Component-I (A) – Personal details:

1
Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Paper Name Outlines of Indian History

History – Significance – Periodisation, Unity in

Module Name/Title
Diversity in Indian History

Module Id I C/ OIH/ 01

Pre-requisites Knowledge in Indian History and Culture

To study the History-its significance-Periodisation

Objectives and Unity and Diversity in Indian History and
culture

Keywords History / Bharatavarsha / Indian Culture

E-text (Quadrant-I)
1. INTRODUCTION
India is the name given to the vast peninsula which the continent of Asia throws out to the
South of the magnificent mountain ranges that stretch in a sword like curve across the
southern border of Tibet. This vast expanse of territory, which deserves the name of a sub-
continent, has the shape of a quadrilateral. Ancients referred to it as being “constituted with
a four-fold conformation, on its South, West and East is the great ocean, the Himavat range
stretches along its North like the string of a bow“. The lofty mountain chain in the North
included not only the snow-capped ridges of the Himalayas but also their less elevated
offshoots – the Patkai, Lushai and Chittagong hills in the East and of the Sulaiman and
Kirthar ranges in the West. Politically, the Indian empire as it existed before independence,
extended beyond these natural boundaries at several points and included not only
Baluchistan beyond Kirthar range, but also some smaller areas lay scattered in the Bay of
Bengal and the area lay between Long. 61 and 96 E and Lat. 8 and 37 N. Its greatest length
was about 1800 miles, and its breadth not less than 1360 miles. It was known as
Bharatavarsha in Jambu-dwipa. The name “India” was applied to the country by the Greeks
and medieval writers called it “Hindusthan“. India is divided primarily into four distinct regions
viz. (1 ) The hill country of the North ( 2) The great northern plain ( 3 ) The Deccan plateau of
the South-Central India ( 4 ) The long and narrow maritime plains containing the rich ports.
These territorial compartments marked by the hand of nature do not exactly coincide with the
traditional division of the country known to antiquity. In the ancient Indian literature, we have
references to a five-fold division of India. The course of Indian History is in large measures
determined by its geography. Geographically India is situated between Arabian sea in the
west, Indian ocean in the south, Bay of Bengal in the east and the mighty Himalayan
mountain range in the north and Pakistan and Afghanistan on the North- West
The geography of any nation plays an important role in shaping the destiny of the nation.
The English word ‘history’ comes from the Greek historia (enquiry or investigation). History is
essentially a discipline that enquires into the experiences of people who lived in the past.
India has a rich, glorious and long cherished history. India occupies an important place not
only in Asia but also in the Western countries from the historical and cultural points of view.
The historiography of India reveals many significant changes over time. These can be
understood against the background of the political and intellectual contexts in which they

2
emerged and flourished. The past before writing (Pre-history) and the history of non - literate
people who did not leave behind written sources are also extremely important and have to
be recovered. The various schools of history writing are often presented and understood in
terms of one school making away for the other in neat, forward progression.
Historically and Archaeologically India is one of the richest sub-continents in the world. The
archaeological wealth, scattered all over the country, speaks about the ancient glory. This
land was important not only in the pre-historic period but also in the subsequent history even
up to the British rule. The method of living and habits of the pre-historic folk was mainly
based on the geographic, climatic and ecological factors, which are helpful to know
something about the primitive man. Discovery of Stone Age tools from several pre-historic
sites in the river valleys and rock shelters, enable us to say that all the parts of India were
inhabited by the primitive man, though there were regional variations owing to ecological,
geographic, and climatic conditions. The remains of microlithic blade industry and Neolithic
stone and iron implements from several excavated sites and from the surface collection
indicate that these cultures are spread in the entire length and breadth of the country. The
Harappan culture noticed in several sites in North India and parts of Gujarat indicates that
this culture is limited to the above regions, while the Chalcolithic cultures were co-existent in
the Deccan and Central India. The Harappan script is yet to be clearly deciphered in spite of
sincere attempts made by several Western and Indian scholars.
2. SIGNIFICANCE OF HISTORY
History is a record of the achievements of man. The history of India, like the annals of every
other country, should therefore begin with an account of the times when men first settled in
this land. History was pivotal, since there was always a curiosity to compare the past with
the present. History relating to society, economy, culture and religion was explored and inter
connections between them created interest. Historical research required technical expertise
in the handling of a range of source materials from artefacts to texts, in addition to some
understanding of theoretical procedures of analysis. But History proper deals only with facts
known from records of some kind or other.
As G. R. Elton the historian, says “History treats fundamentally of the transformation of
things (people, institutions, ideas, and so on) from one state into another, and the event is its
concern as well as its instrument. ” In a sense, the study of history is a search for the truth
and different cultures are the valuable repositories of different facets of the truth, seeing and
appreciating it will enable us to understand the way we were, what we are today, and where
we must go tomorrow.
3. PERIODISATION
Historians often classify the Indian history past by dividing it into different periods. For a long
time, historians divided the Indian history into Hindu, Muslim and British periods. However
this classification is questioned on several grounds. Later the Periodisation of Indian history
has been made as Pre-history, Proto-history, Early history, Medieval history and Modern
history. The dividing lines may vary, but ancient period stretching roughly from earliest times
to 6th century C. E. , the early-medieval from the 6th to 13th centuries C. E, the medieval from
13th to 18th centuries C. E, and Modern from 18th century to the present. The ancient history
of the human past can be further divided into prehistory and Proto history.
Defining periods in history is important. But it is equally important to determine the cause of
change, a question some time referred to as that of the transition from one period to other.
The nature of transition is therefore becomes a significant aspect of periodisation. The
distinction between different periods is determined by the characteristics of polity, economy,
technology, society and religion that were prevalent at the time, as well as some reference to
the makers of events wherever available.
· The earliest traces of human existence in India, so far discovered, go back to the
period between 3, 00, 000 and 2, 00, 000 BCE. A large number of primitive stone

