Materials Science and Engineering A 485 (2008) 448–455

Microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties

of Ti–6Al–4V friction stir welds
Yu Zhang a,∗ , Yutaka S. Sato a , Hiroyuki Kokawa a , Seung Hwan C. Park b , Satoshi Hirano b
a Department of Materials Processing, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University,
6-6-02 Aramaki-aza-Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
b Hitachi Research Laboratory, Hitachi Ltd., 7-1-1Omika, Hitachi 319-1292, Japan

Received 25 May 2007; received in revised form 2 August 2007; accepted 26 August 2007

Abstract
Friction stir welding (FSW) was applied to 3 mm-thick Ti–6Al–4V plates under different rotational speeds. Defect-free welds were successfully
produced at rotational speeds of 400 and 500 rpm. The base material (BM) had a deformed ␣/␤ lamellar microstructure. FSW produced a full
lamellar structure with refined prior ␤ grains in the SZ, while the HAZ contained a bimodal microstructure consisting of the equiaxed primary
␣ and ␣/␤ lamellar structure within the prior ␤ structure. An increase in rotational speed increased the sizes of ␣ colonies and prior ␤ grains.
The SZ exhibited higher hardness than the BM, with the lowest hardness found in the HAZ. Results of the transverse tensile test showed that all
welds fractured in the HAZ and that they exhibited lower strength and elongation than the BM. The tensile test for only the SZ showed it to be
characterized by higher strength and elongation than the BM.
© 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Friction stir welding; ␣ globularization; Ti–6Al–4V; Lamellar microstructure; Mechanical property

1. Introduction
Titanium (Ti) and Ti alloys have high specific strengths and
good erosion resistance, and thus have been applied widely in the
aerospace, chemical and nuclear industries [1]. Ti and Ti alloys
are currently welded by various welding processes including
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) [2], gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) [3], electron beam welding (EBW) [4], plasma arc
welding (PAW) and laser beam welding (LW) [5]. However, all
of the fusion welding methods used for titanium alloys still show
problems, including the formation of a brittle cast structure, large
distortion and residual stress. To avoid problems associated with
the melting and solidification of the welded materials, solid-state
joining technologies would appear to be more suitable for joining
Ti alloys. Friction welding [6] and linear friction welding [7]
are used to achieve high integrity joints of Ti alloys with ␣ + ␤
or ␤ processed microstructures, but these processes are limited
because they require special geometric specifications of welded
materials and removal of the weld flash.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 22 795 7353; fax: +81 22 795 7352.
E-mail address: a5td9524@stu.material.tohoku.ac.jp (Y. Zhang).
Friction stir welding (FSW), which was developed in the early
1990s at The Weld Institute (TWI) [8], is a solid-state welding
process in which a cylindrical-shouldered tool with an extended
pin is rotated and gradually plunged into the joint between the
workpieces to be welded. FSW has attracted considerable atten-
tion in the industrial world due to its many advantages and has
been successfully applied to the joining of various types of Al
[9–14], Mg [15,16] and Cu [17] alloys. However, FSW of higher
temperature materials, such as steels, nickel and Ti alloys, poses
difficulties due to wear and deformation of the tool. Thus the
challenge has been to devise a tool of harder materials for such
applications [18–21].
Some previous reports of the FSW of Ti and Ti alloys appear
in the literatures [22–27]. Lee et al. [22] produced a friction stir
weld in commercial-purity (CP) Ti using a sintered TiC tool,
and reported the microstructure and mechanical properties of
the weld. Fonda et al. [23] conducted FSW of a Ti-5-1-1-1 alloy
and examined the microstructural changes during such welding.
Reynolds et al. [24] examined the feasibility of FSW for ␤ Ti
alloy over a wide range of welding speeds and examined the tex-
ture evolution during FSW. Juhas and coworkers [25] reported
the microstructural features of the SZ and thermo-mechanically
affected zone (TMAZ) in FS welds of Ti–6Al–4V. John et al.

