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1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1.1. What is syntax?
1.2. The grammatical hierarchy
1.2.1. Clauses in grammatical hierarchy
1.2.2. Sentence across sciences
1.2.3. Sentence constituency
1.2.4. Constructions
1.3. Sentence structure
1.3.1. Phrases as clause elements
1.3.2. Syntactic functions in the phrase structure
1.4. Syntactic functions of clause elements
1.5. Semantic functions of clause elements
1.6. Coordination and subordination. Coordinators and subordinators (types and roles)
3. THE SUBJECT
3.1. Definition & characteristic features
3.2. Ways of expressing the subject
3.3. Classification of subjects
3.3.1. The criterion of semantic content
3.3.2. The criterion of structure/ composition
3.4. Semantic roles of the subject
3.4.1. Agentive, affected, and recipient roles
3.4.2. Subject as external causer, instrument, and affected
3.4.3. Locative, temporal, and eventive subjects
3.4.4. Prop IT subject
VI. OBJECTS
6.1. Definition & characteristic features of objects
6.1.1. Criteria for direct and indirect objects
6.1.2. Definition & characteristic features of prepositional objects
6.2. Ways of expressing objects
6.3. Classification of direct objects
6.4. Combinations of objects in complementation
6.5. Semantic roles of objects
B. SEMINARS
1. Sentence constituents, clause structure and diagramming
2. Classification of sentences in terms of their communicative function (statement, question,
directive, exclamation)
3. Variations on basic sentence patterns (inversion, emphasis, ellipsis and substitution)
4. Coordination and coordinators
5. Subject-verb concord
6. Verb complementation (transitive vs. intransitive constructions)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.
2. Chalker, Sidney (1992): A Student's English Grammar Workbook, Longman, London.
3. Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft,
Bacău.
4. DeCapua, Andreea (2008): Grammar for Teachers. A Guide to American English for
Native and Non-native Speakers, Springer, New York.
5. Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd.
6. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994): Functional Grammar, Arnold, London/ New York.
7. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S, Leech, G, Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language, London, New York, Longman.
8. Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English Workbook, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.
9. Side, R., Wellman, G. (2001): Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced and
Proficiency, Longman.
10. Hewings, Martin (1999): Advanced Grammar in Use, Cambridge Univ. Press.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.
1. A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF SYNTAX
the part of grammar dealing with grammatical units such as words, phrases, clauses,
and sentences (Biber et al., 2002:13)
the description of how words, phrases, and clauses are constructed and combined in
a language (Biber et al., 2002:460).
“the study of the rules that govern the way words combine to form phrases, clauses,
and sentences.”1
Syntax deals with “the way in which words are combined to form sentences.”
(Quirk et al., 1985:43)
◦ Morpheme = a minimum unit of form and meaning which may be a whole word
(forget), an inflection (forget + s) or a word-formation affix (un-forget-ful).
◦ The word = the unit which primarily relates the grammar of a language to its
lexicon.
◦ A phrase is represented by a group of words that form a grammatical unit or
constituent, e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase.
1
www.essex.ac.uk/linguistics/clmt/MTbook/HTML/node98.html.
1
◦ Sentences are structured into successive components, consisting of single words
or groups of words, called constituents (i.e. structural units);
◦ Some linguists use the term 'sentence' for a clause which is part of a sentence;
Semantically, a sentence (Hurford & Heasley, 1994:16) is any string of words put
together by the grammatical rules of a language.
Orthographically and rhetorically, it is that unit which starts with a capital letter and ends
with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark (Downing and Locke,
1992/2006:272).
unitary constituency: one unit may be the only 'part' into which another unit can be
analysed (e.g. simple sentences consist of one clause)
multiple constituency: a unit is divided into two or more immediate constituents
(complex or compound sentences, which include two or more clauses).
1.2.3.2. Constituents
Constituents are structural units, which refer to any linguistic form, such as words or
word groups.
A constituent is one of two or more grammatical units that enter syntactically or
semantically into a construction at any level.
Constituents are the basic units of a sentence, including noun, adjective, adverb,
prepositional, and verb phrases.
Sentence constituents are combined in meaningful ways to form sentences.
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• The segmentation of the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary
cuttings until its ultimate constituents are obtained is called Immediate Constituent
Analysis (IC Analysis). The analysis can be carried out in ways of tree diagrams,
bracketing or any other.
1.2.3.3.a. Embedding
The phenomenon of embedding accounts for the indefinite extensibility of certain units of
grammar.
The noun phrase and the prepositional phrase may be immediate constituents of a
clause, as in:
E.g. Some students will be working late in their rooms.
Both units can consist of more than one word and are placed at the same position in the
hierarchy.
The indefinite length of noun phrases and prepositional phrases does not affect their
position in the grammatical hierarchy:
E.g. I have been talking to some students at the college on the other side of the
park at the north end of. . . They live on the top floor of a house in the corner of
the old square behind the church...
Embedding can be defined as the occurrence of one unit as a constituent of another unit
at the same rank in the grammatical hierarchy.
1.2.3.3.b. Subordination
Another kind of embedding occurs when one clause is made a constituent of another
clause: subordination.
E.g. The weather has been remarkably warm since we returned from Italy last week.
Clauses which are embedded in other clauses (since we returned from Italy last week
are subordinate clauses, and they are often introduced by a subordinating conjunction
(since).
Subordination of clauses is not confined to clauses which are immediate constituents of
other clauses. There are also clauses (especially relative clauses) which are
constituents of phrases, and which are only indirectly embedded within a larger clause.
1.2.3.3.c. Coordination
The principle of indefinite extensibility is also present in coordination, typically signalled
by a link-word termed a coordinating conjunction.
This construction consists of two or more units of the same status on the grammatical
hierarchy which constitute a single unit of the same kind (respectively clauses, phrases,
and words).
◦ COORDINATION OF CLAUSES: [[It was Christmas Day,] and [the snow lay thick
on the ground]].
◦ COORDINATION OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: You can go [[by air] or [by
rail]].
◦ COORDINATION OF NOUNS: His [[son] and [daughter]] live in Buenos Aires.
The essential principle of coordination is that units and structures may be duplicated
without affecting their position in the grammatical hierarchy.
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1.2.4. Constructions
A construction is a relationship between constituents. Constructions are divided into two
types (Allerton, 1979:126-130):
◦ endocentric constructions (one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to
that of its constituents). A word or a group of words act as a definable center or
head.
◦ exocentric constructions (refer to a group of syntactically related words where
none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole). There is no
definable center or head inside the group.
One aspect of the syntactic structure of sentences is the division of a sentence into
phrases, and those phrases into further phrases…
The constituents which function as elements of sentence structure are either phrases or
subordinate clauses.
A phrase is represented by a group of words that form a grammatical unit or constituent,
e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase.
The five formal categories of phrase are verb phrases, noun phrases, adjective phrases,
adverb phrases, and prepositional phrases.
2
http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAnExocentricConstruction.htm.
4
The headword of the noun phrase may be modified by any number of modifiers.
Modifiers include determiners, other nouns, adjectives, and adverb-adjective
combinations.
Noun phrases can also include prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases are units of
words that begin with a preposition and include a noun phrase.
I read that book about dinosaurs. The boy from the shop is waiting at the corner.
Verb Phrases
A verb phrase can consist of a single verb, a phrasal verb, auxiliary verbs + a main verb.
Some grammarians expand the definition of verb phrase to include, a main verb + “to”
infinitive or a main verb + gerund. Finite verb phrases are marked for grammatical
categories (mood, tense, aspect, person, voice) and indicate the status of the
predication.
◦ Finite verb phrase: She must be telling the truth.
◦ Non-finite verb phrase: He is known to have won a gold medal.
Adjective and Adverb Phrases
Adjective phrases include one or more adjectives. Adverb phrases include one or more
adverbs. Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs in a sentence.
◦ They are really enthusiastic. He opened it extremely easily.
Determination = the function of words and phrases which, determine what kind of
reference a noun phrase has: definite (like the) or indefinite (like a/an), partitive (like
some) or universal (like all).
Modification = a largely optional function performed by adjectives in the noun phrase,
and by intensifying adverbs in the adverb phrase.
His (unexpected) arrival (in Warsaw) yesterday surprised us.
Complementation = the function of a part of a phrase or clause which follows a word,
and completes the specification of a meaning relationship which that word implies.
Complementation also overlaps with other functions, such as adverbials and modifiers.
He deceived his father – verb complementation
All sales are subject to tax. – adjective complementation
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1.4.1. Central and peripheral elements of the clause
To describe the constituency of clauses, we need to deal with the basic elements of
clause structure: subject (S), verb (V), object (O), complement (C), and adverbial (A).
The order of the clause elements is relatively fixed, in general following the sequence in the
designation of the clause types. The basic order is that of the canonical declarative clause.
The verb element (V) is the most 'central' element, and it is preceded by the subject (S).
Following the verb there may be one or two objects (O), or a complement (C), which
follows the object if one is present.
The most peripheral element is the adverbial, which can occur either initially, medially or
finally.
Agentive participant is the most typical semantic role of a subject that has a direct object (the
participant which instigates/causes the happening denoted by the verb) (Quirk et al.,
1985:740-742):
Margaret is mowing the grass.
Affected participant is the most typical role of the direct object (a participant directly involved
in some other way in the happening):
Many MPs criticized the Prime Minister. James sold his digital watch yesterday.
Recipient participant: the most typical role of the indirect object (the animate being that is
passively implicated by the happening or state):
I've found you a place. We paid them the money.
Attribute is the typical semantic role of a subject complement and an object complement; it has
two subtypes of role:
IDENTIFICATION:
Kevin is my brother. They called their daughter Edna.
CHARACTERIZATION:
The operation seemed a success. I consider the operation a success.
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1.6. COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION
In order to understand the relations within and across sentence and clause elements, we
shall first expand upon two concepts that are specific to syntactic analysis.
Both coordination and subordination involve the linking of units; but in coordination the units
are on the same syntactic level, whereas in subordination one of the units is a constituent
of a superordinate unit.
They are my neighbours, but I don't know them well. [independent clauses]
I don't know where they are staying. [the subordinate wh-clause is the direct
object of the sentence]
Similar semantic relationships may be expressed through coordination and subordination, as
in the concessive relationship expressed in the following sentences:
He tried hard, but he failed. [coordination with but]
1.6.1. COORDINATORS
Three conjunctions are clearly coordinators: and, or, but. And and or are central coordinators, and
but differs from them in certain respects. On the gradient between 'pure' coordinators and 'pure'
subordinators are or and so that (in the meaning 'with the result that').
Coordinators, subordinators, and conjuncts are all LINKERS. There are six features that apply to
the central coordinators and and or in connections between clauses.
This is generally true of both coordinators and subordinators, but it is not true of most
conjuncts:
John plays the guitar; his sister, moreover, plays the piano.
NOTE There are three subordinators (as, that, and though) which are exceptional in that they can
occur non-initially: Though he is poor, he is happy. Poor though he is, he is happy.
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(d) Coordinators can link clause constituents
And, or, and but may link constituents smaller than a clause, for example predicates:
I may see you tomorrow or may phone late in the day.
The exceptions are the conjunct yet and (in informal spoken English) the conjunct so and
the time adverb then ('after that'):
They didn't like it, yet said nothing.
They were tired, so left early.
They went home, then went straight to bed.
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He heard an explosion and he {therefore) phoned the police.
(c) The second clause introduces a CONTRAST:
Peter is secretive and (in contrast) David is open.
(d) The first clause has CONCESSIVE force:
She tried hard and (yet) she failed.
(e) The first clause is a CONDITION of the first:
Give me some money and (then) I'll do the shopping.
(f) The second clause makes a point SIMILAR to the first:
A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchange could
be easily arranged.
(g) The second clause is a 'pure' ADDITION to the first:
He has long hair and (also) he often wears jeans.
(h) The second clause adds an appended COMMENT on, or EXPLANATION of, the first:
They disliked John - and that's not surprising in view of his behaviour.
There's only one thing to do now - and that's to apologize.
The uses of or
(a) Typically, or is EXCLUSIVE: it excludes the possibility that the contents of both clauses are
true or are to be fulfilled:
You can sleep on the couch in the lounge or you can go to a hotel.
Even when both alternatives are clearly possible, or is normally interpreted as exclusive:
You can boil yourself an egg or (else) you can make some sandwiches.
The exclusive meaning can be strengthened by the conjuncts else or alternatively.
