Introduction

– Each cell of our bodies contains thousands of different proteins.

– How do cells know which proteins to synthesize out of the extremely

large number of possible amino acid sequences?

– the transmission of hereditary information took place in the nucleus,

more specifically in structures called chromosomes.

– The hereditary information was thought to reside in genes within the

chromosomes.

– Chemical analysis of nuclei showed chromosomes are made up

largely of proteins called histones and nucleic acids.
 Backbones of Chromosomes

Ribonucleic acids (RNA)

Nucleic acids

Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)

DNA

• Stores the genetic information of an organism and transmits that

information from one generation to another.

• It is found in the nucleus - a specialized, membrane-bound vault

in the cell, as well as in certain other types of organelles (such as
mitochondria and the chloroplasts of plants).

• It bears the hereditary information that’s passed on from parents

to children, providing instructions for how (and when) to make the
many proteins needed to build and maintain functioning cells,
tissues, and organisms.

• It is not enclosed in a membranous envelope, although it's

located in a specialized cell region called the nucleoid.
DNA
• In eukaryotes, DNA is typically broken up into a number of very
long, linear pieces called chromosomes, while in prokaryotes
such as bacteria, chromosomes are much smaller and often
circular (ring-shaped).
• A chromosome may contain tens of thousands of genes, each
providing instructions on how to make a particular product
needed by the cell.

RNA
• It translates the genetic information contained in DNA into
proteins needed for all cellular function.
• DNA and RNA are polymers
• DNA are long polymers - are made up of monomers known as
nucleotides
• When these monomers combine, the resulting chain is called a
polynucleotide (poly- = "many").
NUCLEIC ACIDS

• They are macromolecules made of units called

nucleotides

• Two varieties of nucleic acid:

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
A nucleotide is composed of:

• A Nitrogen-containing bases
(amines)
• Five Sugars (monosaccharides)
• A Phosphate

Phosphate
 Bases

N H2 O O
4
CH3
3 N 5 N HN HN
2 6
N O N O N O N
1
H H H
Pyrimidine Cytosine (C) Thymine (T) Uracil (U)
(DNA and (DNA only) (in RNA only)
some RNA)

6 7 N H2 O
1 5 N
N N N HN N
8
2 N9
N 4 N N H 2N N N
3
H H H
Purine Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
(DNA and RNA) (DNA and RNA)
 Sugars (monosaccharide)

RNA contains:
• D-Ribose sugar
DNA contains:
• 2-Deoxy-D-Ribose sugar (without O on carbon 2)
 The only difference between the sugars is the lack of an
oxygen atom on carbon 2 in deoxyribose.
Sugars (monosaccharide)
Sugars (monosaccharide)
Sugars (monosaccharide)
 Nucleoside

When a N atom of the base forms a glyosidic bond to C 1’ (anomeric C) of a

sugar.

Base + Sugar Nucleoside

O O
uracil O
CH3
HN
HN
N O N -D -ribos ide 1
H H 5' O N a -N -glycosid ic
HOCH2 O bonß-N-glycosidic
d bond
hymine (T) Uracil (U) 1'
NA only) (in RNA only) 4' H H
H 3' 2' H anomeric
HO OH carb on

O
Urid ine

HN N
 Nucleoside

To name a nucleoside derived from a pyrimidine base, use the suffix “-idine”.

To name a nucleoside derived from a purine base, use the suffix “-osine”.
For deoxyribonucleosides, add the prefix “deoxy-”.
For ribonucleotides, do not add any the prefix
Polynucleotide
Carry all information
for protein synthesis.

Phosphodiester
bond

Sequence of nucleotides.

Each phosphate is linked to C3’ and C5’ of two sugars.

A nucleoside = Base + Sugar

A nucleotide = Base + Sugar + Phosphate

A nucleic acid = A chain of nucleotides

 CHEMICAL BACKBONES OF THE DOUBLE HELIX
(Sugar-phosphate backbones)

1. Deoxyribose (sugar) – making the 'sides' of the ladder

2. Phosphate (PO4)
 The sequence of nitrogen bases along a DNA or mRNA
polymer is unique for each gene.
• The DNA model is proposed by
James Watson and Francis Crick in 5’ 3’
1953

• Two strands of polynucleotide form a

double helix structure like a spiral.
Sugar phosphate
backbone

• Hydrogen bonds link paired bases:

Adenine-Thymine (A–T)
Guanine-Cytosine (G-C)

• Sugar-Phosphate backbone is
hydrophilic and stays on the outside
(bases are hydrophobic).

3’ 5’
Hydrogen bonds - link pyrimidine and purine base
Chargaff
• Discovered how the
nitrogenous bases bond
together.
• He discovered that Adenine
always bonds with Thymine
and that Cytosine always
bonds with Guanine
NITROGENOUS BASES OF DNA
NITROGENOUS BASES OF DNA
NITROGENOUS BASES OF DNA
Complementary base pairs

A-T base pair

2 H bonds

G-C base pair

3 H bonds
• DNA is coiled around proteins called histones.

• Histones are rich in the basic amino acids

• Acidic DNA basic histones attract each other and form a

chain of nucleosomes.

Core of eight histones

Higher structure of DNA

Chromatin:
Condensed nucleosomes
 Higher structure of DNA

Chromatin fibers are organized into loops, and the loops into the bands
that provide the superstructure of chromosomes.
 Chromosome & Gene

- DNA molecules contain several million nucleotides, while RNA

molecules have only a few thousand.

- DNA is contained in the chromosomes of the nucleus, each

chromosome having a different type of DNA.

- Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), each made up of many

genes.