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2007.08.051
 Y. Zhang et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 485 (2008) 448–455
Fig. 1. (a) and (b) are schematic illustrations of the procedure for cutting tensile specimens. (c) Shows configuration of the transverse tensile specimen and (d) show
the smaller tensile test specimen.
[26] examined near-threshold fatigue crack growth properties in
Ti–6Al–4V FS welds and demonstrated that the fatigue crack
growth rate was significantly affected by residual stress in the
welds. Pilchak et al. [27] examined the effect of friction stir pro-
cessing (FSP) parameters on microstructure in investment cast
Ti–6Al–4V. They showed that the SZ microstructure depends
on the heat-input during FSP, i.e., the low heat-input FSP pro-
duces equiaxed ␣ and ␤ grains, while lamellar ␣/␤ plates are
formed during high heat-input FSP. These cited studies have
yielded some important knowledge on the microstructure and
properties in FS welded Ti–6Al–4V, but the relationship between
microstructure, mechanical properties and welding parameters
has not been yet examined in the Ti–6Al–4V FS weld.
In the present study, FS welds in Ti–6Al–4V plates were
produced at different rotational speeds and the microstructure,
hardness profile and tensile properties of the welds were exam-
ined. The objective of the present study was to clarify how the
microstructure, mechanical properties and welding parameters
are related in Ti–6Al–4V FS welds.
2. Experimental procedures
The material used in this study was commercially available
Ti–6Al–4V plates with the following nominal chemical com-
position: Al 6.09, V 4.02, C 0.011, Fe 0.14, N 0.008, O 0.14,
H 0.0023 and balanced Ti (all in mass%). The thickness of the
plate was 3 mm. The welding was performed on a machine using
a stainless steel backing plate and a Mo-based alloy tool. The
tool had a convex shoulder having a diameter of 15 mm and a
tapered pin, tapering from 5.1 mm at the shoulder to 3 mm at the
pin tip. The shoulder surface had step-spiral patterns to enhance
the stirring effect.
The plunged depth and travel speed of the welding tool were
constant at 2 mm and 1 mm/s, respectively. The rotational speed
was varied between 300 and 600 rpm. Argon gas shielding was
employed to prevent the oxidation of the plate surface. The weld
produced at a rotational speed of N rpm is expressed as the N
rpm weld throughout this paper.
449
The microstructure of the stir zone and fracture location was
characterized by optical microscopy (OM) under polarized light
and by Hitachi S-4300SE scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Specimens for OM and SEM were cut perpendicular to the weld-
ing direction and mechanically polished with 6, 3 and 1 ␮m
diamond paste. The final polishing was accomplished using col-
loidal silica of about 40 nm in diameter, followed by etching in
Kroll’s reagent (2 vol% HF and 4 vol% HNO3 in water).
The mean values of prior ␤ grain size and ␣ colony size were
calculated for more than 500 grains, respectively.
Transverse tensile test samples were cut perpendicular to the
welding direction as shown in Fig. 1a. Partially penetrated welds
were produced, some of which contained defects at the bottom of
the SZ. In order to examine only the effect of the microstructure
on tensile properties, the bottom part of the samples including
the defects was removed, as shown in Fig. 1b. The final size of the
transverse tensile test samples is shown in Fig. 1c. The mechan-
ical properties of only the SZ were evaluated using a smaller
tensile specimen. It should be pointed out that the gauge part
of this test sample contained only the SZ, as shown in Fig. 1d.
To confirm the fracture location in the transverse tensile speci-
men, small Vickers indents with a spacing of 1 mm were placed
on the initial specimen surface. Tensile tests were carried out
at room temperature at a crosshead speed of 1 mm/min using
a screw-driven test machine. A Vickers hardness measurement
extending across the entire region with a spacing of 1 mm was
conducted using a Vickers indenter with a load of 9.8 N and a
dwell time of 15 s.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructural features of welds
The microstructure of the base material (BM) was typical
of the deformed ␣/␤ lamellar microstructure [28], as shown in
Fig. 2. The dark and white regions represent ␣ and ␤ phases
in the SEM image, respectively, while the relationship between
contrast and phase is opposite in the OM image. For the BM, the
450 Y. Zhang et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 485 (2008) 448–455
Fig. 2. Optical micrograph (a) and SEM image (b) of the BM. SEM image was taken from the area shown by an open square in (a).
