Vector Operations

11 Vectors and the Geometry of Space

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Vector Operations Vector Operations

In Theorem 11.3, u is called a unit vector in the direction

of v. The process of multiplying v byto get a unit
vector is called normalization of v.

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The Dot Product The Dot Product

You have studied two operations with vectors—vector
addition and multiplication by a scalar—each of which
yields another vector. In this section you will study a third
vector operation, called the dot product. This product
yields a scalar, rather than a vector.

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Projections and Vector Components The Cross Product

The projection of u onto v can be written as a scalar

multiple of a unit vector in the direction of v .That is,

The scalar k is called the component of u in the direction

of v.
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The Cross Product The Cross Product

A convenient way to calculate u × v is to use the following

determinant form with cofactor expansion.

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The Cross Product The Triple Scalar Product

For vectors u, v, and w in space, the dot product of
u and v × w
u  (v × w)
is called the triple scalar product, as defined in
Theorem 11.9.

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The Triple Scalar Product Planes in Space

If the vectors u, v, and w do not lie in the same plane, the

triple scalar product u  (v × w) can be used to determine the
volume of the parallelepiped (a polyhedron, all of whose
faces are parallelograms) with u, v, and w as adjacent
edges, as shown in Figure 11.41.

By regrouping terms, you obtain the general form of the

equation of a plane in space.

Given the general form of the equation of a plane, it is easy

to find a normal vector to the plane. Simply use the
coefficients of x, y, and z and write n =.
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Figure 11.41

Distances Between Points, Planes, and Lines Distances Between Points, Planes, and Lines

If P is any point in the plane, you can find this distance by

projecting the vectoronto the normal vector n. The
length of this projection is the desired distance.!

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Cylindrical Surfaces Quadric Surfaces

This circle is called a generating curve for the cylinder, as The fourth basic type of surface in space is a quadric
indicated in the following definition. surface. Quadric surfaces are the three-dimensional
analogs of conic sections.

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 Quadric Surfaces Quadric Surfaces cont’d

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Quadric Surfaces cont’d

Surfaces of Revolution
In a similar manner, you can obtain equations for surfaces
of revolution for the other two axes, and the results are
summarized as follows.

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Cylindrical Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates

The cylindrical coordinate system, is an extension of Cylindrical to rectangular:
polar coordinates in the plane to three-dimensional space.

Rectangular to cylindrical:

The point (0, 0, 0) is called the pole. Moreover, because

the representation of a point in the polar coordinate system
is not unique, it follows that the representation in the
cylindrical coordinate system is also not unique.

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Spherical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates

The relationship between rectangular

and spherical coordinates is illustrated in
Figure 11.75. To convert from one system
to the other, use the following.

Spherical to rectangular:

Figure 11.75
Rectangular to spherical:

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Spherical Coordinates

To change coordinates between the cylindrical and

12 Vector-Valued Functions
spherical systems, use the following.

Spherical to cylindrical (r ≥ 0):

Cylindrical to spherical (r ≥ 0):

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109

Space Curves and Vector-Valued Functions Limits and Continuity

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Differentiation of Vector-Valued Functions Differentiation of Vector-Valued Functions

The definition of the derivative of a vector-valued function

parallels the definition given for real-valued functions.

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Differentiation of Vector-Valued Functions Integration of Vector-Valued Functions

The following definition is a rational consequence of the

definition of the derivative of a vector-valued function.

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Velocity and Acceleration Tangent Vectors and Normal Vectors

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Tangent Vectors and Normal Vectors Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration

In Example 2, there are infinitely many vectors that are

orthogonal to the tangent vector T(t). One of these is the
vector T'(t) . This follows the property

T(t)  T(t) = ||T(t)||2 =1 T(t)  T'(t) = 0 The coefficients of T and N in the proof of Theorem 12.4
are called the tangential and normal components of
By normalizing the vector T'(t) , you obtain a special vector acceleration and are denoted by
called the principal unit normal vector, as indicated in the aT = Dt [||v||] and aN = ||v|| ||T'||.
following definition.

So, you can write

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Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration Arc Length

The following theorem gives some convenient formulas for
aN and aT.

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Arc Length Parameter Arc Length Parameter

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Figure 12.30
 Functions of Several Variables
13 Functions of Several Variables

For the function given by z = f(x, y), x and y are called

the independent variables and z is called the
dependent variable.

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236 241

Limit of a Function of Two Variables Continuity of a Function of Two Variables

285 295

Continuity of a Function of Three Variables Partial Derivatives of a Function of Two Variables

A point (x0, y0, z0) in a region R in space is an interior

point of R if there exists a δ-sphere about (x 0, y0, z0) that
lies entirely in R. If every point in R is an interior point, then
R is called open.

This definition indicates that if z = f(x, y), then to find fx you

consider y constant and differentiate with respect to x.

Similarly, to find fy, you consider x constant and differentiate

306 with respect to y.312
Partial Derivatives of a Function of Two Variables Higher-Order Partial Derivatives

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Increments and Differentials

Differentiability
This is stated explicitly in the following definition.

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Differentiability Approximation by Differentials

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Chain Rules for Functions of Several Variables Chain Rules for Functions of Several Variables

The Chain Rule in Theorem 13.7

is shown schematically
in Figure 13.41.

