedures additionally require the RCD to be
tested using the appropriate instrument.
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8.4 Earthing and Protective Conductors

The earth can be considered to be a large conductor which is at zero potential. The purpose of
earthing is as follows:-

i) Reduction of shock hazard

ii) Safe disconnection of supply
iii) Minimise the danger of fire hazard
iv) Voltage stability

The qualities of a good earthing system are:

i) Must be of low electrical resistance

ii) Must be of good corrosion resistance
iii) Must be able to dissipate high fault current repeatedly
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8.4.1 Earthing of Supplying Systems

 TN – S system

Separate protective earth (PE) and

neutral (N) conductors from
transformer to consuming device,
which are not connected together
at any point after the building
distribution point.

This is likely to be the type of system used where the supply arrangement of installation
is fed from underground cables with metal sheaths and armour. The TN – S provides a
continuous path back to the star point of the supply transformer, which is effectively
connected to earth.

 TT system

In a TT earthing system, the

protective earth connection of the
consumer is provided by a local
connection to earth, independent
of any earth connection at the
generator.

This is likely to be used where the supply arrangement to the installation is fed from
overhead cables, where no earth terminal is supplied. With such systems, the earth
electrode for connecting the circuit protective conductors to earth has to be provided by
the consumer. Effective earth connection is sometimes difficult and insuch cases a
residual current device should be installed.
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 TN – C –S system
Where the installation supply
arrangement uses a combined
protective earth (PE) and neutral
(N) producing (PEN) conductor,
which is at some point split up
into separate PE and N lines.
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8.5 Ring and Radial Circuit

In electricity supply, a ring or radial circuit is an electrical wiring technique that provides two
independent conductors for live, neutral and protective earth within a building for each connected
load or socket.

This design enables the use of smaller diameter wire than would be used in a radial circuit equivalent
total current. Ideally, the ring acts like two radial circuit proceeding in opposite direction around the
ring, the dividing point between them dependent on distribution of load in the ring.

Radial circuit Ring ciruit

Ring circuits are a way of installing a circuit using a cable size smaller than an equivalent radial circuit
could safely manage as the loadings on the cables are reduced by 50%. These are common in the UK,
and a small number of other countries

 Ring circuits continue to operate without the user being aware of any problem if there
are fault conditions or installation errors that make the circuit unsafe
 Ring spur installations encourage using three connectors in one terminal, which can
cause one to become loose and overheat.
 Testing ring circuits may take 5–6 times longer than testing radial circuits.
 Ring circuits can generate strong unwanted magnetic field
 Ring circuits may not always be adequately protected against over currents
 Radials with a broken connection will not function (if L or N broken), or function with no
safety earth connection (if E broken).