Fig. 3. Cross-section perpendicular to the welding direction of the 400 rpm weld.
␣ colony size is about 35 ␮m. The prior ␤ grain size cannot be
determined due to the unclear ␤ grain boundaries in the deformed
lamellar microstructure, but it should be larger than that of the
␣ colony, i.e., 35 ␮m.
Fig. 3 shows a typical low-magnification overview of the
400 rpm weld. The other welds had microstructural features sim-
ilar to that of the 400 rpm weld. The stir zone is clearly visible.
Since the plunged depth of the tool (2 mm) was smaller than the
plate thickness (3 mm), all welds were partially penetrated. The
stir zone widens near the upper surface.
Although the rotational speed of the tool hardly affects the
macroscopic features of the cross-section, defects are found at
the border of the bottom of the SZ in the welds produced at
rotational speeds of 300 and 600 rpm, i.e., the cavities shown by
arrows in Fig. 4. On the other hand, careful investigation showed
that FSW produced defect-free welds at rotational speeds of 400
and 500 rpm. A detailed microstructural evolution was examined
in the 400 rpm weld, and the results are presented in the next
section.
3.2. Microstructural evolution in the 400 rpm weld
According to OM and SEM observations, the grain structure
across the 400 rpm weld can be divided into three regions: a
Fig. 4. Defects in the border of the bottom of the SZ in 300 and 600 rpm welds.
stir zone (SZ), a heat-affected zone (HAZ) and an unaffected
base metal (BM) region, as schematically shown in Fig. 5a. The
detailed microstructure of each region is described below.
3.2.1. Stir zone (SZ)
Microstructures taken from five different regions (corre-
sponding to the five closed squares in Fig. 5a) in the SZ of
the 400 rpm weld are shown in Fig. 5b. The microstructure of
the SZ is characterized by small prior ␤ grains in the form of
lamellar ␣/␤ colonies, but it is not homogenous.
The microstructure suggests that the maximum temperature
exceeded the ␤-transus temperature in the SZ because such a
kind of fully lamellar microstructure is formed through solid-
state transformation from the ␤ single phase during the cooling
from temperatures higher than the ␤-transus temperature [28].
The prior ␤ grain size in SZ was much smaller than that of
the BM, suggesting that the SZ experiences dynamic recrystal-
lization during FSW. The advancing side (AS) and retreating
side (RS) of the SZ have finer prior ␤ grains than the cen-
ter of the SZ. This can be explained as being due to peak
temperature in the center being higher than that in the AS
and RS of the SZ during FSW. On the other hand, the top,
middle and bottom regions of the SZ have similar microstruc-
tures.
3.2.2. Heat affected zone (HAZ)
The HAZ shows a bimodal (duplex) microstructure, which
consists of equiaxed primary ␣ grains and ␣/␤ lamellae within
prior ␤ grains, as indicated by arrows in Fig. 6. The average
sizes of the primary ␣ grain and prior ␤ grain are about 3 and
5 ␮m, respectively. The peak temperature experienced in HAZ is
 Y. Zhang et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 485 (2008) 448–455
Fig. 5. (a) Schematic illustration of regions observed by SEM in the 400 rpm weld. The cross-section was classified into three regions: SZ, HAZ and BM; (b) SEM
images from locations corresponding to the five closed squares in (a).
assumed to be lower than the ␤-transus temperature according to
observation of the ␣/␤ ratio [29], and the cooling cycle from this
peak temperature would result in the formation of the lamellar
␣ + ␤ plates within the prior ␤ grains.
The formation sequence of the bimodal microstructure in the
HAZ can be described as follows. During the heating stage,
Fig. 6. SEM images of the HAZ in the 400 rpm weld.