(b) Sometimes or is INCLUSIVE. We can add a third clause that makes this inclusive meaning
explicitly:
You can boil an egg, {or) you can make some sandwiches, or you can do both.
And can replace or in its inclusive meaning.
(c) The alternative expressed by or may also be a restatement or a CORRECTIVE to what is
said in the first conjoin:
They are enjoying themselves, or (at least)/(rather) they apppear to be enjoying
themselves.
(d) In addition to introducing alternatives as indicated above, or may imply a NEGATIVE
CONDITION. Thus in:
Switch on the radio or we'll miss the news.
The conditional use of or is thus the negative analogue of the conditional use of and. Unlike
and, however, or typically follows a negative imperative clause:
Don't be too long, or you'll miss the bus.
In this case, the most appropriate paraphrase with an if-clause is positive instead of
negative:
If you are too long, you'll miss the bus.
In written varieties of the language where precision is required (e.g. in official instructions),
the third possibility can be explicitly included by the use of both coordinators (usually
written and/or):
If the appliance is defective, write directly to the manufacturer and/or complain to
your local consumer protection service.
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The uses of but
But expresses a contrast.
(a) The content of the second clause is unexpected in view of the content of the first:
John is poor, but he is happy.
In this use, but can be replaced by and yet.
(b) The second clause expresses in positive terms what the negation in the first clause
conveys:
Jane did not waste her time before the exam, but (on the contrary) studied hard
every evening.
I am not objecting to his morals, but (rather) to his manners.
In this use, but can be emphasized by the conjuncts on the contrary or rather. It normally
does not link two clauses, but two lesser constituents.
CORRELATIVES
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He did not receive any assistance from the authorities, neither did he believe their
assurance that action would soon be taken. (rather formal)
All the students were obviously very miserable. Nor were the teachers satisfied
with the conditions at the school. (formal)
The morphology of nor suggests that it is the equivalent of or plus not, but in fact both nor
and neither are nearer to being the equivalent of and… not:
All the students were obviously very miserable. And (also) the teachers were not
satisfied with the conditions at the school.
Subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinate clause. The signal may be
of various kinds:
a subordinating conjunction;
a wh-element, the item that;
subject-operator inversion in declarative clauses;
(negatively) the absence of a finite verb.
SUBORDINATORS
SUBORDINATORS (or, more fully, SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS) are the most important
formal device of subordination.
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3. Correlative subordinators
as ...so
as/ so/ such …as
so/ such …that
less/ more (/-er) …than
no sooner than. . . than, when (informal)
barely/ hardly/ scarcely. . . when, than (informal)
the. . . the
whether/ if …or
There are also optional conjuncts that endorse the meaning of a subordinator that introduces
the preceding clause: although/ even if/ even though/ while …yet/ nevertheless, etc; if/
once/ unless …then; because/ seeing (that) …therefore.
Nonfinite clauses (except bare infinitive clauses) and verbless clauses may have the
subordinators with and without, which are required to introduce the subject:
Without you to consult, I would be completely lost.
With the mortgage paid, they could afford to go abroad for their vacation.
With you as my friend, I don't need enemies.
Bare infinitive clauses are limited to the two synonymous subordinators rather than and sooner
than:
He paid the fine rather than appeal to a higher court.
As a subordinator with infinitive clauses for is restricted to clauses with their own subject and
indeed is often obligatory:
It would be an absurd idea for them to move to another house at this stage of their
careers.
Marginal subordinators
There are also three types of borderline cases of multi-word subordinators:
habitual combinations of a subordinator with a preceding or following adverb (eg: even if,
if only);
temporal noun phrases (e.g.: the moment (that), every time (that)), but the following
clause is better analysed as a restrictive relative clause;
prepositional phrases ending in the fact that (e.g.: because of the fact that, in spite of the
fact that), but the subordinate clause is better analyzed as in apposition to the preceding
noun phrase.
Other indicators of subordination
We now turn to other indicators of subordination apart from subordinators.
(i) WH-elements are initial markers of subordination in subordinate interrogative clauses
and subordinate exclamative clauses, in wh-relative clauses and in conditional-
concessive clauses.
(ii) The relative pronoun that, which can often replace wh-pronouns, is a subordination
marker in restrictive relative clauses.
(iii) Subject-operator inversion is a marker of subordination in certain clauses, particularly in
conditional clauses. It is typical of a literary and elevated style. The operators that permit
the inversion are had, were, should, and (less commonly) could and might:
Were she here, she would support the motion.
Inversion of a different kind- the fronting of the whole or part of the predication - may occur
with the subordinators as, though and that in concessive and reason clauses.
(iv)The absence of a finite verb is itself an indicator of subordination, since nonfinite and
verbless clauses are generally subordinate.
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Bibliography
Allerton, D.J. (1979): Essentials of Grammatical Theory: a Consensus View of Syntax
and Morphology, Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.
Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.
DeCapua, Andreea (2008): Grammar for Teachers. A Guide to American English for
Native and Non-native Speakers, Springer, New York.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language, London, New York, Longman.
www.essex.ac.uk/linguistics/clmt/MTbook/HTML/node98.html.
http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAnExocentricConstructio
n.htm.
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2. CRITERIA FOR THE TYPOLOGY OF SENTENCES
A multiple sentence contains one or more clauses as its immediate constituents. Multiple
sentences are either COMPOUND or COMPLEX.
In a compound sentence the immediate constituents are two or more COORDINATE clauses.
The syntactical way of forming this sentence is by coordination (homogeneity), using
coordinating conjunctions.
Dan knew the truth, but he did not want to disclose it to us.
In a complex sentence one or more of its elements, such as direct object or adverbial, are
realized by a SUBORDINATE clause.
Even though Dan knew the truth, he refused to disclose the secret to us.
A complex sentence with one subordinate clause can be analysed once for the sentence as a
whole and once for the subordinate clause included within the sentence.
You can borrow my car if you need it.
A COMPLEX sentence is like a simple sentence in that it consists of only one MAIN clause,
but unlike a simple sentence it has one or more SUBORDINATE clauses functioning as an
element of the sentence. For example, [1] is a simple sentence in that the sentence
consists of one main clause without any subordinate clauses:
I reject her conclusions. [1]
On the other hand, [2] is a complex sentence because the main clause contains a
subordinate clause functioning as an adverbial:
Although I admire her reasoning, I reject her conclusions. [2]
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Other grammarians consider that, sometimes, rather than joining two simple sentences
together, a coordinating conjunction joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence
and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-complex
sentence:
The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check the
contents.
Therefore, a compound-complex sentence contains at least two clauses and at least one
dependent clause (a combination of a compound and a complex sentence).
2.2.1. Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic types differentiated by their
form. Their use correlates with different discourse functions (Quirk et al., 1985:803-853).
declaratives are sentences in which the subject is present and generally precedes the
verb: Mary bought her sister a hat from Paris.
interrogatives are sentences which are formally marked in one of two ways:
o yes-no interrogatives: the operator is placed in front of the subject:
Did Mary buy her sister a hat from Paris?
o wh-interrogatives: the interrogative wh-element is positioned initially and there is
a general subject-verb inversion:
What did Mary buy her sister from Paris?
imperatives are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and
whose verb has the base form: Buy Mary a hat from Paris.
exclamatives are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how,
usually with subject-verb order: What a fancy hat she received from her sister!
Associated with these four sentence types are four classes of discourse functions (also
identified as semantic types):
STATEMENTS are primarily used to convey information;
QUESTIONS are primarily used to seek information on a specific point;
DIRECTIVES are primarily used to instruct somebody to do something;
EXCLAMATIONS are primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker is
impressed by something.
Although direct association between syntactic type and discourse class is the norm, the two do
not always match. For example, a rhetorical question is syntactically an interrogative, but
semantically a statement.
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2.2.1.a. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES normally contain a verb phrase and at least one noun
phrase (Quirk et al., 1985:719).
He was of medium height, with curly hair and light-blue eyes.
Their degree of assertiveness depends on the presence of strengthening or emphatic adverbs
(certainly, undoubtedly). To express doubt or probability, there are used adverbial modifiers
such as probably, perhaps, maybe.
2.2.1.b. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES require a strict word order in English. Questions can
be divided into three major classes according to the type of reply they expect:
1 Those that expect affirmation or negation, as in Have you finished the book? are YES-NO
QUESTIONS.
2 Those that typically expect a reply from an open range of replies, as in What is your
name? or How old are you?, are WH-questions.
3 Those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the question, as
in Would you like to go for a WALK or stay at HOME?, are ALTERNATIVE questions.
A. YES/NO QUESTIONS
Form of yes-no questions
Yes-no questions are usually formed by placing the operator before the subject and giving the
sentence a rising intonation:
The boat has LEFT. ~ Has the boat LEFT?
If there is no item in the verb phrase that can function as operator, DO is introduced, as with
negation:
They live in Sydney. ~ Do they live in Sydney?
Again as with negation, main verb BE functions as operator; in BrE main verb HAVE often acts as
operator, but informally HAVE . . . got is more common:
Patrick was late. ~ Was Patrick late?
B. WH-QUESTIONS
Form of Wh-questions
Wh-questions are formed with the aid of one of the following simple interrogative words (or WH-
words): who/ whom/ whose, what, which, when, where, how, why.
Unlike yes-no questions, wh-questions generally have falling intonation. There are two
principles governing the form and use of such questions:
1. the wh-element (ie the clause element containing the wh-word) comes first in the
sentence
2. the wh-word itself takes first position in the wh-element.
The main exception to the second principle occurs when the wh-word is within a prepositional
complement. Non-formal style generally requires that the wh-word comes first, but formal style
requires that the wh-element as a whole comes first.
On what did you base your prediction? (formal) What did you base your prediction on?
Function of wh-element
The following sentences exemplify the various clause functions in which the wh-element
operates:
Who is coming to the PARty? [wh-element: S]
What did you buy for your sister? [wh-element: Od]
Whose beautiful anTiQUES are these? [wh-element: Cs]
How wide did they make the BOOKcase? [wh-element: C0]
When will you be proMOTed? [wh-element: A]
Where shall I put the GLASses? [wh-element: A]
Why didn't you TELL me? [wh-element: A]
How did you MEND it? [wh-element: A]
How much does he CARE? [wh-element: A]
How long have you been WAiTing? [wh-element: A]
How often do you visit New YORK? [wh-element: A]
C. ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS
They refer to the questions based on the presence of several possibilities, or one alternative at
least. They may be divided into:
limited/ finite questions. They give a finite set of possibilities, thus having the
nature of a closed list.
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Would you like some WÍNE or some BEÈR? [the former term has a rising tone, while the
latter a falling tone]
Do you want to go by BÚS or by TRÀM?
open/ unlimited questions. The number of possibilities is larger than those listed.
When would you like to come? On MÓnday, on TÚEsday or some other DÀY?
According to Quirk et al. (1985), there are two types of alternative questions. The first resembles
yes-no question, and the second a wh-question:
Would you like CHOcolate, vaNilLa, or STRAwberry (icecream)? [1]
Which ice-cream would you LIKE? CHOcolate, vaNiLla or STRAwberry? [2]
The first type differs from yes-no question only in intonation; instead of the final rising tone, it
contains a separate nucleus for each alternative: a rise occurs on each item in the list, except
the last, on which there is a fall, indicating that the list is complete.
A: Shall we go by BUS or TRAIN?
B: By BUS.
The second type of alternative question is really a compound of two separate questions: a wh-
question followed by an elliptical alternative question.
The meanings of these sentences, like their forms, involve a statement and a question; each of
them, that is, asserts something, then invites the listener's response to it.
There is a further, less common, type of tag question in which both statement and question are
positive: Your car is outsiDE, is it? You've had an Accident, HAVE you?
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D. OTHER TYPES OF QUESTIONS
Rhetorical questions are interrogative in structure, but have the force of a strong assertion. An
answer is not generally expected. A positive rhetorical yes-no question with a rising tone
resembles a strong negative assertion, while a negative question seems a strong positive one.
(Quirk, 1985: 825-826).
Do you see him HÉre? [the implication: Surely you don’t see him here.]
Didn’t you PHone him? [the implication: Surely you didn’t]
Who SMÔKED in here? [A negative subject is implied – Nobody smoked here.]
What can HÊ do for me? [the implication: It is not he/ him who will do something for me.]
Exclamatory questions are interrogative in structure, but have the force of an exclamatory
sentence. They resemble a yes-no question with a final falling tone. The meaning of these
questions is positive, inviting the hearer to agree to a statement on which the speaker has
strong feelings. (Quirk, 1985: 825)
Isn’t he GÒrgeous!
