Chapter II Review of Related Literature and Studies

This study intent to examine the relationship between playing computer games

and learning basic mathematical skills shows the role of computer games play in the

learning and achievement of basic mathematical skills by students. Nowadays it is clear

those individuals especially young person are very attached of computer and mobile

devices. Since students are very interested in computer software, it is a great

opportunity of attaining their education and instructional objectives. This study aims to

find for evidences whether computer games can be used to acquire basic mathematical

skills. Educational computer games are re-emerging as an important outgrowth of the

commercial video game industry. The expansion number of educators in K-12, colleges

and universities, as well as the military, medicine and hospitality with the use of online

games to enrich learning.

Video games can attain and nurture a player’s attention for long period of time,

inducting what some have termed ‘Flow State”

Games are also thought to be more effective tools for teaching complicated

ideas because they use action instead of explanation , create personal motivation and

satisfaction , accommodate different kinds of learning styles and skills in order to

support mastery and furnish interactive decision making context .

Progresses in technology also make it attainable to access and play games

through relatively simple platforms and mobile devices, which is particularly significant

for those without personal computer.

 Video games may create new learning accomplishment / achievements that

better corresponds with the practice and immerses of today’s children and young adults.

People cultivate new knowledge and complex skills from game play. Suggesting gaming

could support address one of the nation’s pressing needs, fortifying our system of

education and preparing workers for 21st century jobs.

Effects of Computer Games

According to Yang & Chen (2010), learning Mathematics shows many challenges

for a large number of children. Mathematics is often connected as difficult and tiresome

subject to learn. Interactive immersive games can consume children’s attention for

hours while giving them effective instruction and an engaging learning experience.

Games have been widely use to promote children’s mathematics achievement in

various in part of problem solving and algebra skills, strategies and reasoning abilities,

critical geometry skills and procedures. Despite of it the National Mathematics Advisory

Panel (NMAP) does not provide a direct recommendations for using games “as

potentially useful instruments in introducing and teaching definite subject matter content

to specific work population” due to the scarce number of severity studies exploring

effects of game based learning on Math skills development.

In spite of high attention is that educational games have drawn over the reason

over the last two decades, hierarchal findings on the effects of math video gaming on

students achievement are unstable. For example Kebritchi (2008) found that high

school students that interacted with a math video game outperformed their non –

gaming classmates but contradicts by the research performed by Okolo (1992) did not
find any significant differences between gamers and non – gamers in a classroom; yet,

positive effects were seemed for the students with high achievement motivation. A

number of studies revealed the opposite effect of math video gaming. Not only did

different study groups that use different games for raising distinct knowledge outcomes

report mixed results, even findings by the same researcher that use the same math

video games were contradictory (Ke & Grabowski 2007).

A Meta – analytic review that quantitatively forming whole findings of single

researches may help gain an understanding of the effectiveness of the game based

learning for student math achievement. Several Meta – analyses have tried to

synthesize finding on empirical research for computer game – based learning and

academic recognitions (e.g., Connolly et al., 2012; Vogel et al., 2006; Young et al.,

2012). However, most of these researches were not done due to methodological

challenges associated with the shortage of empirically harshness research in this area.

In addition these Meta – analyses extended multiple content areas, we have lead a wide

– ranging search of published and unpublished academic work on gaming focusing on

mathematics content area solely two years after the publication of the most present

analytical attempts on instructional gaming ( Connolly et al., 2012 ; Young et al., 2012).