451
the ␣ phase in the deformed ␣ + ␤ lamellae transforms into the
␤ phase because the ␤ phase is more stable than the ␣ phase
at higher temperatures [29]. Since the peak temperature would
be lower than the ␤-transus temperature in this region, a small
amount of ␣ grains remains around the peak temperature. To
reduce the surface energy of the ␣ grains, the remaining ␣
phase would become equiaxed (with a diameter roughly the
same as the width of the ␣ plate). This phenomenon is well
known as ␣ globularization in ␣ + ␤ Ti alloys [30]. During
the cooling stage, the equiaxed ␣ grains would grow slightly,
and the equiaxed ␤ grains should transform into lamellar ␣/␤
plates within the prior ␤ grains. This would constitute a possible
microstructural evolution of the bimodal microstructure consist-
ing of equiaxed primary ␣ and ␣/␤ lamellae within prior ␤ grains
in the HAZ.
A sharp boundary (SB) found between the SZ and HAZ, as
shown by the dashed line in Fig. 7, means that no TMAZ is
observed in the weld. This result is in good agreement with the
results of a previously reported Ti weld [25]. The weld should
contain the TMAZ, but the deformation characteristics of the
TMAZ may be masked by the subsequent phase transformation
due to exposure to the thermal cycle during FSW.
452 Y. Zhang et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 485 (2008) 448–455
Fig. 7. SEM image of sharp boundary (SB) between the SZ and HAZ in the
400 rpm weld.
3.3. Effect of rotational speed on the SZ microstructure
Fig. 8 illustrates the effect of rotational speed on the SZ
microstructure. The SZ microstructures were characterized by
small prior ␤ grains (10–25 ␮m) with a grain boundary ␣, and
lamellar ␣ + ␤ colonies were formed in the prior ␤ grains. This
means that the maximum temperature exceeded the ␤-transus
temperature during FSW for all welding parameters used in the
present study.
Prior ␤ grain size and ␣ colony size are the important fac-
tors affecting the mechanical properties of Ti alloys having a
lamellar microstructure [31,32]. The effect of rotational speed
on these factors in the SZ microstructures of the welds is sum-
marized in Fig. 9. Both the prior ␤ grain size and ␣ colony size
increase with increasing rotational speed. These microstructural
features can be explained as follows. During FSW, the SZ is
Fig. 8. SEM images of the SZs produced at different rotational speeds. Lamellar ␣/␤, prior ␤ and ␣ colonies are shown by arrows in the 400 rpm weld.
Fig. 9. Effect of rotational speed on prior ␤ grain size and ␣ colony size in the
SZ.
heated to temperatures higher than the ␤-transus temperature.
Therefore, the ␤ grain structure undergoes intense plastic defor-
mation due to the rotation of the welding tool. Tiny ␤ grains
would be formed by recrystallization during or after stirring of
the material, and then these recrystallized ␤ grains statically
grow during the cooling cycle of FSW [33]. It is known that
the higher rotational speed would cause a higher peak tempera-
ture and a longer dwell time above the ␤-transus temperature in
the SZ, which results in coarser grains. Moreover, it is known
that the lamellar microstructure with a smaller prior ␤ grain size
would produce a smaller ␣ colony size at the same cooling rate
[32]. These are thought to be reasons why the higher rotational
speed leads to coarser prior ␤ grains and an increase in ␣ colony
size in the SZ.
 Y. Zhang et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 485 (2008) 448–455
Fig. 10. Vickers hardness profiles across the SZ of the welds produced at dif-
ferent rotational speeds.
3.4. Vickers hardness profile of weld
Vickers hardness profiles across the welds are shown in
Fig. 10. The SZ has a higher hardness value than the BM, and
the lowest hardness can be observed in the HAZ. The lowest
hardness falls in the AS, although no significant differences in
microstructure between the AS and RS are found.
The HAZ corresponds to the lowest hardness region in each
weld and the lowest hardness value of the welds decreases with
increasing rotational speed. Microstructures of the HAZ are
presented in Figs. 6 and 11. All show a bimodal microstruc-
ture, but have different prior ␤ grain sizes, i.e., the prior ␤
grain size increases with rotational speed. For such a kind of
microstructure, the prior ␤ grain size is a dominant factor gov-
Fig. 11. SEM images of the fracture locations (HAZ) in the 300, 500 and 600 rpm welds.