Wasn’t it a wonderful PÀRty!
2.2.1.c. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES, in their typical form, contain no subject or operator: they consist
simply of a predication with an imperative verb, ie a verb in its base form:
Be quiet!
Search the room carefully!
Since an imperative normally refers to some future action which the hearer is urged to perform, its
subject is semantically predictable, and therefore dispensable, while the verb phrase is required to
make no distinctions of tense, number, and person (Quirk et al., 1985:87).
In Modern English, the subject – expressed by the personal/ indefinite pronoun you/
everybody, or by a proper name/ common noun – is used when it is emphasized, in order to
avoid any confusion, or with an emotive function:
I can't manage this, you try!
19
You, Cynthia, fetch the flowers, and you, Paul, the chairs!
Have a good time everybody!
Nobody move!
Boys and girls, hurry up! It's getting late, let's go home!
Verbless sentences have the effect of brusque commands or requests:
- adverbials: Here!; Slower!; This way!; Back to work!
- noun phrase + adverbial: Everybody outside! Children on the floor! Hands up!
- adverbial + with-phrase: Out with you! [get out!]; Off with her head! [‘cut off
her head’]; Up with the Liberal Party! [approval]; Down with the Democrats!
[disapproval]
- noun phrases: Taxi!; Shears!; A loaf of bread, please! [a polite request]
Negative imperatives
To negate imperatives, one simply adds an initial Don't or Do not, replacing assertive by
nonassertive items where necessary:
Open the door. Don't open the door.
Get some wine. Don't get any wine.
You open the door. Don't you open the door.
Someone open the door. Don't anyone open the door.
Do with positive imperatives
A positive imperative can be made more persuasive or insistent (esp. in BrE) by adding do
before the verb (when the subject is absent or when let's is present):
DO have some more tea. DO let's go for a walk.
B. Irregular Wh-questions
There are several kinds of irregular wh-questions, which occur mainly in conversation, for
example:
How about another kiss? What about coming to my place? How come you're so late?
Why listen to him? Why all the noise? What if it rains?
C. Subordinate clauses as sentences
Several kinds of subordinate clauses are used as sentences, generally with exclamatory force:
That I should live to see such ingratitude! To think that you might have been killed! Well,
if it isn't Susan! ['It is indeed Susan!'] If only I'd listened to my parents!
D. Aphoristic sentences
Many proverbs have an aphoristic sentence structure, in which two short constructions are
balanced against each other:
The more, the merrier.
First come, first served.
Waste not, want not.
2.2.1.g. NONSENTENCES
Nonsentences, usually but not exclusively noun phrases, occur frequently in speech, mostly in
informal conversation.
The things they get up to! Attention! Taxi!
In addition there are many formulae used for stereotyped communication situations; for
example: Good morning; Goodbye; How do you do?; Thanks; Happy Birthday.
Interjections are purely emotive words which do not enter into syntactic relations. Among the
common interjections are Ah, Boo, Oh, Ouch, Sh, Wow.
22
2.3. THE CRITERION OF STATUS AND GRAMMATICAL DEPENDENCE
This criterion refers to the status of dependence or independence and to the position of some
constituents in relation to the others.
Main clauses are also called head clauses, being the elements that rank first in the hierarchy
established as part of a complex sentence. This means that they have subordinate clauses and
regent clauses in their subordination.
Regent clauses have a twofold nature:
o of governing, when the complex sentence is more diversified;
o of being subordinated to the main clause.
If you can make it 1/, there are trucks on the road 2/ where it forks for Tortosa. 3/ (E.
Hemingway – Old Man at the Bridge)
23
Subordinate clauses cannot stand on their own as sentences. Besides the main clauses, they
represent the compulsory element in any complex sentence.
I cannot think 1/ what will become of others 2/.
Jacobs (1995:65, apud Cmeciu, 2007) differentiates between:
Embedded clauses function either as subjects or as objects of regent clauses, meaning
that they are obligatory elements. The clauses that contain embedded clauses are called
container or matrix clauses.
For Mary to lie about her whereabouts1/ will be a real disaster2/.
They didn’t realize 1/ that Mary had been lying to them 2/.
Subordinate clauses function as adjuncts, namely as optional elements in a clause.
The role of subordinators such as because, when, while, after, if etc. is to assign the
clauses a lesser grammatical status. That is why the clause to which it is attached is
called superordinate clause.
I will give him the money 1/ if he returns it some day 2/.
He raised his hand 1/ to pull the bell 2/.
24
2.4. MORPHOLOGICAL CRITERIA
For Quirk et al. (1985:150), “a clause with a finite verb phrase as its verb element is called a
'finite verb clause' or, more tersely, a 'finite clause'. Similarly, a clause with a nonfinite verb as
its verb element is called a 'nonfinite (verb) clause'”.
In some grammars, nonfinite constructions (which have a nonfinite verb as their verb element) are
considered phrases rather than clauses. Nonfinite clauses themselves are intrinsically subordinate
and therefore do not constitute simple sentences in the canonical forms.
FINITE CLAUSE: a clause whose verb element is finite (such as takes, took, can work, has
worked, is writing, was written):
I can't go out with you because lam studying this evening.
NONFINITE CLAUSE: a clause whose verb element is nonfinite (such as to work, having worked,
taken):
Knowing my temper, I didn't reply.
VERBLESS CLAUSE: a clause that does not have a verb element, but is nevertheless
capable of being analysed into clause elements:
Although always helpful, he was not much liked.
25
(ii) BARE INFINITIVE
without subject: All I did was hit him on the head.
with subject: Rather than you do the job, I'd prefer to finish it myself.
The bare infinitive is found characteristically in pseudo-cleft sentences, where the
infinitival to is optional:
What they did was (to) dig a shallow channel around the tent.
(iii) -ING PARTICIPLE
without subject: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
with subject: Her aunt having left the room, I asked Ann for some personal help.
When the subject of -ing clauses is expressed, it is often introduced by a preposition:
With the audience turning restive, the chairman curtailed his long introduction.
(iv) -ED PARTICIPLE
without subject: Covered with confusion, they apologized abjectly.
with subject: The discussion completed, the chairman adjourned the meeting for half
an hour.
Bibliography
Bantaş, Andrei (1996): Descriptive English Syntax, Institutul European, Iasi.
Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.
Chalker, Sidney (1992): A Student's English Grammar Workbook, Longman, London.
Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language, London, New York, Longman.
26
EXERCISES
27
3. THE SUBJECT
The main difficulty in circumscribing the area of reference of the term “subject” resides in the
diversity of sciences/studies which use it as a key concept.
SUBJECT n [sʌbdʒɪkt]
1. the predominant theme or topic, as of a book, discussion, etc.
2. (Social science / Education) any branch of learning considered as a course of study;
3. (Grammar) a word, phrase, or formal expression about which something is predicated
or stated in a sentence;
4. a person or thing that undergoes experiment, analysis, treatment, etc.
5. (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) a person who lives under the rule of a monarch,
government, etc.
6. (Arts) an object, figure, scene, etc., as selected by an artist or photographer for
representation;
7. (Philosophy) a. that which thinks or feels as opposed to the object of thinking and
feeling; the self or the mind; b. a substance as opposed to its attributes;
8. (Music) a melodic or thematic phrase used as the principal motif of a fugue;
9. (Logic) a. the term of a categorial statement of which something is predicated; b. the
reference or denotation of the subject term of a statement. The subject of John is tall is
not the name John, but John himself;
10. an originating motive1.
In syntax, the subject is one of the clause elements for which we can find the greatest number of
characteristic features:
a. the subject is typically a noun phrase;
b. it normally occurs before the verb in declarative clauses and after the
operator in yes-no interrogative clauses;
c. it determines the number and person, where relevant, of the verb;
d. in finite clauses, it requires the subjective form for pronouns that have
distinctive case forms.
1
Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged 6th Edition 2003. © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd
1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003.
28
In functional grammar, the notion of subject got several interpretations. Halliday (1994:
30) mentions the following interpretations:
1. a psychological subject (the concern of the message). It is the element that the
speaker selects for ‘grounding’ what (s)he is going to say.
2. a grammatical subject (something is being predicated). It was seen to determine
different grammatical features (case of the noun or pronoun, its agreement of person
and number with the verb).
3. a logical subject/actor (the doer of the action). It has to do with the relations
between things.
The children showed us their toys
Psychological, grammatical, logical
subject
In the latter clause, ‘the toys’ is the psychological subject because it is the concern of the
message. It is the point of departure when producing the clause.
‘We’ is the grammatical subject because it is the one of whom the statement is predicated.
According to it, the clause is valid or not.
‘The children’ is the logical subject because it is the doer of the action, the one who is said
to have carried out the process that the clause represents.
1. FORM
The subject can be:
a noun phrase (NP); the head of any noun phrase may be a common noun
(common to a class of referents), a proper noun (names of particular persons,
individually or as a group; the referent is defined experientially) or a (personal)
pronoun (unique reference as proper nouns).
a subject clause (finite clauses or nonfinite clauses) (Quirk et al., 1985:724-726).
The case that a subject is assigned is nominative.
29
2. POSITION
According to the type of sentence in which the subject is used, it can be placed before
the verb (declarative sentences), after the operator/ auxiliary (interrogative sentences).
They [S] strolled [V] along the riverbank. [declarative sentence]
Did [op] they [S] stroll along the riverbank? [interrogative sentence]
3. SYNTACTIC FUNCTION
A subject is a compulsory element in finite clauses. In imperative sentences it is absent,
but semantically it is implied.
- The subject triggers the subjective forms (nominative case) for pronouns that have
distinctive case forms in English.
He [S] sat in sullen silence and refused to eat his lunch.
- The subject determines the number and person in finite clauses.
She [S] loves [V] life.
She [S] is [V] my best friend.
- The subject determines the number and the gender of the subject complement [Cs]
when that is a noun phrase.
Johnny and Alice [S] are my grandchildren.
- The subject determines the number, person and gender of the reflexive pronoun as
direct object (Od), indirect object (Oi), subject complement (Cs), or prepositional complement/
object (Cp)
Peter [S] considers himself [Od] a poet.
They [S] had a terrible temper and they [S] were afraid of themselves [Cp].
- There is a systematic correspondence between active and passive clauses: the direct
object and the indirect object of an active sentence can become the subject of the passive
sentence.
He [S] can repair your tyre [Od]. – Your tyre [S] can be repaired by him.
- A subjectless nonfinite clause has an implied subject which is identical with the subject
of the regent clause.
After having glared at her, / he left the room. / [after having glared at her =
subjectless nonfinite subordinate clause, adverbial clause of time]
4. SEMANTIC PROPERTIES
The subject is typically the theme (or topic) of the clause.
It typically refers to information that is regarded by the speaker as given.
In a clause that is not passive, the subject is agentive if the agentive role is expressed in
the clause.
30
3.2. MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE SUBJECT
B. PRONOUNS
1. personal pronouns
We ourselves were certain of the facts.
2. possessive pronouns
My house has a wooden roof, theirs has a thatched roof.
3. demonstrative pronouns (Demonstrative and personal pronouns function as deictic
elements because they specify a subset of the semantic thing that is rendered morphologically
as a noun and syntactically as a subject)
This is my cat, these are my tools.
4. interrogative pronouns (They appear in interrogative sentences.)
Who has been wearing these shabby clothes?
What drove me here?
5. relative pronouns (They appear in declarative sentences and they introduce relative
clauses, subject clauses or other types of clauses that, together with the main clauses form a
complex sentence.)
31
The visitor1/ who had come yesterday 2/slept in this room1/. (2 = relative clause)
Who did this1/, can never be forgiven. 2/ (1 = nominal THAT clause)
6. indefinite pronouns can include either quantitative (much, all) or numerical (many, more,
most, several)
All is well, when it ends well. (subject, indefinite quantitative pronoun)
Some people received money, some got building materials. (subject, indefinite
numerical pronoun)
7. generic pronouns can be subdivided into absolute (one, you, he, everyone, anybody),
limited (they). The sentences including generic pronouns as subjects, must be interpreted
as general statements.
He who laughs last, laughs best.
You must not give up whenever you get grief-stricken.
Everyone has rights under the law, but they don’t always know them.
8. negative pronouns
None dared to do this.
Nothing remains of the old house but the cellar hole.
C. NUMERALS
1. cardinal numerals
One stood up for the rights of the group.
2. ordinal numerals
Only the first had the courage to fight back.