Coequally to previews gaming Meta – analytical reviews. We used a following definition

of a computer game : “A computer game is defined as such by the author, or interfered

by the reader because the activity has a goals, is interactive, and is rewarding (gives

feedback) “ ( Vogel et al., 2006 p.231)

Digital Game-based Learning (DGBL) refers to the development and use of computer

games for educational purposes (Prensky 2001). A DGBL activity engages students in

the process of problem solving or knowledge acquisition when facing the challenges

presented by the game (Huang et al.2010 15 2013). It is expected that, by adding

instructional objectives and materials into digital games, J. Comput. Educ. (2014) 1(2

3):151–166 153 123 students’ learning motivation would be enhanced because of the

challenging and enjoyable nature of the games (Hwang et al. 2012). In recent years,

various studies related to DGBL have been reported, revealing the potential of this

approach (Hwang et al. 2012; Villalta et al.2011). For example, the study of Wang and

Chen (2010) showed that, with the DGBL approach, students were highly involved in

programming activities, which have been recognized as being difficult and boring tasks

to most students. Dickey (2011) found that the DGBL approach could promote students’

intrinsic motivation. In the meantime, Yien et al. (2011) also reported the positive effect

of computer games on students’ learning achievement in a nutrition course. The study

of Hung et al. (2012) further showed that, with proper design, digital games could

improve students’ spatial cognition ability. From the literature, it is found that DGBL

could be a good approach for improving students’ learning motivation and achievement

in mathematics. On the other hand, several studies have reported the benefits of using

e-books with wireless communication facilities, while conducting technology-enhanced

learning approaches (de Jong and Bus 2002; Janssens and Martin2009; Siegenthaler et

al.2010; Min et al.2011). For example, Gil-Rodrıguez and Planella-Riberause(2008)

indicated that e-books could promote interaction between peers. In addition,both the

studies of Stepath (2004) and Shamir and Shlafer (2011) indicated that the use of e-
books was beneficial to students’ learning outcomes. Based on a large-scale survey,

Lee (2012) reported that using e-books to access and execute application programs

significantly promoted individuals’ perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use in

technology-enhanced learning activities. Consequently, in this study, e-books were

chosen as the platform of executing the digital games.

Computer games are the most popular entertainments in the new societies and

they target a variety of people in different ages. The addiction to the rivalry and

excitements of the games make them the most basic recreational program for today’s

teenagers, so that they do anything to reach a higher level of the game, they immerse in

the game so much that they are completely separated from their community.

Challenging with the obstacles and going up to a higher rank in the game, make the

players excited and losing the game make them depressed.

Computer games basically started from 1972 with Pang, a computer tennis

game, then develop in hardware and software systems. Improvement of quality and

variety of games increasingly spread it in the community especially teenagers. It is

believe that computer games like watching television provides opportunity for visual

learning. Especially because these games are more active differ from watching TV, they

are considered more effective. Since this games are known as the second

entertainment after television rivals of these games emphasize on their negative or bad

effects such as stimulating anger and violence, costing a lot of money and having

negative effects on physical and mental health which are much higher than the positive
or good effects of the games such as increasing the coordination between eyes and

hands. Also this is supported by an research of Klein and Keepers they mention in their

research that students who prefer computer games to other entertainments have more

behavioural problems that others students( cited from Patton).

Currently in Iran, a great part of students’ leisure time out of school is spent on

computer games. The reason for adolescents’ attraction to these games include being

thrilled and ease in access while authorities’ and families do not have any proper plan

for students’ leisure time and there is not so many options for their entertainments.

Playing computer games in some extent can be useful but long – term playing leads to

massive number of physical and mental complications. Long term participation with

these games means the gamers long term tension, restlessness and worrisome during

the game physical tensions and real physical stimulations are experiences. By

sympathetic nervous system stimulation, this can gradually make this system sensitive

and ready for response to limited stimulants, while causes anxiety symptoms in the

player. A study by Sherry et al.,(2001) investigating the reasons for playing video and

computer games by adolescents and their game priorities on 535 adolescents in age of

15 – 20 in the west USA found that 68% if adolescents’ have this games as their

weekly entertainment. The reasons of playing these games among boys where thrill and

challenges and they insisted to win. Moreover sport and violence games were more

attractive for boys.

Development of electronic and computer games are great threat for youth and

adolescents and can lead to psychological disorders and depressions in these groups in

previous time kids were involved playing with other children, but children of today spend
most of their time on computer games as soon as they understand and acquainted with

them while these games cannot create any emotional and human relationship.