363 Figure 13.41

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Figure 13.39

Implicit Partial Differentiation Directional Derivative

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The Gradient of a Function of Two Variables The Gradient of a Function of Two Variables

The gradient of a function of two variables is a vector-valued

function of two variables.

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Applications of the Gradient Applications of the Gradient

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Functions of Three Variables Tangent Plane and Normal Line to a Surface

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A Comparison of the Gradients ∇f(x, y) and ∇F(x, y, z) Absolute Extrema and Relative Extrema

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 Absolute Extrema and Relative Extrema Absolute Extrema and Relative Extrema

A minimum is also called an absolute minimum and a To locate relative extrema of f, you can investigate the
maximum is also called an absolute maximum. As in points at which the gradient of f is 0 or the points at which
single-variable calculus, there is a distinction made one of the partial derivatives does not exist. Such points
between absolute extrema and relative extrema. are called critical points of f.

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Absolute Extrema and Relative Extrema The Second Partials Test

It appears that such a point is a likely location of a relative
extremum.

This is confirmed by Theorem 13.16.

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The Method of Least Squares Lagrange Multipliers

If ∇f(x, y) = λ∇g(x, y) then scalar λ is called

Lagrange multiplier.

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Lagrange Multipliers
14 Multiple Integration

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Area of a Plane Region Double Integrals and Volume of a Solid Region

Using the limit of a Riemann sum to define volume is a

special case of using the limit to define a double integral.
The general case, however, does not require that the
function be positive or continuous.

Having defined a double integral, you will see that a definite

integral is occasionally referred to as a single integral. 531
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Double Integrals and Volume of a Solid Region Properties of Double Integrals

A double integral can be used to find the volume of a solid Double integrals share many properties of single integrals.
region that lies between the xy-plane and the surface given
by z = f(x, y).

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 Evaluation of Double Integrals Average Value of a Function
For a function f in one variable, the average value of f on
[a, b] is

Given a function f in two variables, you can find the

average value of f over the region R as shown in the
following definition.

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Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates Mass

This suggests the following theorem 14.3 A lamina is assumed to have a constant density. But now
you will extend the definition of the term lamina to include
thin plates of variable density.

Double integrals can be used to find the mass of a lamina

of variable density, where the density at (x, y) is given by
the density function ρ.

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Moments and Center of Mass

By forming the Riemann sum of all such products and
taking the limits as the norm of Δ approaches 0, you obtain
the following definitions of moments of mass with respect to
14.5 Surface Area the x- and y-axes.

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Surface Area Triple Integrals
Taking the limit as leads to the following definition.

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Triple Integrals Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

If f is a continuous function on the solid Q, you can write

the triple integral of f over Q as

where the double integral over R is evaluated in polar

coordinates. That is, R is a plane region that is either
r-simple or θ-simple. If R is r-simple, the iterated form of
the triple integral in cylindrical form is

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Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates Jacobians

If (ρ, θ, φ) is a point in the interior of such a block, then the In defining the Jacobian, it is convenient to use the following
volume of the block can be approximated by determinant notation.
ΔV ≈ ρ2 sin φ Δρ Δφ Δθ

Using the usual process involving an inner partition,

summation, and a limit, you can develop the following
version of a triple integral in spherical coordinates for a
continuous function f defined on the solid region Q.

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 15
Change of Variables for Double Integrals
Vector Analysis

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Vector Fields Vector Fields

Functions that assign a vector to a point in the plane or a Note that an electric force field has the same form as a
point in space are called vector fields, and they are useful gravitational field. That is,
in representing various types of force fields and velocity
fields.

Such a force field is called an inverse square field.

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Conservative Vector Fields Conservative Vector Fields

Some vector fields can be represented as the gradients of The following important theorem gives a necessary and
differentiable functions and some cannot—those that can sufficient condition for a vector field in the plane to be
are called conservative vector fields. conservative.

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Curl of a Vector Field Curl of a Vector Field

The definition of the curl of a vector field in space is given

below.

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Divergence of a Vector Field Divergence of a Vector Field

You have seen that the curl of a vector field F is itself a

vector field. Another important function defined on a vector
field is divergence, which is a scalar function.

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Objectives

  Understand and use the concept of a

piecewise smooth curve.
15.2 Line Integrals
  Write and evaluate a line integral.

  Write and evaluate a line integral of a vector

field.

  Write and evaluate a line integral in

differential form.

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Line Integrals Line Integrals

Note that if f(x, y, z) = 1, the line integral gives the arc length
of the curve C. That is,

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Line Integrals of Vector Fields Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals

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Independence of Path Independence of Path

A curve C given by r(t) for a ≤ t ≤ b is closed if r(a) = r(b).
By the Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals, you can
conclude that if F is continuous and conservative on
an open region R, then the line integral over every closed
curve C is 0.

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Green’s Theorem
Flux Integrals Green’s Theorem
Divergence Theorem
With
Among these
the restrictions
many choices on for
S and Q, the
M and Divergence
N satisfying the stated
Theorem
condition,isthe
as choice
follows.of M = –y/2 and N = x/2 produces the
following line integral for the area of region R.

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Parametric
Stokes’s Theorem
Surfaces Normal Vectors and Tangent Planes

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Area of a Parametric Surface Surface Integrals

The area of the parallelogram in the tangent plane is

||∆uiru × ∆virv|| = ||ru × rv|| ∆ui∆vi

which leads to the following definition.

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