E. NONFINITE VERBS
1. infinitive constructions
To go abroad with no passport 1/ is not a wise thing2/.
He 1/seemed2/ to have lied to us1/. [Nominative + Perfect Infinitive – ‘It seemed
that he had lied to us’. It is used after intransitive verbs – to seem, to appear, to
happen, to turn out –.]
32
They are unlikely to come. [‘It is unlikely that they will come’. The Nominative +
Infinitive construction is a subject clause. It is triggered by adjectives such as
(un)likely, sure, certain, easy, tough, difficult, (im)possible]
2. gerundial constructions. Unlike the Infinitive in the subject position, rendering the
speaker’s opinion or theory, the Gerund implies the speaker’s or the addressee’s personal
experience of the action or a habit (Martinet & Thomson, 1969: 158):
Swimming in the sea 1/ is great fun2/. [Either the speaker or the addressee has
tried to swim in the sea and he/ she reached the conclusion that ‘swimming in
the sea is great fun’.]
It’s no good1/ talking to him 2/; he never listens. [The construction with the
introductory anticipatory it is common with any/ no good; any/no use; worth/
worthless]
Seeing is believing. [saying]
Rebuilding the city 1/took years 2/. [rebuilding – Gerund, no definite article]
The rebuilding of the city took years. [rebuilding – Verbal Noun. Whereas a
Gerund has the features of a verb (tense, voice, adverbs and direct/
prepositional objects), a Verbal Noun presents the features of a noun (definite/
indefinite article; adjectives; plural number; the prepositional genitive)]
3. finite verbs (Subject Clauses)
What was done 1/ can’t be undone2/. [1 = nominal clause; it includes a finite verb;
Indicative Mood, Past tense simple, passive voice]
What Tom washed 1/ was his shirts2/. [1 = nominal clause; this type of sentence
is typically English and it bears the name of pseudo-cleft sentence. Its
function is to highlight a string of words. The structure is the following: WH-item
+….+ form of be + FOCUS]
3.3.1. The criterion of semantic content (the meaning a subject conveys). There are three
types of subjects: grammatical subjects, logical subjects and impersonal subjects.
Grammatical subjects are directly connected with the predicate. They determine the
agreement with the predicate. They are also known under the name of formal subjects.
A hot sun is glaring down on the desert.
Logical/ real subjects refer to the doer of the action, and it bears the name of agent.
33
Usually the grammatical subject coincides with the logical subject, but there are two cases
which are interpreted as exceptions:
A. Passive constructions
He was struck by thunder. [The grammatical subject does not coincide with the
logical subject. Semantically, the grammatical subject is the sufferer of the
action, thus it is a patient. The logical subject is rendered by a prepositional
object of agent.]
B. Introductory constructions
- Introductory anticipatory “it”. It has no syntactical function because it is used instead of
the real subject. The subject of the complex sentence is, actually, a subject clause (with a
nonfinite verb: perfect infinitive). The meaning of the respective sentence is given by the
subject clause and the predicative.
It was rude of him to have left us in the middle of the road. [The main clause
includes either verbs, such as to seem, to appear, to turn out, to look like or
constructions such as it’s necessary, (im)possible, nice/ rude, important etc.]
It was said that he had broken into my shop. [The verb in the main clause is
rendered through the passive voice of a verb of communication: to say, to tell,
to announce, to inform etc.]
There was lying the village of my childhood. [“There” shows either existence or
absence of the real subject.]
- Announcing or exclamatory element. Its role is to put an emphasis on the real subject
which is to be mentioned. The construction resembles a sort of interjection and the
emphasis is put rather on the subject, than on the predicate.
There you go.
Here comes dad.
- Emphatic constructions. Their role is to put an emphasis on a particular part from the
sentence. The respective sentence is also called cleft sentence; they are typical
English constructions and their purpose is to highlight a particular string of words. The
structure of cleft sentences is the following (Aarts, 2001: 226):
IT + form of be + FOCUS + who/ that ….
It was Tom who had kicked me. [the real subject is singled out]
It is you who I despise. [the direct object is singled out]
It was to her that I had given that book. [the indirect object is singled out]
It was on Billy that we had wanted to rely. [the prepositional object is singled
out]
34
It is gently that he spoke to me. [the adverbial modifier of manner is singled
out]
It was in the market that we had met. [the adverbial modifier of place is
singled out]
It is at nine o’clock that the phone rang. [the adverbial of time is singled out]
Impersonal subjects refer to time and weather, distance or the state of things in
general.
time (hours, parts of the day, dates, days, months etc.)
It was getting into the evening. It’s almost nine. It’s dawn.
lapse of time
It’s years since we last went for a swim.
weather & natural phenomena
It is really hot. It has been drizzling for some hours. It’s snowing.
distance
It’s two miles to that remote village. It’s a long way to obtain success.
35
The fact that cats know 1/how to look after themselves2/ was all the good
luck3/ that the old man would ever have. 4/
What you told me1/ is a secret with me2/.
When he arrives1/ is not your cup of tea. 2/
3.4.1.Subject as agentive
The most typical semantic role of a subject in a clause that has a direct object is that of the AGENTIVE
participant: that is, the animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by the verb:
Margaret is mowing the grass.
3.4.2. Subject as external causer, instrument, and affected
The subject sometimes has the role of EXTERNAL CAUSER; that is, it expresses the unwitting
(generally inanimate) cause of an event:
The avalanche destroyed several houses.
It may also have the role of INSTRUMENT; that is, the entity (generally inanimate) which the agent
uses in order to perform an action or instigate a process:
A car knocked them down.
With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the AFFECTED role elsewhere typical of
the direct object:
Jack fell down (accidentally). The pencil was lying on the table.
But we can make some further distinctions according to whether the subject complement as
attribute identifies or characterizes.
Kevin is my brother. [identified subject]
Martha was a good student. [characterized subject]
There is sometimes a regular relation, in terms of clause function, between transitive verbs
expressing CAUSATIVE meaning and corresponding intransitive verbs or adjectives. In the last
group, the company and my dog as object arc affected but as subject are agentive.
1. SVO SV
The frost has killed the flowers. The flowers have died.
Fred is waving the flag. The flag is waving (in the breeze).
2. SVO SVC
They have dimmed the lights. The lights became dim.
The sun (almost) blinded him. He (almost) went blind.
3. SVO SV
The sergeant paraded the company. The company paraded.
I am exercising my dog. My dog is exercising.
36
3.4.3. Recipient and experiencer subjects
The subject may have a recipient role with verbs such as have, own, possess, benefit (from),
as is indicated by the following relation:
Mr Smith has given his son a radio. [So now his son has a radio.]
The perceptual verbs see and hear require an experiencer subject, in contrast to look at and
listen to, which are agentive.
The other perceptual verbs taste, smell, and feel have both an agentive meaning
corresponding to look at and an experiencer meaning corresponding to see:
37
3.4.6. Prop it subject
Prop it has also been termed 'ambient' it, in accordance with the view that it has some
generalized reference to the environment in a given context.
Another term for prop it is 'expletive' if, the term indicating the view that this it merely fills a syntactic
gap (that of subject) and is otherwise meaningless.
There are clauses in which no participant is required. In such cases, the subject function may
be assumed by the 'prop' word it, which has little or no semantic content.
Prop IT mainly occurs in clauses signifying (a) time, (b) atmospheric conditions, and (c)
distance:
(a) It's our wedding anniversary next month.
(b) It's getting dark.
(c) It's not very far to York.
Bibliography
Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.
Chalker, Sidney (1992): A Student's English Grammar Workbook, Longman, London.
Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of the
English Language, London, New York, Longman.
Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged 6th Edition 2003. © William Collins
Sons & Co. Ltd 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003.
EXERCISES
I. Identify the types of subjects. Mention the ways in which they are expressed
(morphological categories).
1. Around many a dusky neck hung curiously coiled strands of wire, while several were
further ornamented by huge nose rings. (Burroughs, Edgar Rice, Tarzan of the Apes)
2. Nothing succeeds like success.
3. The man who held out against the Church vanished away, and none knew whither he
had gone or what had befallen him. (Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan , A Study In Scarlet)
4. The two were inventors and proverbially poor business men, though they had amassed
a fortune. (Appleton, Victor, Tom Swift In The Land Of Wonders )
5. He seems to have rung.
6. We protested against the cruel shooting of the bears.
7. We protested against shooting the bears cruelly.
38
II. Identify the semantic roles of the subject.
London is crowded.
Mary has given her sister a new hat
My friend is sitting in a chair near the door.
It's ten o'clock precisely.
The children are picking up flowers.
The computer has solved the problem.
Is it raining?
The dispute over the inheritance lasted a decade.
The electric shock killed him.
The pencil was on the table.
Today is my birthday.
It's just one more stop to Toronto.
Tom is cooking the dinner.
39
4. THE PREDICATE vs. THE VERB AS CLAUSE ELEMENTS
1
The information draws on the article from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(grammar).
2
Predicative is identified by some grammarians as “the clause element use element that characterizes the
referent of some other clause element, either the subject (subject predicative) or the object.” (Biber et al.,
2002:459) The corresponding term in the terminology that we have adopted is that of complement (subject
complement or object complement).
40
predication):
She hoped that he would search the room carefully.
and he searched the room carefully/ and he did so.
The main subdivisions of the predicate are the operator (or first auxiliary performs
an “operational” function in relating a positive declarative structure to another major
structure in the language) and the predication. Not all simple statements have an
operator, but when it occurs, it is normally the word which directly follows the subject.
He had given the girl an apple. [predicate made up of auxiliary and operator had +
predication give the girl an apple]
Two predications can be joined by coordination:
You should eat regularly and take more exercise.
Someone has broken into the house and stolen the money.
The division of a clause into subject, operator and predication cuts across its division
into S, V, O, C and A; this entertains two alternative constituent analyses of the
same structure.
For Biber et al. (2002:459-460), the predicate also represents the 'logical
center of a clause, consisting sometimes of a verb, and sometimes of a copular verb
plus predicative: / thought he was there.
In order to understand how the subject and verb are understood in logic, we need to
define first categorical propositions in which they are used as terms. The categorical
proposition is any statement of the form:
[quantifier: “all” or “some”] P [copula-phrase: “are” or “are not”] Q
P and Q are predicates, that is, expressions that denote concepts. The first
predicate (P) is the subject term of the proposition and the second predicate (Q) is
the predicate term.
41
4.3. PREDICATES IN SEMANTICS
42
Practice In the following sentences, indicate the predicators and arguments:
(1) Dennis is a menace
predicator: ...................................... argument(s): ...................
(2) Fred showed Jane his BMW
Predicator: ...................................... argument(s): ...................
(3) Donald is proud of his family
predicator: ...................................... argument(s): ...................
(4) The hospital is outside the city
predicator: ...................................... argument(s): ...................
The semantic analysis of a sentence into predicator and argument(s) does not
correspond in most cases to the traditional grammatical analysis of a sentence into
subject and predicate, although there is some overlap between the semantic and the
grammatical analyses.
How does the concept of predicate in the semantic sense differ from the concept of
grammatical predicate?
The term ‘predicate’ in a semantic sense is similar to the one developed within Logic.
A PREDICATE is any word (or sequence of words) which (in a given single sense) can
function as the predicator of a sentence. Example hungry, in, crook, asleep, hit, show,
bottle, are all predicates; and, or, but, not, are not predicates.
A simple sentence only has one predicator, although it may well contain more than
one instance of a predicate:
A tall, handsome stranger entered the saloon.
This sentence has just one predicator, enter, but the sentence also contains the
words tall, handsome, stranger, and saloon, all of which are predicates, and can
function as predicators in other sentences:
John is tall.
He is handsome.
He is a stranger.
That ramshackle building is a saloon.
To conclude, ‘predicate’ and ‘predicator’ in semantics are terms of quite different
sorts.
The term ‘predicate’ identifies elements in the language system,
independently of particular example sentences.
The term ‘predicator’ identifies the semantic role played by a particular word
(or group of words) in a particular sentence. In this way, it is similar to the
grammatical term ‘subject’: one can talk of the subject of a particular
sentence, but it makes no sense to talk of a list of ‘the subjects of English’:
similarly, one can talk of the ‘predicator’ in a particular sentence, but not list
‘the predicators of English’.
43
4.4. VERB COMPLEMENTATION
3
The term 'valency' (or 'valence') is sometimes used, instead of complementation, for the way in which a verb
determines the kinds and number of elements that can accompany it in the clause. Valency, however, includes the
subject of the clause, which is excluded from complementation.