Children and adolescent’s attraction to the computer games cause many mental,

physical and social problems. These effects are stimulating anger and violence, obesity,

epilepsy due to games, social isolation and other physical and mental damages. Many

psychologists and mental health professionals have paid attentions to the effects of

these games .The increasing prevalence of computer games among children and

adolescents have made many researchers to determine the effects of these games on

those who played it. For example, In Iran, there are few and limited studies on the

effects of addiction to computer games on players. Considering the increasing rate (%)

of the addiction to computer games among Iranian adolescents and young players,

present study was conducted to investigate the effects of addiction to computer games

on physical and mental health including physical health, anxiety and depression and

impaired social functioning. E. Zamani (2009)

Positive Effects of Computer Games

When parents think about how much time their children spend playing video

games, they're typically concerned with the various health risks and conditions

commonly associated with video gaming addiction. However, with proper moderation

and parental supervision, your child can take advantage of the many positive effects of

video games like the ones listed below:

  Physical Activity

There are many video games on the market, both for consoles and computers, which

require some type of physical activity. Whether it's dancing or playing the guitar, parents

have the option of purchasing games for their children that will force them to move

about rather than sitting on the couch all day.

 Fitness and Nutrition

Many video games are available that incorporate fitness, nutrition and healthy living into

the game's main objectives. Video games that are meant to simulate outdoor sports are

fun alternatives for outdoor exercises, and can be done at any time of the day, no

matter what the weather is outside. Some video games are entirely based on physical

fitness, giving the player weight-loss goals and physical achievements to maintain a

healthy lifestyle.

 Hand-eye Coordination

Regular video game play can increase your child's dexterity, which is very useful for

performing day-to-day activities, work functions and playing sports. There are numerous

exercises that can be performed to improve your child's hand-eye coordination, but

most of them aren't as appealing and rewarding to your child as playing a video game.

 Social Skills
 A lack of social skills and the ability to interact with others on a regular basis can

be detrimental to a child's development and can even lead to depression.

Children who are shy and lack confidence when socializing with their peers may

have an easier time opening up while playing video games. With online gaming,

children can even interact with a multitude of individuals, even complete

strangers. Approaching someone you hardly know, like a new classmate or co-

worker, and striking up a conversation can be quite challenging in real life, but in

a video game setting, there is a sense of anonymity and security that enables

people to overcome their fears of interacting with someone they don't know.

 Improved Learning Ability

The complexity of most video games gives your child a chance to enhance cognitive

skills like problem solving, decision making and reasoning. Video games have evolved

to a point where the user must take control and think for themselves, rather than

aimlessly inputting simple commands through a video game controller. Often times,

video games require the player to solve riddles that require patience and creativity

before they can advance to the next portion of the game.

 Good Sportsmanship and Fair-play

Good sportsmanship and fair-play are values that are commonly developed in youth

sports and organizations. Video games offer another outlet to teach your children these

values, especially through regular, online gaming, where players are constantly

competing with one another.

 Stress Reduction
With the pressures of fitting in, performing well in extracurricular activities and meeting

the expectations of parents and educators, it's no wonder that even children have to

cope with a great deal of stress. Video games offer your child an outlet for reducing their

stress levels by relieving them of the pressures they face in the outside world. Children

can completely immerse themselves in the video game, if only for a short while.

 Team Work

Cooperation and a need for strong team work are more prevalent in video games than

ever. Online gaming requires players to communicate effectively with their team, while

following directions and performing the tasks expected of them to achieve victory. Much

like basketball, baseball or any other team sport, strong team work is crucial in video

games.

 Coping Mechanism

Whether they are dealing with physical or emotional pain, video games can be a

sufficient coping mechanism for most people. Video games offer people a chance to

escape the outside world, which can be especially useful after a serious injury or

dealing with a traumatic experience. They are also useful to anyone suffering an illness

or health condition that confines them to their bedroom. The next time your child is

suffering from a sore throat or abdominal pain, allow him or her to play some video

games to cope with the pain.