- A gene is the portion of the DNA molecule responsible for the synthesis
of a single protein (1000 to 2000 nucleotides).
 Difference between DNA & RNA

1. DNA has four bases: A, G, C, and T.

RNA has four bases: A, G, C, and U.

2. In DNA: Sugar is 2-deoxy-D-ribose.

In RNA: Sugar is D-ribose.

3. DNA is almost always double-stranded (helical structure).

RNA is single strand.

4. RNA is much smaller than DNA.

 RNA molecules
• Transmits the genetic information needed to
operate the cell.
1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Most abundant RNA – is found in ribosomes: sites for protein

synthesis.

2. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Carries genetic information from DNA (in nucleus) to ribosomes (in

cytoplasm) for protein synthesis. They are produced in
“Transcription” from DNA.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
The smallest RNA. Translates the genetic information in mRNA and brings
specific amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
 RNA molecules

a)- Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the

blueprint for construction of a protein.

b)- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the

construction site where the protein is
made in the ribosome.

c)- Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the truck

delivering the proper amino acid to the
site at the right time.
 Functions of DNA

1. It reproduces itself when a cell divides (Replication).

2. It supplied the information to make up RNA, proteins, and enzymes.

 Replication

Separation of the two original strands and synthesis

of two new daughter strands using the original strands as templates.

By breaking H-bonds
 Replication

Replication is bidirectional: takes place at the same speed in both directions.

Replication is semiconservative: each daughter molecule has one parental strand

and one newly synthesized one.

Origin of replication: specific point of DNA where replication begins.

Replication fork: specific point of DNA where replication is proceeding.

Replication occurs at many places simultaneously along the helix.

 Replication

Leading strand: is synthesized continuously in the 5’  3’ direction

toward the replication fork.

Lagging strand: is synthesized discontinuously in the 5’  3’ direction

away from the replication fork.
 Replication

Replisomes: assemblies of “enzyme factories”.

Component Function
Heli case Unwi nds the DNA double heli x
Primase Synthesizes pri mers
Clamp protei n Threads leading strand
DNA polymerase Joins assembl ed nucleotides
Ligase Joins Okazaki fragments in
lagging strand
 Helicases

Unwinds the DNA double helix.

- Replication of DNA starts with unwinding of the double helix.

- Unwinding can occur at either end or in the middle.

- Attach themselves to one DNA strand and cause separation of the

double helix.
 DNA Polymerase

It catalyzes the formation of the new strands.

- It joins the nucleoside triphosphates found in the nucleus.

- A new phosphodiester bond is formed between the 5’-phosphate of the

nucleoside triphosphate and the 3’-OH group of the new DNA strand.
In 1953 American biochemist James
D. Watson and British biophysicist
Francis Crick published the first
description of the structure of DNA.
Their model proved to be so important
for the understanding of protein
synthesis, DNA replication, and
mutation that they were awarded the
1962 Nobel Prize for physiology or
medicine.
 The paired strands are
coiled into a spiral called

A DOUBLE HELIX
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
(RNA)
 RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
STRUCTURE

1. Sugar (ribose)
2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogenous base
• Adenine
• Guanine
• Cytosine
• Uracil
DNA vs RNA
DNA vs RNA
ENABLING MASTERY
• Find the complimentary strand
• Find the RNA strand using the
complimentary strand

1. AAC – CTG – CCT – CAG – TTT –

ATA – ACC – TTG – CGT

2. CCT – TAC – CGT – ATA – AAG –

GAT – GGT – GCT – CCG
• Find the complimentary strand
• Find the RNA strand using the
complimentary strand

1. AAC – CTG – CCT – CAG – TTT –

ATA – ACC – TTG – CGT

2. CCT – TAC – CGT – ATA – AAG –

GAT – GGT – GCT – CCG
3. CCC – ATG – GAT – ACC –
TAG – CTA – TAC – CCA –TAC

4. 4. CGA – CGT- GAC – TTC –

ACG – GGT – GAT – TGG –
CAG

5. 5. CCA – CTG – GGT – GAA –

TTC – AAC – ATG –TTA – CAT
ANSWER
1. AAC – CTG – CCT – CAG – TTT – ATA –
ACC – TTG – CGT

ANSWER:

Complimentary Strand:
TTG – GAC – GGA – GTC – AAA – TAT – TGG
– AAC – GCA

RNA:
UUG – GUC – GGU – GUC – UUU – UAU –
UGG – AAC – GCU
2. CCT – TAC – CGT – ATA – AAG – GAT –
GGT – GCT – CCG

ANSWER:

Complimentary Strand
GGA – ATG – GCA – TAT – TTC – CTA – CCA
– CGA – GGC

RNA
GGA – AUG – GCA – UAU – UUC – CUA –
CCA – CGA – GGC
3. CCC – ATG – GAT – ACC – TAG – CTA –
TAC – CCA –TAC

ANSWER:

Complimentary Strand
GGG – TAC – CTA – TGG – ATC – GAT – ATG
– GGT – ATG

RNA
GGG – UAC – CUA – UGG – AUC – GAU –
AUG – GGU – AUG
4. CGA – CGT- GAC – TTC – ACG – GGT –
GAT – TGG - CAG

ANSWER:

Complimentary Strand
GCT – GCA – CTG – AAG – TGC – CCA –
CTA – ACC – GTC

RNA
GCU – GCA- CUG – AAG – UGC – CCA –
CUA – ACC - GUC
5. CCA – CTG – GGT – GAA – TTC – AAC –
ATG –TTA – CAT

ANSWER:

Complimentary Strand
GGT – GAC – CCA – CTT – AAG – TTG –
TAC – AAT – GTA

RNA
CCA – CUG – GGU – GAA – UUC – AAC –
AUG –UUA – CAU