44
4.4.2. VERBS IN INTRANSITIVE FUNCTION
1. 'PURE' INTRANSITIVE VERBS, which do not take an object at all (or at least do so
only very rarely): appear die fall happen rise come digress go
lie wait
John has arrived. Your views do not matter.
2. VERBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE WITH THE SAME MEANING, and without a
change in the subject-verb relationship. Informally, such verbs can be described
as having an 'understood object': approach drive help pass win drink
enter leave play write
He smokes (a pipe). I am reading (a book).
3. VERBS WHICH CAN ALSO BE TRANSITIVE, but where the semantic connection
between subject and verb is different (from affected subject in intransitive to
agentive in transitive):
Examples: begin close increase turn walk change drop move
unite work
The door [affected subject] opened slowly. Mary [agentive] opened the
door.
The car stopped. He stopped the car.
This type also includes intransitive verbs with MUTUAL PARTICIPATION, as in:
I have met you. ~ We have met.
The bus collided with the car. ~ The bus and car collided.
There are also intransitive phrasal verbs such as:
fall out ['quarrel'] pass away ['die'] pass out ['faint'] fall back ['retreat'] fall
through ['fail']
make up ['end a quarrel'] pull up ['stop'] come to ['become conscious']
45
4.4.3. COPULAR COMPLEMENTATION
The most common copular verbs are listed below. Those that are used only with
adjective phrases are followed by '[A]':
CURRENT copulas: appear, be, feel, look, seem, smell [A], sound, taste [A]
RESULTING copulas: become, get [A], go [A], grow [A], prove, turn
After certain copulas (appear, feel, look, seem, sound), both AmE and BrE prefer an
infinitive construction with to be rather than simply a noun phrase: It appears to be the
only solution.
Some copulas are restricted as to the words that may occur in their complement. Here
are some examples, with typical adjective complements: fall (silent), plead (innocent),
rest (assured), run (wild), spring (open).
The verbs seem, appear, look, sound, feel, smell, and taste may be complemented by
an adverbial clause beginning as if or as though: It seems as if the weather is improving.
Behave is complemented by a manner adverbial (He behaved badly) and last and take by
a duration adverbial (The course lasted (for) three months).
46
4.4.4. MONOTRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
Some common examples of the numerous monotransitive verbs that may be used in
the passive: believe, bring, call, close, do, enjoy, feel, find, get, hear, help, keep,
know, lose, love, make, need, receive, remember, see, take, use, win.
A few stative monotransitive verbs (some in particular senses) normally do not
allow the passive. These MIDDLE VERBS include have, fit, suit, resemble, equal, mean
('Oculist' means 'eye doctor'), contain, hold (The hall holds over three hundred
people), comprise, lack.
They have a large house. ~*A large house is had (by them).
There are also monotransitive phrasal verbs which take a direct object and can be
used in the passive: bring about, put off.
47
COMPLEMENTATION BY A FINITE CLAUSE
48
wonder, worry.
D. Hypothesis verbs comprise wish, suppose (in the imperative), and the modal
idiom would rather or its contraction 'd rather:
The use of the wh-interrogative clause (which generally implies lack of knowledge on
the part of the speaker) is particularly common where the superordinate clause is
interrogative or negative. But verbs that themselves express uncertainty, such as ask
and doubt, occur without this nonassertive constraint.
Examples of verbs taking the WH-interrogative clause: ask, care, decide, depend,
doubt, explain, forget, hear, know, mind, notice, prove, realize, remember, say, see,
tell, think, wonder.
[B5-B9] We distinguish five types of nonfinite clauses that function as direct object in
monotransitive complementation:
(1) TO-infinitive clause: The Curies discovered how to isolate radioactive
elements.
(2) subjectless infinitive clause: Ruth prefers to go by bus.
(3) subjectless -ing participle clause: They like talking about their work.
(4) To-infinitive clause with subject: Charles wants you to stand for election.
(5) -ing participle clause with subject: I hate them/ their gossiping about our
colleagues.
49
When the nonfinite clause has no subject - as in (1), (2), and (3) - its implied subject
is usually identical with that of the superordinate clause.
The status of these clauses as direct object is confirmed when they are replaced
by a coreferential pronoun it or that; for the example sentence in (1): The Curies
discovered that. Another indication of their status is that they can be made the focus
of a pseudo-cleft sentence: What Ruth prefers is to go by bus.
Many monotransitive verbs take more than one type of nonfinite complementation.
Common verbs are listed below for the five types:
decide, discuss, explain, forget, know, learn, remember, say, see, tell,
think.
ask, dislike, forget, hate, help, hope, learn, like, love, need, offer. prefer,
promise, refuse, remember, try, want, wish.
(can't) bear, dislike, enjoy, forget, hate, (can't) help, like. love, (not) mind,
miss, need, prefer, remember, (can't) stand, start, stop.
(can't) bear, dislike, hate, like, love, prefer, want, wish.
Where both infinitive clauses - (2) and (4) - and participle clauses - (3) and (5) -are
admitted, several factors influence the choice. The infinitive is biased towards
potentiality and is therefore favoured in hypothetical and nonfactual contexts (Would
you like to see my stamp collection?), whereas the participle is favoured in factual
contexts (Brian loathed living in the country). For the three retrospective verbs forget,
remember, and regret this potentiality/performance distinction is extended into the
past:
I remembered to fill out the form. [I remembered that I was to fill out the form and
then did so.']
I remembered filling out the form. [I remembered that I had filled out the form.']
[a] Monotransitive prepositional verbs are found in all five types. The preposition is
optionally omitted in (1) and obligatorily omitted in (2):
(1) I couldn't decide (on) which bicycle to buy.
(2) She decided to buy a bicycle.
(3) She decided on buying a bicycle.
(4) We longed for the lesson to end.
(5) Don't count on their helping you.
[b] For the verbs deserve, need, and require in type (3), the implied object of the
participle is identical with the subject of the superordinate clause: Your shoes need
mending (Your shoes need to be mended).
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4.4.5. COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
The relationship between the elements her mother and a sensible woman in [1] and
[2] is equivalent to the same elements in the subordinate finite clause in [3]:
She considered that her mother was a sensible woman. [3]
Yet the passive suggests that the two elements in [1] and [2] are not a single
constituent, since the first element- as direct object- is separated from the second
element and becomes the passive subject:
Her mother was considered (by her) < to be) a sensible woman.
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Common examples of these prepositional verbs follow, with those taking an
optional preposition listed first: choose (as), consider (as), elect (as) [N], make
(into) [N]; accept as, define as, intend as [N], mistake for, regard as, see as, take
as/for, treat as, use as.
The SVOC pattern includes a number of verb-adjective collocations; for
example: boil (an egg) hard, buy [N] cheap, freeze [N] hard, paint [N] red/blue ...,
knock (someone) senseless. The adjectives open, loose, free, and clean are
particularly common: push [N] open, shake [N] loose, set \N]free, wipe [N] clean.
The object is generally postposed by extraposition if it is a that-clause, and
an anticipatory it then precedes the object complement: I think it very odd that
nobody is in.
The collocations make sure and make certain are followed by an object that-
clause without anticipatory it:
Please make sure that you enclose your birth certificate.
52
In such cases, the infinitive clause normally contains a verb used statively, especially
be. The finite clause is preferred in normal usage, but the infinitive clause provides a
convenient passive form: The traffic was reported to be heavy.
Common factual verbs: believe, consider, expect, feel, find, know, suppose.
Nonfactual verbs include verbs of intention, causation, modality, and purpose:
They intended Maria to sing an aria. The meeting elected her to be the next
treasurer. My contract allows me to take one month's leave. Our teachers
encouraged us to think for ourselves.
Common nonfactual verbs: allow, appoint, cause, compel, condemn, dare, get, help,
intend, mean, permit, require.
Some verbs in this construction occur only in the passive: rumour, say, see.
The field marshal was said to be planning a new strategy.
Others occur chiefly in the passive: repute, dunk. The verb get is not found in the
passive.
Examples of multi-word verbs in this pattern are the prepositional verbs count on,
depend on, rely on; the phrasal verb make out: and the phrasal-prepositional verb
keep on at.
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[C6] Direct object and -ing participle clause
Three small groups of verbs take this type of complex-transitive complementation:
perceptual verbs, many of which also occur with the bare infinitive (feel, hear, notice,
observe, overhear, perceive, see, smell, spot, spy, watch), verbs of encounter
(catch, discover, find, leave), and the two causative verbs get and have.
This complementation pattern differs from the monotransitive pattern in that the
noun phrase following the superordinate verb cannot take the genitive case:
I saw him lying on the beach. *I saw his lying on the beach.
A teacher caught them smoking in the playground. ~They were caught smoking in
the playground (by a teacher).
For some verbs there are corresponding constructions with an infinitive copular verb,
generally be: I want this watch to be repaired immediately. Since the participle clause is
passive, the superordinate clause is not normally in the passive: The car must have
been seen stolen.
54
4.4.6. DITRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
[D1] Noun phrases as both indirect and direct object
Ditransitive complementation in its basic form involves two object noun phrases: an
indirect object, which is normally animate and positioned first, and a direct object,
which is normally inanimate:
He gave the girl a doll
S V Oj Od
Most ditransitive verbs can also be monotransitive. The indirect object can often be
omitted: She may give (us) a large donation. With a few verbs (eg: ask, pay, teach,
tell, show) either object can be omitted:
He taught us physics. ~ He taught us. ~ He taught physics.
Some ditransitive verbs have two passive analogues, which we distinguish as 'first'
and 'second': The girl was given a doll. [FIRST PASSIVE] A doll was given the girl.
[SECOND PASSIVE]
Of these two, the first passive, in which the indirect object becomes subject, is the
more common. The prepositional paraphrase is more usual. as an alternative, than
the second passive: A doll was given to the girl. We list ditransitive verbs together
with their prepositional paraphrases.
55
Some verbs allow more than one preposition. The different possibilities provide a
means of achieving different end-focus:
Sidney provided Justin with a Danish apple pastry. ~ Sidney provided a Danish apple
pastry for Justin.
Most ditransitive verbs that take two noun phrases as objects can also be
paraphrased with a prepositional object equivalent to the indirect object.
Robert read me a chapter. ~ Robert read a chapter to me.
I gave Justin some of my shirts. ~ I gave some of my shirts to Justin.
We list some common ditransitive verbs that allow both possibilities. Those in list (1)
take the preposition to and those in list (2) take the preposition for.
(1) bring, deny, give, hand, lend, offer, owe, promise, read, send, show,
teach, throw;
(2) find, make, order, save, spare
A few ditransitive prepositional verbs (e.g.: pay, serve, tell) take one of two prepositions.
In one the prepositional object is equivalent to the indirect object, in the other to the
direct object: Doris told David her version of the events. ~ Doris told her version of the
events to David. ~ Doris told David about her version of the events.
A few other verbs (eg: envy, excuse, forgive) have a prepositional object (introduced
by for) that is equivalent to the direct object:
Matthew envied me my video-recorder. ~ Matthew envied me for my video-recorder.
[b] Ask takes the preposition of to introduce a prepositional object that is equivalent
to the indirect object:
Robert asked Benjamin a favour. ~ Robert asked a favour of Benjamin.
[c] A few ditransitive verbs do not have prepositional paraphrases: allow, charge. fine,
refuse.
With some verbs, including convince, the indirect object cannot be omitted.
If the that-clause introduces an indirect statement, it contains an indicative verb:
Ava told Jack that dinner was ready.
56
If it introduces an indirect directive, there are several options: the verb may be
indicative or subjunctive, and often contains putative should or another modal
auxiliary:
A dozen students petitioned the college chef that he provides/ should provide/ might
provide them with vegetarian meals.
The indirect directive construction is rare and formal in comparison with the
equivalent infinitive construction: A dozen students petitioned the college chef to provide
them with vegetarian meals.
We list common verbs that take an indirect object and (a) a that clause object as
indirect statement: advise, bet, convince, inform, persuade, promise, remind, show,
teach, tell, warn, write: (b) a THAT-clause as indirect directive: ask, beg, command,
instruct, order, persuade, tell.
57
Some of the verbs also take a to-infinitive clause as second object: She advised us
what to wear for the party.
Prepositional verbs also appear in this pattern: Could you please suggest to me which
museums to visit?