 Video Games Make People Happy

One of the biggest positive effects video games can have on a person is the fact that

they make people happy. However, it is important to moderate the amount of time spent

playing video games, for there is the possibility that this tool for happiness can quickly

turn into an addiction.

It is only through moderation that video games can be fully utilized for the

positive effects they can have on a person. Allow your children to play video games

every so often, or even use it as a reward; just remember to put a reasonable time limit

and make sure your child is also living a life outside of the virtual world.

Negative Effects of Video or Computer Games

The advent of computerize technology has transformed the entertainment

industry. Tablets, phones, home computer and game consoles have provided

unprecedented access to movies television shows and video games .No shift in human

entertainment is as marked as the advent of video games .Indeed , this relatively new

form of entertainment has exploded in popularity since its beginning in 1980’s . In a

2009 survey, 88% of American youth between the ages of 8 and 18 reported playing

video games at least occasionally with an average time spent per week at 13.2 hours

(Gentile). The amount of time spent on video games continues to increase, though

comparable data are scarce .Interestingly, increase in video game time have not led to

decreases in television time.

 The number of hours that children and adolescents spend playing video games

has led policy makers , parents, teachers and researchers alike to question the

potential negative and positive effect of this relatively new medium .Mirroring the

concerns expressed in the early years of television use , violent content present within

video games has sparked both research and debate . Although the current chapter’s

focus is on the negative effect of video game play, we emphatically note that video

games are not inherently bad. Theoretically, there are likely a variety of cognitive and

social benefits of video game play, and many such positive effects have received

empirical support. Well-designed video games are excellent teachers that are highly

motivating, engaging and responsive to the players’ skills, but the lessons drawn from

the video games can lead to both positive and negative outcomes.

In fact, some of the processes that give rise to known harmful effects are

precisely the same processes that produce some of the positive outcome. There is

perhaps no clearer example of this phenomenon than the contrast between the effects

of pro social and violent games. As will be discussed is more detail throughout this

chapter, comprehensive reviews of the empirical research literature so that violent

video a factor for aggressive behaviour .Importantly , this effects are seen even among

the analyses conducted by both critics and proponents of violent media effects and

persist despite numerous tests of alternative explanations. Similarly, pro social video

games, in which players help other game characters in nonviolent ways, produce

increases in empathy in helping behaviour following game play.

The academic focus on these effects reflects an understanding that individual

who consume media do not do so passively. Movies, televisions shows and many
games include rich stories with themes, lessons and portrayals which impacts

consumer in a lasting manner. With this in mind, it is not surprising that research has

focus heavily on major content themes within media, particularly video games over the

past twenty years. This chapter focuses on the negative outcomes of violent video

game for two reasons.

 First, and foremost, it is the topic requested of us by the book editors.

 Second, it is by far the most heavily researched topic of studies on video game

effects.

There are growing research literatures on positive uses of a wide variety of

types of video games, ranging from educational uses, training in numerous industries,

and adjunct physical and psychological health therapies. But those, fascinating

literatures lie outside the purview of this chapter.

It has been the focus of research for decades, beginning with film and

televised violence, but has experienced renewed interest with the advent of video game

play. The hypothesized effects of screen violence on increased aggressive behaviour

have been confirmed by major scientific organizations and by a number of large scale

meta-analyses. Special focus will be placed on explicating the psychological processes

at work that give rise to violent content effects. Following this discussion, we will touch

upon a variety of other negative effects of video game play, and some focus will be

placed on the video game play, and some focus will be placed on the video game

mechanics that are the primary drivers of these more recently discovered effects.

Aggression is defined ‘’any behaviour directed toward another individual that

is carried out with the proximate intent to cause harm. In addition, perpetrator must
believe that the behaviour will harm the target, and that the target is motivated to avoid

the behaviour .Because it is both unethical and violent behaviour in the laboratory, most

research on violent video game effects uses milder forms of aggressive behaviour as

the outcome variable of interest.

