CHAPTER –I

1. INTRODUCTON TO SPSS
1.1. OVERVIEW OF SPSS:

SPSS Statistics is a software package used for interactive or batched, statistical

analysis. Long produced by SPSS Inc., it was acquired by IBMin 2009. The current versions
(2015) are named IBM SPSS Statistics. The software name originally stood for Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), reflecting the original market, although the software
is now popular in other fields as well, including the health sciences and marketing.

SPSS is a widely used program for statistical analysis in social science. It is also used
by market researchers, health researchers, survey companies, government, education
researchers, marketing organizations, data miners, and others. The original SPSS manual
(Nie, Bent & Hull, 1970) has been described as one of "sociology's most influential books"
for allowing ordinary researchers to do their own statistical analysis. In addition to statistical
analysis, data management (case selection, file reshaping, creating derived data) and data
documentation are features of the base software.

SPSS, the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) has been developed by three
students at the University of Stanford (Norman H. Nie, C. Hadlai (Tex) Hull and Dale H.
Bent), after graduation N. Nie moved to the University of Chicago, joined by Hull (National
Opinion Research Center). Initially not meant for distribution outside their home university,
the publication of the first Manuel made SPSS widely known and used. Initially developed
for IBM mainframe computers, versions for most other important mainframe brands (Univac,
CDC, Honeywell...,) and later for so-called minicomputers were available. SPSS Inc. was the
founded in 1975. In 2009 IBM acquired SPSS; it is now fully integrated into the IBM
Corporation Business Analytics Software portfolio.

The software was released in its first version in 1968 as the Statistical Package for the
Social Sciences (SPSS) after being developed by Norman H. Nie, Dale H. Bent, and C.
Hadlai Hull. Those principals incorporated as SPSS Inc. in 1975. Early versions of SPSS
Statistics were written in Fortranand designed for batch processing on mainframes, including
for example IBM and ICL versions, originally using punched cards for data and program
input. A processing run read a command file of SPSS commands and either a raw input file of
fixed format data with a single record type, or a 'getfile' of data saved by a previous run.

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 To save precious computer time an 'edit' run could be done to check command syntax
without analysing the data. From version 10 (SPSS-X) in 1983, data files could contain
multiple record types. Prior to SPSS 16.0, different versions of SPSS were available
for Windows, Mac OS X and UNIX.SPSS Statistics version 13.0 for Mac OS X was not
compatible with Intel-based Macintosh computers, due to the Rosetta emulation
software causing errors in calculations. SPSS Statistics 15.0 for Windows needed a
downloadable hotfix to be installed in order to be compatible with Windows Vista.

From version 16.0 the same version runs under Windows, Mac, and Linux.
The graphical user interface is written in Java. The Mac OS version is provided as
a Universal binary, making it fully compatible with both PowerPC and Intel-based Mac
hardware.

1.2. FUNCTIONS OF SPSS:

SPSS offers four programs that assist researchers with their complex data analysis needs.

 Statistics Program: It furnishes a plethora of basic statistical functions like

frequencies and cross tabulation.

 Modeler Program: It enables researchers to build and validate predictive models

using advanced statistical procedures.

 Text Analytics for Surveys Program: It helps survey administrators uncover

powerful insights.

 Visualization Designer: It allows researchers to use their data to create a wide variety
of visuals like density charts and radial box plots very easily.

1.3. BENEFITS OF SPSS:

 SPSS is an extremely powerful tool for manipulating and deciphering survey data.

 It makes the process of pulling, manipulating and analyzing data clean and easy.

 It provides countless opportunities for statistical analysis.

1.4. LIMITATIONS OF SPSS:

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 The major limitation of SPSS is that a very large data set cannot be analyzed. A
researcher often gets a large data ser in some fields, like insurance where the researcher
generally uses SAS or R instead of SPSS to analyze the data.

2. OPENING OF SPSS
STEPS TO OPEN SPSS:
1. START PROGRAM SPSS.
2. A dialogue box is open in front of SPSS grid listing several options to choose from.
3. The following options will appear in the dialogue box:
a. Run the tutorial.
b. Type in data.
c. Run in Existing Query.
d. Create new query using database wizard.
e. Opening an existing data source.
f. Open another type of file.

Fig.1.1: OPENING OF SPSS

3. DETAILS OF MENU
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STEPS TO OPEN FILE MENU:

1) OPEN SPSS FILE NEW

2) A dialogue box in front of file grid will appear.
3) The following options will appear in dialogue box under NEW head.
a) DATA
b) SYNTAX
c) OUTPUT SCRIPT
4) The following options will appear in dialogue box under OPEN head.
a) Data
b) Syntax
c) Output
d) script

Fig.1.2: FILE MENU- NEW OPTION

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Fig.1.3: FILE MENU- OPEN OPTION

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 4. DETAILS OF VIEW

STEPS TO OPEN DETAILS IN VIEW COLUMN

1) START DISPLAY BAR VIEW
2) A dialogue box will appear and following options will appear.
a) STATUS BAR
b) TOOLBARS
c) MENU EDITORS
d) FONTS
e) GRID LINES
f) CUSTOMIZE VARIABLE VIEW
g) VARIABLES

Fig.1.4: VIEW MENU

5. DETAILS OF EDIT

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 STEPS TO EDIT A SPSS FILE
1) START DISPLAY BAR EDIT
2) A dialogue box will appear and following options will appear.
a) COPY
b) INSERT VARIABLE
c) FIND
d) INSERT VARIABLE
e) INSERT CASES
f) OPTIONS

Fig.1.5: EDIT MENU

6. PREPARATIONS OF QUESTIONNAIRE

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions (or other

types of prompts) for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. The
questionnaire was invented by the Statistical Society of London in 1838.