This pattern is used with verbs that introduce indirect directives. Only the indirect
object can be made subject of the corresponding passive construction:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of
Written and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London
Cook, Roy T. (2009): A Dictionary of Philosophical Logic, Edinburgh, Edinburgh
University Press
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd
Hurford, James; Heasley, Brendan; Smith, Michael (2007): Semantics. A Coursebook,
New York, Oxford University Press
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language, London, New York, Longman
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)
58
5. COMPLEMENTS
In grammar, the term complement is used with different meanings. The primary meaning is a
word, phrase or clause which is necessary in a sentence to complete its meaning.
We find complements which function as sentence elements and complements which exist within
sentence elements.
In linguistics, complement refers only to the predicative complement1. The term predicate
complement refers to the fact that the predication depends on the attribution of a subject and its
predicator.
The predicative complement consists of few contrasting varieties:
Object complement (common complement);
Predicative noun or nominal predicative complement (nominal, pronominal that follows a
linking verb and explains or identifies the subject of the sentence; common in SUB or
OBJ complement);
o George is king of England.
Predicative adjective (or adjectival following a linking verb that describes the subject and
is connected with it; common in subject complement);
o Jenny is attractive. Roses are red.
Predicative adverb (or adverbial, common in intransitive predication);
Predicative adjunct (optional complement).
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5.1.2. Syntactic features and semantic properties
a) FORM
The complement is normally a noun phrase or an adjective phrase, but it may also be a nominal
clause. It is a defining characteristic of complements, in contrast to objects, that they may be
adjective phrases.
b) POSITION
The subject complement normally follows the subject and the verb. The object complement
normally follows the direct object.
c) SYNTACTIC FUNCTION
(i) If it is a noun phrase, the subject complement normally has concord of number with the subject,
and the object complement normally has concord of number with the direct object.
(ii) If it is a reflexive pronoun, the subject complement has concord of number, person and, where
relevant, gender with the subject:
She is not herself 'today.
(iii) Unlike the object, the complement cannot become the subject of a corresponding passive
clause. There is no corresponding passive clause for the SVC type. With the SVOC type, the direct
object can of course be made the subject of a passive clause:
His friends call him Ted. [Ted is C0] ~ He is called Ted by his friends. [Ted is Cs]
(iv) If the subject complement is a pronoun, there is a distinction between subjective and objective
forms; the subjective form is more prevalent in formal use (especially in AmE):
This is he. <formal> That's him.
d) SEMANTIC PROPERTIES
The complement typically identifies or characterizes the referent of the clause element to which it is
related. With some verbs, object complements can be omitted:
We appointed her our delegate to the convention. ~ We appointed her.
They have named their baby Roger. ~ They have named their baby.
The object complement cannot be the normal reflexive pronoun, but it can have a corresponding
form with self/ selves:
I did not find them their usual selves.
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5.2. SUBJECT COMPLEMENTS
A subject complement tells more about the subject by means of the verb. In the examples below
the sentence elements are (SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT)
Mr. Johnson is a management consultant. (nominal)
She looks ill. (adjectival)
In grammar, a subject complement is a phrase or clause that follows a linking verb (copula)
and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by:
1) renaming it by a noun which is a way of mirroring the subject;
2) describing it by a describing adjective.
Subject complements are used with linking verbs or copulative verbs, of which to be is the most
common. They are not affected by the action of the verb, and they describe or explain the
subject.
The lake was a tranquil pool. [was is a linking verb that links the subject complement
tranquil pool to the subject lake]
5.2.1. The subject complement can be expressed by the following parts of speech:
1) a noun phrase (nominative/ genitive case)
She is a dark-haired woman.
The house is my father’s.
2) predicative adjectives
a) exclusively predicative adjectives:
- “adverb-like” adjectives prefixed by “a-“: ablaze, afloat, afraid, akin, alike, alone, asleep:
There are some kids who are afraid of the dark.
- “prepositional adjectives”:
Over the years we've grown very fond of each other. (* fond people)
Some plants are very prone to disease. (* prone plants)
b) “pseudo-adjectives” (depending on the type of noun they determine, some adjectives can be
used in a predicate position or not).
She gave a very civil answer. – Her answer was very civil.
He specializes in civil engineering. – *The engineering is civil.
c) from present/ past participles of attitudinal verbs (to please, to frighten, to puzzle, to horrify)
Driving in big cities can be frightening for many people.
I was frightened of being left by myself in the house.
d) compound –en adjectives (prefixed by adverbs) that cannot be traced back to active sources:
well-behaved, ill-behaved.
He has been ill-behaved since his mother left.
3) personal, possessive, indefinite or interrogative pronouns
It was me calling about the advertisement.
61
This house is mine.
This is indeed something.
What are the charges against him?
4) prepositional phrase
I was out of breath.
His father is of a sound mind.
This dress was (of) the right size.
This building is (from) 17th century.
5) cardinal/ ordinal numeral
They were nine. I was the second in my class.
6) finite verb phrase
The idea is1/ that they have been living in this house for ages. 2/ (1 = main clause,
subordinate clause, introduced by the conjunction that)
His departure means 1/ what we all wanted. 2/ (1 = main clause; 2 = subordinate clause,
introduced by the relative pronoun what)
7) nonfinite verb phrase, infinitival construction
The problem is1/ to convince him 2/ to come with us. 3/ (1 = main clause; 2 = clause,
nonfinite verb: infinitive; 3 = adverbial clause of purpose)
8) non-finite verb phrase, gerundial construction
His dream was1/ wandering through the world. 2/ (1 = main clause; 2 = predicative
clause, nonfinite verb: gerund)
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Notes
[a] With a noun phrase compIement feel has the meaning 'have the sensation of being...'; but
with an adjective complement, it has not only this meaning (as in She fell ill), but also the
meaning of 'cause a sensation...', as in The table felt rough.
[b]The noun phrase following act as, count as, pose as, pass for and similar combinations is in a
copular relation with the subject, and these combinations may be reasonably described as
'copular prepositional verbs' on the analogy of intransitive and transitive prepositional verbs.
Corresponding to these constructions with current meaning are resulting copular prepositional
verbs such as change into, grow into, and turn into, with the general meaning of 'become'. Note the
near-synonymy of He turned traitor and He turned into a traitor.
[c] One or two verbs such as make and part can appear with a noun phrase complement, but not
with an adjective phrase complement:
They parted the best of friends.
They make a charming couple.
The following is a fairly full list of verbs regularly used in this pattern, together with typical
adjectival complements:
CURRENT RESULTING
(i) be (friendly) [N] (iv) become (older) [N]
(ii) appear (happy) [N] come (true)
feel (annoyed) [N] end up (happy) [N]
look (pretty) [N] Set (ready)
seem (very restless) [N] SO (sour)
smell (sweet) grow (tired)
sound (surprised) [N] Prove (rather useful) [N]
taste (bitter) turn (cold) [N]
remain (uncertain) [N] turn out (fortunate) [N]
keep (silent)
stay (motionless) [N]
End up, turn out, and wind up are copular phrasal verbs. The verbs marked [N] in the list also occur
with a noun phrase complement.
63
Some examples are given below, with typical adjective complements:
CURRENT RESULTING
(v) burn (low) (vi) blush (bright red)
stand up (straight) fall (silent)
loom (large) fall down (dead)
play (rough) [N] freeze (solid)
plead (innocent) run (wild)
rest (assured) slam (shut)
stand (firm) [N] spring (open)
Adverbials are usually adjuncts (i.e. they can be removed and a well-formed sentence remains).
If, however, an adverbial is a necessary sentence element, then it is an adverbial complement.
Adverbial complements often occur with a form of the copula be acting as a clause's main verb.
The structure of the sentence below is (SUBJECT + VERB + ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENT)
The milk seems off. ['sour'] <informal>
The performance is over.
In technology we are ahead.
I am behind in my rent.
The television is still on.
He imagined himself ahead.
I declare this meeting over.
They let us off.
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Some prepositional phrases are semantically similar to adjective or noun phrases functioning as
complement:
They were out of breath.
That is of no importance.
He is under suspicion.
She is in good health.
They are not at ease.
More importantly, such prepositional phrases can be coordinated with, or placed in apposition with,
adjective phrases that undoubtedly function as complement:
She is young and in good health.
They were out of breath and extremely tired.
They are not at ease, ie not relaxed.
Here are other examples of prepositional phrases functioning as subject complement:
They are in love.
We're over the worst.
The demonstration got out of hand.
He feels at home.
That child seems in trouble.
I don't feel up to it.
The house seems in good condition.
He sounds in great danger.
We similarly find prepositional phrases functioning as object complement:
They put me at my ease. ['I'm at my ease.']
I don't consider myself at risk.
He didn't feel himself at home.
She didn't want me in any danger.
He imagined himself on the point of death.
I found him in trouble.
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5.3. OBJECT COMPLEMENTS
An object complement tells us more about the object by means of the verb. In the examples
below the sentence elements are (SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + COMPLEMENT). Object
complements can often be removed leaving a well-formed sentence, thus the use of the term
complement is slightly illogical.
We elected him chairman.
We painted the house red.
An object complement can be a noun, pronoun, or adjective that follows and modifies a direct
object. It can describe, clarify, re-name, or show completion of a process. It is most often used
with verbs involving judgment, nomination, or creation.
My son painted his room blue. (Blue modifies the direct object room.)
The clown made the children very excited. (The participle excited describes children.)
Prepositional phrases functioning as object complement:
They put me at my ease. ['I'm at my ease.']
I don't consider myself at risk. She didn't want me in any danger.
He didn't feel himself at home.
I found him in trouble.
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5.4. SEMANTIC ROLE OF COMPLEMENTS
67
We can further subdivide attributes into current or existing attributes (normally with verbs used
statively) and resulting attributes, resulting from the event described by the verb (with verbs used
dynamically).
Here are examples of the distinction for both subject and object complements:
CURRENT ATTRIBUTE
He's my brother. She remained silent.
He seems unhappy. I want my food hot.
We lay quiet. I prefer my coffee black.
We felt cold. They consider me their closest friend.
RESULTING ATTRIBUTE
We became restless. They elected him president.
He turned traitor. The heat turned the milk sour.
He felt ill. He drives me mad.
Notes
[a] If the identification attribute is a noun phrase with an optionally omitted determiner,
subject-complement reversal cannot occur:
Joan is president of the company. Contrast:
Joan is the president of the company. ~ The president of the company is Joan.
[b] A subject complement may be realized by a genitive noun phrase:
That writing must be Tom's. [subjective genitive – agentive role]
That newspaper is mine. [possessive genitive – recipient]
The idea was Kathy's. [genitive of attribute – recipient]
[c] The notion of characterization extends to various measure and extent phrases:
Now she is thirteen (years old). The paperback is three dollars.
He is six foot (tail).
The envelope is one ounce.
Similar to these are expressions that denote time or period:
It's five o'clock.
I'm your age.
The house is seventeenth century ['seventeenth-century style'].
Bibliography
Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English Language,
Pearson Education Ltd
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language, London, New York, Longman
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complement
http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/Catalog/docs/LDC2006T01/manuals/en/t-layer/html/ch06s10s01.html
http://www.ldc.upenn.edu/Catalog/docs/LDC2006T01/manuals/en/t-layer/html/ch06s10s02.html
68
6. OBJECTS
a. Form
The direct object can be a noun phrase (NP) or a clause (finite clauses or nonfinite clauses).
b. Position
A direct object, being an obligatory element for a transitive verb, is placed next to this type of verb
(Quirk, 1995: 724-726).
He had made firm rebellion against her proposal.
I gave him [Oi] my address [Od].
i) The object function requires the objective form for pronouns that have distinctive case forms:
They amuse me [Od]. I amuse them [Od].
They gave me [Oi] some chocolate. I gave them [Oi] some chocolate.
ii) If an object is coreferential with the subject, it usually requires a reflexive pronoun which
agrees with the subject in person and, where relevant, in number and gender. Similar agreement
is required for an emphatic genitive (my own, etc) within the object:
You [S] can please yourself [Oi].
I [S] have given myself [Oi] a treat.
They [S] type their own letters [Od].
iii) The object of an active clause may generally become the subject of the corresponding passive
clause:
We have finished the work [Od]. ~ The work [S] has been finished.
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(grammar).
69
If both objects are present, it is often possible to make either the subject in a corresponding passive
clause:
We sent Jack [Oi] a copy of the letter [Od].
~ Jack [S] was sent a copy of the letter [0d]. [1]
~ A copy of the letter [S] was sent to Jack [Oi]. [2]
Instead of the retained indirect object in [2], the prepositional paraphrase is more usual:
A copy of the letter was sent to Jack. [2a]
iv) The indirect object generally corresponds to a prepositional phrase, which is generally placed
after the direct object:
I'll send Charles another copy. ~ I'll send another copy to Charles.