Aggressive behaviour is measured using a variety of laboratory tools. A

common measure is one of the many different versions of Taylor’s Competitive

Reaction Time Task. This task involves asking research participants to complete

against an ostensible other participants in reaction time trials. Each trial involves the

participant clicking a box in the centre of the screen once it turns from green to red.

Their goal is to “beat” their opponent’s click. Prior to each trial, the participant select a

noise volume and duration. If the participant wins the reaction time trial, they administer

the noise blast to their opponent. These volume levels typically range from 60 dB to 10

dB and can last from 0.5 full seconds.

Another common tool used for the measure of aggression is with the use of

the hot sauce paradigm. This method involves asking a participant to partake in a food-

tasting task in which other participants in the same study are asked to eat a variety of

food. The participant is given information indicating that an ostensible other participant

does not like spicy food. They are then asked to select the amount of hot sauce this

person must consume in order to earn their research credit. Aggressive behaviour is

coded by measuring the amount of hot sauce assigned to this other participant.

Although these serve as two common methods of measuring aggression in

laboratory studies, there era many others. Also, it is important to note that the

establishment of a phenomenon is not based on a mere few aggressive indices. Strong

conclusions regarding the effect of a given stimuli rest upon the ability for the effect of

that stimulus to generalize across a variety of measures that tap into the same

conceptual construct. For this reason, research regarding the effects of violent video

games uses a number of additional measures and has established relationships

between violent video game play and verbal aggression delivering painful electric

shocks to another person children’s peer rating of aggressiveness, getting into

arguments with teachers, getting into physical fight, children’s aggressive behaviour

observe during free play, rating someone as less deserving of financial support, making

another person hold his or her hand in painfully cold ice water for an extended period of

time, and interfering to with the other person’s ability to win the prize. Correlational and

longitudinal studies have additionally used more extreme measures of aggression and

found violent video games effects on carrying weapon on school property, trait

aggressiveness, violent juvenile delinquency and violent behaviours(Christopher L.

Groves and Craig A. Anderson; 2015).

Desensitization to violence another route through which violent video game

play increases aggression is by desensitizing individuals to violence. This is reduced

emotional and physiological response to viewing violence in real life. In one major study

on the topic, randomly assigned participants’ to play a violent and non-violent game for

20 minutes. They then asked all participants to view a 10 –min –long videotape of real-

life violence while measuring participants’ heart rate and galvanic skin response. They

found that individuals who had played the violent game displayed less physiological

arousal than their non-violent game playing counterparts.

 The tendency is not only present in the short term. They measure the

responses of the participants’ brain while they are viewing images of actual violence.

They found that the amount of long term exposure to violent media was associated with

reduce neural responding in an area of the brain that is connected to the aversive

motivational system. Further these reduce response predicted increases in aggressive

behaviour.

When we are faced to the decision to aggress, an important factor we consider

is how aversive the act of aggression appears to us. For individuals who find the notion

of acting aggressively to be unpleasant, nonaggressive are more likely to be selected.

Further desensitization also reduces empathy and reduces helping or proposal

behaviour (Christopher L. Groves and Craig A. Anderson; 2015).

Nonaggressive outcomes of violent game play, as evidence by some of the

previous discussion viewing violence in games does not solely affect aggressive

behaviour. Although the result of violent content on aggressiveness have made up a

massive research attention, violence included in games are often heavily associated

with other game instruction and themes that will lead to these harmful effects. Most of

these effects appear to be related in violent video game play in particular while others

may be solely due to high media consumption in general.

While depictions of theories have a history in the television and movie

domination, relatively lesser work has been done on this topic with regard to video

games. Most of this work has pointed on stereotypical portrayals of both men and

women in video games. Female characters in video games are frequently depicted as
sexualize, attractive and weak, while male characters are more frequent portrayed as

aggressive, muscular and dominant.

In the work by Dill and Colleagues participants either pointed gender-

stereotyped images of video game characters or viewed images of professional men

and women. They then read real-life vignette describing a sexual harassment incident

in which a male college professor harass a female student. They found that male

participants found the sexual harassment to be more tolerable when they had found the

sexualized images of video game characters. In the other work participant were

randomly assigned to watch series of events within video games in which violence and

sexual exploitation against women are displayed in the game e.g Grand Theft Auto IV

or watched a video of a baseball video game being played. They found that individuals

viewing the sexually stereotyped game play were more likely to endorse rape myth

attitudes among male participants.