453
erning mechanical properties, and smaller ␤ grain size leads
to greater strength and ductility [34,35]. This would be a rea-
son why the hardness in the HAZ decreases with increasing
rotational speed.
The mean hardness value of the SZ also decreases with
increasing rotational speed. All SZs were characterized by fully
␣/␤ lamellar microstructures, as shown in Fig. 8. For such
fully lamellar microstructures, the ␣ colony size is a domi-
nant microstructural factor controlling the mechanical properties
[28,34], i.e., a smaller ␣ colony size leads to greater strength and
ductility. In the present welds, the higher rotational speed would
result in coarser ␣ colonies, as shown in Fig. 9, such that the
hardness value of the SZ can be explained as being due to the ␣
colony size.
3.5. Transverse tensile test
Transverse tensile test results are summarized in Fig. 12. All
welds have lower strengths and elongation than the BM. All
properties decrease with increasing rotational speed in the weld.
All welds were seen to fracture in the lowest hardness region of
the HAZ during transverse tensile tests. A previous study [36]
has shown that a friction stir weld having a heterogeneous hard-
ness profile fails in the minimum hardness region and that the
tensile properties of the minimum hardness region are represen-
tative of the transverse properties of the entire weld. Since all
welds fractured in the HAZ during the transverse tensile tests,
transverse tensile properties of the weld should be represented
by the tensile properties of the HAZ. The hardness is generally
proportional to the yield strength in metallic material, so the
decreased strengths with increasing rotational speed among FS
welds can be explained as being due to the reduction of hardness
in the HAZ, which is related to the increased prior ␤ grain size
454 Y. Zhang et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 485 (2008) 448–455
Fig. 12. Effect of rotational speed on transverse tensile properties: (a) tensile strengths and (b) elongation.
Fig. 13. Effect of rotational speed on tensile properties of the SZ: (a) tensile strengths and (b) elongation.
with increasing rotational speed, as shown in Figs. 6 and 11. The
decreased elongation with increasing rotational speed would be
related to the increased ␤ grain size in the HAZ (Figs. 6 and 11)
because the larger ␤ grains cause lower ductility in Ti alloys
with a bimodal microstructure consisting of equiaxed primary
␣ grains and ␣/␤ lamellae [34]. The lower elongation of the FS
welds than that in the BM can be explained by the non-uniform
deformation of FS welds during the transverse tensile test.
3.6. Tensile properties of the SZ
The tensile properties of the SZ are presented in Fig. 13.
All SZs exhibit higher strength and elongation than the BM,
which can be explained as being due to the ␣ colonies in the
SZ being finer than those in the BM. Among the SZs, strength
and elongation decrease with increasing rotational speed. As
described above, the higher rotational speed leads to larger ␣
colonies, which causes the lower strength and ductility in Ti
alloys having a fully lamellar microstructure [34]. This is the
reason why the strength and elongation monotonously decrease
with increasing rotational speed in the SZ.
4. Conclusions
In the present study, the microstructural characteristics and
dominant microstructural factors governing mechanical proper-
ties of the Ti–6Al–4V friction stir weld were examined. FSW
produced a fine lamellar ␣ + ␤ microstructure in the SZ and a
bimodal microstructure in the HAZ. The microstructural evolu-
tion of these regions during FSW can be reasonably explained
by taking into account solid-state transformation and the anneal-
ing effect of the microstructure. Mechanical properties were
heterogeneously distributed in the weld, which were directly
related with the heterogeneous distribution of microstructure.
The SZ exhibited much higher mechanical properties than the
base material, while the HAZ was the weakest in the weld, and its
properties were representative of the transverse tensile properties
of the weld.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Mr. A. Honda for technical
assistance. They also thank Dr. Sergey Mironov for helpful
discussions. Financial support from the Japanese Ministry of
Education, Science, Sports and Culture through a Grant-in-Aid
for the Encouragement of Young Researchers and a Grant-in-
Aid from the Global COE Program of the Materials Integration
International Center for Education and Research at Tohoku Uni-
versity are gratefully acknowledged.
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