Pour me a drink. ~ Pour a drink/or me.
v) The indirect object can generally be omitted without affecting the semantic relations between
the other elements:
David saved me a seat. ~ David saved a seat.
Hence, if there is only one object present, it is generally the direct object. But with a few verbs that are
normally ditransitive, the indirect object may be retained while the direct object is omitted. In that case
the only object present is the indirect object:
Bob is teaching the older children.
You can pay me instead.
c. Semantic properties
i) The direct object typically refers to an entity that is affected by the action denoted in the clause:
Norman smashed a window in his father's car.
ii) The indirect object typically refers to an animate being that is the recipient of the action. It also
applies to retained indirect objects in passive clauses:
No reply has been given to me.
The identity of the direct object can be tested in an independent declarative clause through a wh-
question with who or what; fronting of the wh-item and subject-operator inversion are required:
The buzzer signals the end of the game (Od). ~ What [Od] does [op] the buzzer [SI
signal?
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Prepositional verbs
Examples of prepositional verbs used with noun phrases as prepositional object are:
account for consent to preach about/on
add to contribute to provide for
adjust to deal with quarrel about/with
admit to decide on read about
agree with/on/to dwell (up)on refer to
aim at/for enlarge rely on run for
allow for object to speak about/ on
apply for part with take to
concentrate on pay for think about/of
conform to pray for wish for
Phrasal-prepositional verbs
PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS also take a prepositional object. Such verbs can occur in the
passive (eg: She dealt with the problem ~ The problem was dealt with).
The verbs marked [P] can fairly readily occur in the passive:
break in on (someone's come down with (a cold)
conversation) look out for ['watch for']
keep away from ['avoid'] cut down on (expenses)
(someone's conversation) look up to ['respect'] [P]
keep up with (the Joneses) do away with ['abolish'] [P]
catch up on (my reading) put up with ['tolerate'] [P]
look down on ['despise'] [P] face up to ['confront'] [P]
catch up with ['overtake'] get away with (a crime)
look forward to ['anticipate with get down to (serious talk)
pleasure'] turn out for (a meeting)
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6.2. WAYS OF EXPRESSING OBJECTS
72
c. Pronouns
I would have given that to him.
They saw him in the distance, but ignored him.
He would say nothing about her secret.
I’ll tell you1/ what I know2/.
d. Finite verb phrases
He told me1/ that he had brought us presents. 2/
He asked me1/ what my opinion about his departure was. 2/
e. Fonfinite verb phrases
- Gerundial constructions:
I don't remember 1/ putting it in my pocket again 2/.
- Infinitival constructions:
1. Accusative + Infinitive
The major verbal triggers of the Accusative + Infinitive construction are:
- causative verbs: to get, to let, to make, to have, to cause (cause uses the pattern verb
+ NP + to-infinitive)
They let 1/ me set foot on their property. 2/
He made1/ her beg forgiveness. 2/
- verbs of physical perception: to see, to hear, to listen, to watch, to feel. The
construction with the Infinitive expresses a completed action, whereas the
construction with the Participle shows an action in progress.
They heard1/ me sing that song. 2/ [‘They heard that I sang that song.’]
I saw 1/John open the gate. 2/
- verbs of propositional attitude (mental perception): to assume, to believe, to consider,
to judge, to feel, to find.
We considered him to have been the traitor. [Accusative + Perfect Infinitive].
- verbs of liking and disliking: to want, to like, to love
I wanted him to have brought me something from his trip.
I hate slaves to be tortured. [Accusative + Passive Infinitive]
2. FOR-TO constructions
The major triggers of the For-to Infinitive construction are:
- verbs of liking and disliking: to love, to hate, to prefer etc.
I would like for my sister to stop lying to everybody.
- exercitive verbs: to plead, to pray, to ask, to call, to shout
We pleaded for him to be let off.
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6.2.2. Ways of expressing the prepositional object
a. Nouns (common, proper nouns)
He got interested in that topic.
They have been waiting for the guests for several hours.
She thought of her childhood when she saw the movie.
b. Pronouns
They have been fighting against each other. (indefinite pronoun)
I was afraid of him. (personal pronoun)
I was ashamed of nothing. (negative pronoun)
c. Finite verb phrase
They prevented us 1/ from what could have been a disaster.2/
I’m looking forward 1/to what he promised. 2/
d. Nonfinite verb phrase
- Gerund
I was satisfied 1/ with Rob’s/ Rob accepting our generous offer. 2/
I’m afraid 1/ of his having brought only nuisance to his family. 2/
- Infinitive
He was afraid1/ to utter any word. 2/
I was pleased 1/ to have seen him after so many years. 2/
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6.4. COMBINATIONS OF OBJECTS IN COMPLEMENTATION
Alongside combination based on direct and indirect object patterns, two main prepositional
patterns may be distinguished:
Indirect object + direct object. [1]
Direct object + prepositional object. [2a]
Indirect object + prepositional object. [2b]
The indirect object is normally animate, and is the recipient or beneficiary of the process described by
the verb. Unlike ditransitive verbs of category (eg: give), ditransitive verbs with prepositional objects
normally have only one passive:
We addressed our remarks to the children. [2a] ~ Our remarks were addressed to the
children.
We reminded him of the agreement. [2b] ~ He was reminded of the agreement.
Some verbs have all three possibilities of construction in the active; many have two; for others there
is only one possibility (in some cases the alternatives are not identical but very similar in meaning):
THAT-cIause as object
The conjunction in THAT-clauses which function as object may be zero, as in:
/ hope he arrives soon.
Indirect object + THAT-clause object
For some ditransitive verbs, the direct object is a that-clause:
John convinced me (that) he was right. ~ I was convinced (by John) (that) he was right.
75
Ditransitive verbs followed by a THAT-clause may be divided into a subtype introducing an indirect
statement, and a subtype introducing an indirect directive.
INDIRECT STATEMENT: May I inform you that your order is ready for collection?
INDIRECT DIRECTIVE: (might be "] She petitioned the king that her father < should be [pardoned.
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TYPE IIb:
They ha.ve made a (terrible) mess of the house.
Did you make (any) allowance for inflation?
Mary took (good) care of 'the children.
TYPE IIc
Suddenly we caught sight of the lifeboat.
Give way to traffic on the major road.
I have lost touch with most of the family.
The first and most numerous type has a passive of the regular kind, the direct object becoming
subject of the passive verb phrase:
She was robbed of her necklace (by the gang). The peasants were deprived of 'their land.
With Type IIb, there are two possible passives: the regular passive in which the direct object
becomes subject (1), and a less acceptable passive construction in which the prepositional object
becomes subject (2):
(1)A (terrible) mess has been made of the house.
(2)(?)The house has been made a (terrible) mess of.
(1)Has (any) allowance been made for inflation?
(2)?Has inflation been made allowance for?
In Type IIc, on the other hand, the only acceptable passive is the irregular passive in which the
prepositional object becomes subject:
The lifeboat was suddenly caught sight of.
Traffic on the major road should always be given way to.
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6.5. SEMANTIC ROLES OF OBJECTS
The most typical role of the direct object is that of the AFFECTED (PATIENT and OBJECTIVE)
participant: a participant (animate or inanimate) which does not cause the happening denoted by the
verb, but is directly involved in some other way:
Many MPs criticized the Prime Minister. James sold his digital watch yesterday.
The most typical role of the indirect object is that of the RECIPIENT participant (DATIVE): ie of the
animate being that is passively implicated by the happening or state:
I've found you a place. We paid them the money.
Resultant objects
A RESULTANT (or 'effected’ or ''object of result') object is an object whose referent exists only by
virtue of the activity indicated by the verb:
Baird invented television. They are designing a new car.
Contrast:
She cooked a meal [resultant] I'm digging the ground
She cooked some carrots [affected] I'm digging a hole.
Cognate objects
A COGNATE object is similar to a resultant object in that it refers to an event indicated by the
verb:
Chris will sing a song for us. She lived a good life.
The noun head is semantically and often morphologically related to the verb, and its function is
merely to repeat, wholly or partially, the meaning of the verb.
Eventive object
A frequent type of object generally takes the form of a deverbal noun
preceded by a common verb of general meaning, such as do, give, have,
make, take. This EVENTIVE object is semantically an extension of the verb and bears the major
part of the meaning. Compare:
They are arguing [verb only]
They are having an argument [verb + eventive object]
I gave them some advice.
Sarah is doing her homework.
Instrumental object
The object may occasionally be instrumental:
We employ a computer for our calculations.
She is playing the piano.
Occasionally, the notion of instrument is incorporated into the verb:
He headed the ball into the goal. ['He hit the ball with his head ...']
He kicked the ball into the goal. ['He hit the ball with his foot...']
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Locative object
The direct object may have a LOCATIVE role with such verbs as walk, swim, pass, jump, turn,
leave, reach, surround, cross, climb:
We walked the streets. ['We walked through the streets.']
She swam the river. ['She swam across the river.']
He passed a cyclist. ['He passed by a cyclist.']
The horse jumped the fence. [The horse jumped over the fence.']
Though these objects may seem to be adverbials with an omitted preposition (cf: We stayed
three days), their status as objects is clear, however, from their ability to assume subject role in
a corresponding passive clause.
The fence was jumped by the horse.
We should include here locative objects after such verbs as occupy and inhabit, where no
preposition can be inserted:
We occupy a spacious apartment.
They had inhabited the island for over a century.
Eventive object
A frequent type of object generally takes the form of a deverbal noun preceded by a common verb
of general meaning, such as do, give, have, make, take. This EVENTIVE object is semantically an
extension of the verb and bears the major part of the meaning.
Compare:
They are arguing [verb only]
They are having an argument [verb + eventive object]
The more frequent eventive object can sometimes be related to a cognate object in that it substitutes
for the major lexical meaning of the verb whereas the cognate object repeats the lexical meaning.
Compare:
They fought for a long time [verb + adverbial]
They fought a long fight [verb + cognate object]
They had a long fight [verb + eventive object]
Affected indirect object
The indirect object normally takes the role of recipient. It occasionally takes an affected role with a
few of the verbs that combine with an eventive object. The most common verb in the latter
construction is give:
She gave me a push. ['She pushed me.']
We gave the baby a bath. ['We bathed the baby.']
I should give the car a wash. ['I should wash the car.']
Give the car a push. ['Push the car.']
Judith paid me a visit. ['Judith visited me.']
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Bibliography
Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacău.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the English
Language, Pearson Education Ltd.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive Grammar of the
English Language, London, New York, Longman.
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(grammar).
EXERCISES
I. Provide objects for the verbs to dream, to die, to press, to eat, to dig, to light.
II. Identify the constructions:
He sees us fighting with him.
His fighting cruelly annoyed us. – His cruel fighting annoyed us.
While fighting, he broke his leg. – On fighting, he broke his leg.
The fighting man was my uncle.
I believe Tom to have fought against the French.
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7. ADVERBIALS vs. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS
SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS
7.1. ADVERBIALS
Adverbials are the most diverse of the clause elements, and we therefore distinguish several
major types.
7.1.1.2. Position
In general, the adverbial is capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause.
Constraints on its mobility depend on the type and form of the adverbial.
The adverbial in the SVA type normally follows the subject and verb, and the adverbial in the
SVOA type normally follows the direct object. Other predication adjuncts normally appear at the
end of the clause.
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7.1.2. TYPES OF ADVERBIALS
7.1.2.1. ADJUNCTS and SUBJUNCTS are relatively integrated within the structure of the clause. By
contrast, disjuncts and conjuncts have a more peripheral relation in the sentence.
ADJUNCT is a type of adverbial indicating the circumstances of the action. Adjuncts may be
obligatory or optional. They express such relations as time, place, manner, reason,
condition, i.e. they are answers to the questions where, when, how and why.
He lives in Brazil (place adjunct).
She was walking slowly (manner adjunct), since she was in no hurry (adjunct of
reason).
Slowly they walked back home. He spoke to me about it briefly.
We apply the term SUBJUNCTS to adverbials which have, to a greater or lesser degree, a
subordinate role in comparison with other clause elements. They are semantically
subordinate either to a clause or a sentence or to a part of the clause. Examples of subjuncts:
We haven't yet finished.
Would you kindly wait for me.