Other work has focused on depictions of character as racially stereotyped.

Researchers Saleem and Anderson conducted their study indicating that individuals

playing video games that depicted Arab characters as terrorists observed increased

anti-Arab attitudes and perceptions of Arabians as aggressive compared to participants

who played other games without such depictions, although they also observed

increased anti-Arab attitudes among participants who played a game with Russian

terrorists. This finding suggest that there exist a strong pre-existing association

between Arabs and terrorism, perhaps partially from televise coverage of Arabs in a

stereotype or unbalanced manner.

 Unlike some of the other negative effects of video games play. It is easier for

video game developers to produce games that do not exacerbate stereotyped beliefs of

players. Violent content and high pace of action are often highly related in the

entertainment value of video games, at least among the general population making the

avoidance of this mechanics difficult for many developers who wish to sell as many

games as possible. Stereotyped depictions of women and racial groups are, at least in

contrast, much easier to avoid including in games. The benefits of such game designs

decision are not likely to reflect in a developer’s check book, but will provide a

measureable positive effect on individuals, and society at large.

Mathematical Performances

Mathematics is the science of patterns and layouts. In other words, it is the

science of number, shape, space, size, and the relationships between them.

Mathematics is also a versatile language written with symbols and shapes. It involves

information processing (editing, analysing, interpreting and sharing), producing,

predicting and solving problems (MEB 2009, p 7). Basic math skills consist of

analysing, problem solving with addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions

and decimals process skills (Hayes, 2005). Mathematics education provides individuals

with a wide perspective and knowledge to understand the world and enhance their

social interaction and theirs skills. Mathematics helps people to analyse their various

experiences, explain and solve problems systematically. It also facilitates creative

thinking and provides aesthetic development. It accumulates the development of

reasoning skills of individuals in various mathematical problems (MEB, 2009, p 7).

However, as important as the subject is, a lot of students still have phobia for it. Some

have fear in learning it. This is due to the difficulty in comprehending it. This has made

uncountable number of students to absence interest in its study; it is so sad to say that

some students hate it. According to Garnett (1998), many students face math learning

problems of different types; these learning difficulties range from mild to severe, and

require instructional attention and various treatment methods. Some of the most

frequent math learning problems include: (a) difficulty memorizing basic number facts;

(b) computational and arithmetic weakness; (c) confusion about terminology and the

written symbolic notation system of school math; and (d) frail understanding of concepts

due to visual-spatial organization deficits. Apart from lower performance in math

exercises and tests, these math learning disabilities can also result in avoidance

behaviour and negative perception of the particular subject. Often, students with math

learning difficulties exhibit high math anxiety, which is defined as “a feeling of tension,

apprehension, or fear that interferes with math performance” (Ashcraft, 2002). As a

result of this, teachers should utilize teaching methods that capitalize on the importance

of mathematics, help students develop their math skills, and increase their self-efficacy

beliefs (Meece et al., 1990). Moreover, it is very necessary to help students acquire a

positive perception of mathematics, as this can lower math anxiety and higher math

performance. Although extensive studies have been done on educational computer

games around the world, a wide interval still exists in studies focusing on the

effectiveness of computer games in children’s learning of certain subjects in schools.

Hence, this research aims to investigate the effectiveness of computer-based game in

facilitating children's learning of basic Mathematics. To achieve this aim, there are two

objectives which the study seeks to fulfil: 1) To determine the relationship between the

use of computer games and learning 2) To determine the effectiveness of computer

games in children's acquisition of basic mathematical skills. In order to achieve the

above objectives, this study attempts to answer the research following: 1. What is the

difference in learning achievement of the students who used computer- game in

learning basic mathematical skills and those who did not? ( Hamiyet Sayan;2015).