Although questionnaires are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses,
this is not always the case.

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 Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are
cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and
often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. However, such
standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also sharply limited by the fact
that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus, for
some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be concrete.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE:

 Questionnaire should deal with important or significant topic to create interest among
respondents.
 It should seek only that data which cannot be obtained from other sources.

 It should be as short as possible but should be comprehensive.

 It should be attractive.

 Directions should be clear and complete.

 It should be represented in good Psychological order proceeding from general to more

specific responses.

 Double negatives in questions should be avoided.

 Putting two questions in one question also should be avoided. Every question should
seek to obtain only one specific information

 It should avoid annoying or embarrassing questions.

 It should be designed to collect information which can be used subsequently as data

for analysis.

 It should consist of a written list of questions.

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 Fig.1.6: QUESTIONNAIRE

7. DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted
variables in an established system, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and

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evaluate outcomes. Data collection is a component of research in all fields of study
including physical and social sciences, humanities, and business. While methods vary by
discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. The
goal for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that allows analysis to lead to the
formulation of convincing and credible answers to the questions that have been posed.

7.1. TYPES OF DATA

1) Primary Data – refers to the data that the investigator collects for the very first time. This
type of data has not been collected either by this or any other investigator before. A primary
data will provide the investigator with the most reliable first-hand information about the
respondents. The investigator would have a clear idea about the terminologies uses, the
statistical units employed, the research methodology and the size of the sample. Primary data
may either be internal or external to the organization.

2) Secondary Data – refers to the data that the investigator collects from another source. Past
investigators or agents collect data required for their study. The investigator is the first
researcher or statistician to collect this data. Moreover, the investigator does not have a clear
idea about the intricacies of the data. There may be ambiguity in terms of the sample size and
sample technique. There may also be unreliability with respect to the accuracy of the data.

METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION:

a) Direct Personal Investigation

Consists of the collection of data by the investigator in a direct manner. The
investigator (or researcher) is responsible for personally approaching a respondent and
investigating the research and gather appropriate information. In other words, the researcher
himself enters the field and solicits data that he requires to take the research forward. Thus,
this method of data collection ensures first-hand information. This data is all the more reliable
for an intensive research. But in an extensive research, this data is inadequate and proves to
be unreliable. This method of collection of data is time-consuming. Hence, it tends to get
handicapped when there is lack of time resource. However, the greatest demerit is that this
method is very subjective in nature and is not suitable for objective based extensive
researches.

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b) Indirect Oral Interview
Consists of the collection of data by the investigator in an indirect manner. The
investigator (or enumerator) approaches (either by telephonic interviews) an indirect
respondent who possesses the appropriate information for the research. Thus, this method of
data collection ensures first-hand information because the interviewers can cross-question for
the right and appropriate information.

c) Mailed Questionnaire
Consists of mailing a set or series of questions related to the research. The respondent
answers the questionnaire and forwards it back to the investigator after marking his/her
responses. This method of collection of data has proven to be time-saving. It is also a very
cost-efficient manner of collecting the required data. An investigator who has the access to
the internet and an email account can undertake this method of data collection. The researcher
can only investigate those respondents who also have access to the internet and an email
account. This remains the only major restriction of this method.

d) Schedules
Scheduling involves a face to face situation with the respondents. In this method of
collecting data, the interviewer questions the respondent according to the questions
mentioned in a form. This form is known as a schedule. This is different than a questionnaire.
A questionnaire is personally filled by the respondents and the interviewer may or may not be
physically present. Whereas, the schedule is filled by the enumerator or interviewer after
asking the respondent his/her answer to a specific question. And in scheduling method of
collecting data, the interviewer or enumerator is physically present.

e) Local agencies
In this method, the information is not directly or indirectly collected by either the
interviewer of the enumerator. Instead, the interviewer hires or employs a local agency to
work for him/her and help in gathering appropriate information. These local agents are often
known as correspondents as well. Correspondents are only responsible for gathering accurate
and reliable information. They work according to their preference and adopt different
methods to do so.

SECONDARY DATA – SOURCES OF DATA

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 a) Published Sources
There are many national organizations, international agencies and official publications that
collect various statistical data. They collect data related to business, commerce, trade, prices,
economy, productions, services, industries, currency and foreign affairs. They also collect
information related to various (internal and external) socio-economic phenomena and publish
them. These publications contain statistical reports of various kinds. Central Government
Official Publication, Publications of Research Institutions, Committee Reports and
International Publications are some published sources of secondary data.

b) Unpublished Sources
Some statistical data are not always a part of publications. Such data are stored by institutions
an private firms. Researchers often make use of these unpublished data in order to make their
researches all the more original.

FIG: 1.7: DATA VIEW

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