Semantically, DISJUNCTS are evaluative; they express the speaker's judgement of the truth
of the utterance (modal disjuncts, e.g. probably, certainly, maybe), the speaker's evaluation
of a fact (fact-evaluating disjuncts, e.g. fortunately, actually, to my surprise), the speaker's
comment on his/her own wording of the sentence (e.g. briefly, in other words, to tell you the
truth), or the speaker’s comment on the subject referent (subject-evaluating disjuncts, e.g.
Wisely, she spent the money = 'she was wise to spend the money'). We identify disjuncts with
the speaker's authority for, or comment on, the accompanying clause.
Frankly, I'm tired.
Fortunately, no one complained.
They are probably at home.
She wisely didn't attempt to apologize.
CONJUNCTS bind together sentences, and express the speaker's assessment of the relation
between two linguistic units: contrast (however, on the other hand), similarity (likewise,
similarly), continuation (furthermore, moreover), digression/change of topic (anyway),
sequence (first, to begin with, secondly, finally, to conclude). Conjuncts can also be
described as text organizers, in that they guide the hearer/reader through the text, showing
how the different pieces hang together, and where they belong in the text.
She has bought a big house, so she must have a lot of money.
We have complained several times about the noise, and yet he does nothing about it.
All our friends are going to Paris this summer. We, however, are going to London.
If they open all the windows, then I'm leaving.
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7.1.2.2. Obligatory adverbials: subject-related and object-related adverbials
Obligatory adverbials are a subclass of predication adjuncts that belong to the SVA and SVOA
types and represent central elements of the clause.
They may be adverb phrases, prepositional phrases, or adverbial clauses. Some obligatory
adverb phrases and prepositional phrases may be analysed as complements, belonging to the
SVC and SVOC types.
Obligatory adverbials are commonly required as complementation for the verb BE in the SVA
type, but they are also found as complementation for other verbs. The adverbials in this type are
subject-related. Many are space adjuncts that designate the position of the referent of the
subject:
Your children are outside.
Our car isn't in the garage.
We are now living in a small village.
The plane's off the ground.
Dorothy is remaining at Oxford.
Sam is staying at a nearby motel.
Your scarf is lying on the floor.
Some express other types of space relations:
We got off the train.
We all got into my car.
All roads lead to Rome.
The lawn goes all the way around the house.
The hills extend from here into the next county.
Time adjuncts commonly co-occur with an eventive subject:
Their holiday extended through the summer.
The next meeting is on Monday.
The last performance was at eight o'clock.
The play lasts for three hours.
On the conditions for omitting the prepositions in the last three examples. We briefly exemplify
other semantic types of obligatory adverbials in:
The two eggs are for you. [recipient]
The drinks ate for the journey. [purpose]
If fruit prices are higher this year, it's because [reason] of the bad harvest.
Transport to the mainland is by ferry. [means]
Entrance was by special invitation only. [means]
Payment is by cash only. [means]
Melvin's main interest is in sport. [stimulus]
Jack and Nora are with me. [accompaniment]
The painting was by an unknown artist. [agent]
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The connection of subject-related adverbial with subject is parallel to that of subject complement
with subject:
Ronald is off cigarettes. [S V A]
Ann is happy. [S V C]
Similarly, the connection of object-related adverbial to direct object parallels that of object
complement with direct object:
We kept Ronald off cigarettes. [S V Od A]
We kept Ann happy. [S V Od C]
Here are examples of object-related adverbials:
I put the kettle on the stove. ['The kettle is now on the stove.']
They are placing the blame on us.
I'm keeping most of my money in the bank.
I stuck the wallet in the drawer.
He set the typewriter on the table.
He directed his speech at the workers.
She wants the payment in dollars.
Whereas direct objects and prepositional objects are considered obligatory elements,
adverbial modifiers are identified as adjuncts because they have an optional relation with the
verb. They modify another part of the sentence, expressed by a verb, an adverb, an
adjective etc. The main classes of adverbial modifiers and clauses are:
7.2.1. Adverbial modifiers of time & adverbial clauses of time
Adverbial modifiers of time can be subdivided into:
- adverbial modifiers of definite time expressed by adverbs (yesterday, tomorrow,
today) and adverbial phrases (last week, three days ago, three days before).
- adverbial modifiers of indefinite time expressed by adverbs (just, recently, lately) and
adverbial phrases (in recent time, in the last time).
- adverbial modifiers of frequency expressed by adverbs (usually, generally, always,
often, seldom etc.). They are used with present tense simple or past tense simple,
expressing habitual actions or habitual actions in the past.
I usually reject proposals coming from this man.
As usual, I slept late that Saturday morning.
- Adverbial modifiers of time can be introduced by connective adverbs or conjunctions
(when, whenever, while, as, till, until, after, as soon as, before, since).
- Adverbial clauses of time can be expressed by:
1. finite verb phrases
I shall speak to you1/ when I come back.2/
I shall speak to you1/ after I have come back.2/
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2. nonfinite verb phrases
Before sitting down, 1/ we took our coats off. 2/ (1 = adverbial clause of time,
expressed by a present participle)
Having received the exam results, 1/ he was very happy. 2/ (1 = adverbial
clause of time, expressed by a perfect participle)
On receiving his letter, 1/ he saw 2/ that he was accepted at Yale. 3/ (1 =
adverbial clause of time, introduced by the preposition on and expressed by a
gerund.)
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Despite of my being late, 1/ I could finish the exam. 2/
Try as he might,1/ he will never succeed2/ in passing this exam. 3/
The conjunctions as if, as though introduce adverbial clauses that have a twofold
interpretation: a comparison and the contradiction of reality through concession which show
their hypothetical nature.
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7.3. SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS
There are two types of syntactic functions that characterize traditional adverbs (as lexical word
classes), but an adverb need have only one of these:
a) clause element adverbial:
He quite forgot about it.
An adverb may function in the clause itself as adverbial, ie as an element distinct from subject,
verb, object, and complement. As such, it is usually an optional element and hence peripheral to
the structure of the clause:
Perhaps my suggestion will be accepted.
John always loses his pencils.
They may well complain about his appearance.
I spoke to her outside.
b) premodifier1 of adjective and adverb:
They are quite [happily] married.
The adverb may itself be modified, in which case the adverb phrase as a whole functions as
adverbial or premodifier:
John nearly always loses his pencils.
They may very well complain about his appearance.
The typical functions of the adverb are those of modifier:
of an adjective:
They are very happy.
It was a remarkably good show.
He is stupid enough to do it.
of another adverb:
She drives too fast.
They play so very well.
He gave a far more easily acceptable explanation.
However, not all adverbs that modify adjectives also modify adverbs, and some adverbs may
modify phrases, e.g. noun phrases and prepositional phrases. The most conspicuous example of
an adverb that functions only as a modifier of adjectives and adverbs, and not as a clause
element, is very.
1
The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002): a modifier is an optional element in phrase
structure or clause structure; the removal of the modifier typically does not affect the grammaticality of the
construction. Modifiers can be a word, a phrase or an entire clause. Semantically, modifiers describe and
provide more accurate definitional meaning for another element. A premodifier is a modifier placed before the
head (the modified component). A postmodifier is a modifier placed after the head.
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7.3.1. Modifier of adjective
An adverb may premodify an adjective. Most commonly, the modifying adverb is a scaling
device called an intensifier, which co-occurs with a gradable adjective. We first distinguish
two sets of intensifiers: amplifiers and downtoners.
(a) AMPLIFIERS scale upwards from an assumed norm, eg 'a very funny film', as
compared with 'a funny film'.
absurdly fussy amazingly calm awfully sorry
deeply concerned entirely free extremely dangerous
highly intelligent irretrievably lost perfectly reasonable
sharply critical strikingly handsome terribly nervous
too bright unbelievably smart
(b) DOWNTONERS have a generally lowering effect, usually scaling downwards from an
assumed norm:
a bit dull a little extravagant almost impossible
barely intelligible fairly small hardly noticeable
nearly dark pretty rare quite normal
rather late relatively small somewhat uneasy
As in the treatment of adjectives, it may be possible to distinguish another class of adjective
modifiers called EMPHASIZERS, which add to the force (as distinct from the degree) of the
adjective:
She has a really beautiful face.
The play is very good indeed.
He looked all confused.
Unlike intensifiers, emphasizers co-occur with nongradable adjectives, but the effect is often
similar to that of intensifiers:
You are certainly welcome. ['You are very/most welcome.']
The function of many emphasizers is similar to that of disjuncts.
I'm frankly surprised at your behaviour [emphasizer]
Frankly, I'm surprised at your behavior. [disjunct]
Adjunct adverbs are sometimes converted into premodifiers of adjectives. In this position, they
tend to retain their general meaning of manner, means, etc. though they also acquire some
intensifying effect:
an easily debatable proposition ['a proposition that can be easily debated']
his quietly assertive manner
a readily available publication
On the other hand, disjunct adverbs tend to become intensifiers:
surprisingly good unnaturally long
incredibly beautiful unusually easy
Apart from intensifiers, premodifying adverbs may be 'viewpoint' subjuncts: politically expedient
['expedient from a political point of view']; artistically justifiable; economically weak; theoretically
sound; technically possible.
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7.3.2. Modifier of adverb
An adverb may premodify another adverb. Similar sets of intensifiers are used for adverbs and
adjectives:
I expect them pretty soon.
They are smoking very heavily.
He spoke extremely quickly.
He played surprisingly well.
As with adjectives, the only postmodifiers are enough and indeed:
He spoke clearly enough ['sufficiently clearly']
She spoke clearly indeed.
Adverbs modifying other adverbs can only be intensifiers.
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7.3.5. Modifier of noun phrase
A few intensifiers may premodify noun phrases and precede the determiner in doing so. The most
common of these among adverbs are quite and rather (esp BrE):
We had quite a party.
They will be here for quite some time.
He was quite some player. They were quite some players.
Some disjunct adverbs and conjunct adverbs occasionally appear within the noun phrase, not
modifying the noun phrase but related to a modifying adjective phrase:
A cure has now been found for this fortunately very rare disease. ['a disease that is
fortunately very rare']
He wrote an otherwise extremely good paper ['a paper that was otherwise extremely good']
Similarly, subjunct adverbs expressing viewpoint appear after the noun phrase and relate to the
premodifying adjective within the phrase:
A <good> paper editorially can also be a good paper commercially.
The more usual form for the sentence is:
An editorially good paper can also be a commercially <good> paper.
Postmodifying adverbs
Postmodifying time adverbs appear to be limited to those denoting time position or time
duration:
TIME:
the meeting yesterday the day before
the meal afterwards their stay overnight
PLACE:
the way ahead your friend here
his trip abroad his return home
the sentence below the players offside
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7.3.6. Adverb as complement of preposition
The time adverbs that most commonly function as complement of a preposition are shown in
the figure below.
PREPOSITIONS ADVERBS
Adverbial adjuncts establish circumstances for the nuclear constituents of a sentence, which
can be classified as following2:
Temporal adjuncts establish when, for how long or how often a state or action happened or
existed.
He arrived yesterday. (time point)
He stayed for two weeks. (duration)
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar).
91
She drinks in that bar every day. (frequency)
Locative adjuncts establish where, to where or from where a state or action happened or
existed.
She sat on the table. (locative)
Modicative adjuncts establish how the action happened or the state existed, or modifying its
scope.
He ran with difficulty. (manner)
He stood in silence. (state)
He helped me with my homework. (limiting)
Causal adjuncts establish the reason for, or purpose of, an action or state.
The ladder collapsed because it was old. (reason)
She went out to buy some bread. (purpose)
Instrumental adjuncts establish the instrument of the action.
He wrote the letter with a pencil.
Conditional adjuncts establish the condition in which a sentence becomes true.
I would go to Paris, if I had the money.
Concessive adjuncts establish the contrary circumstances.
Lorna went out although it was raining.
Bibliography
Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft,
Bacău.
Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the
English Language, Pearson Education Ltd.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985): A Comprehensive
Grammar of the English Language, London, New York, Longman.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjunct_(grammar).
Exercises
Pick out the adverbials in the following passage (22) and group them according to the parts
of speech they are expressed by.
Analyse the adverbs in the following text as clause element adverbials and modifiers.
There were piles of papers on the stairs and piles everywhere in the room. He kicked a tidy
heap with his toe. 'That pile,' he said, 'has been there for ten years. The trouble is I work all
the time. There i sn' t time to sort things. I would get around to buying cupboards if I could be
bothered. Somehow life is full of objects that suddenly take over. One week the place is tidy;
and the next week it is too late. Now I can't throw things out.'
Hearing his explanation, I just smiled. I have always thought that it is best, whenever
possible, not to criticize other people. And there was something very impressive about all
that chaos.
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