3
 tools found in the Soan Valley and South India suggests this fact. The modern man
being ( Homo Sepiens ) first appeared around 36, 000 BCE.
· Primitive man in the Paleolithic Age, ( Old Stone Age ) which lasted till 8000 BCE
prepared tools of rough stone and used them for hunting the animals. Initially he was
a food gatherer and depended on nature for his food. This Age covered the long
period from the time the first ancestors started living in the rock shelters.
· The Archaeologists divided it into three phases –the Lower or Early, the Middle and
Upper Palaeolithic Ages- according to the nature of the stone tools used by the
people. He learnt to control fire, which helped him to improve his way of living. During
the Early Stone Age’, the principal tools were the handaxes, and cleavers, core tools
made in a manner similar to handaxes, chopping tools of various types and flakes.
Derived from those of Early Stone Age industries included flake tools, cores, and
various kinds of scrapers.
· From 8000 BCE, the Mesolithic Age began and continued up to 4000 BCE. It is the
intermediate or transitional stage between the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. The
tools of this Age are called microliths (Small stone tools). During this time sharp and
pointed tools were made for killing fast moving animals. Chotanagpur plateau,
Central India and South of the river Krishna are some of the various Mesolithic sites.
· Third in the sequence is the Neolithic Age or New Stone Age that covered the period
roughly from 4000 BCE to 1800 BCE and was marked by the use of polished stone
tools. The man began to domesticate the animals and cultivate plants, settling down
in villages to form farming communities. Wheel was an important discovery by him.
· Towards the end of the Neolithic period metals like, copper and bronze began to be
used and this period was known as Chalcolithic Age and covered the period from
1800 to 1000 BCE. This period is marked by the use of copper as well as stone.
· Although the general chronological sequence of the evolution of early man’s culture
in India was in the order of Early Stone Age to Late Stone Age through Middle Stone
Age, it is important to remember that there has always been a considerable cultural
overlap in this subcontinent. This means that the chronology of a culture in one
region might not be the same chronology in another region. Besides, even in the
Stone Age past cultures displayed regional variations. Some general characteristics
of Indian prehistoric cultures have, however, been recognized. The territorial spread
of such cultures, differing from one another in time and regional characteristics,
covered the entire subcontinent from Kashmir to Karnataka Tamilnadu and Andhra.
In these regional cultures lay the roots of the future formation of Indian village
communities because their total cultural assemblage was certainly extremely
significant in the context of the early historical settlements of the Iron Age. In the
history of the use of metal, iron followed the copper and bronze. In India the advent
of iron marked not only a technological change, but a cultural change as well,
particularly in certain contexts where, for environmental reasons, a more advanced
technology than copper-bronze was a precondition for the full realization of cultural
potentialities. Throughout the subcontinent iron led slowly but perceptibly to the
transition from the pre and proto- historical to the historical culture. By the middle of
the 6th century BCE, some of these settlements had reached the proportion of urban
centres. This suggests that for the first time, since the decline of Harappan
civilization, a substantial agricultural surplus, which could sustain such urban centres,
had emerged. The use of silver and copper punch marked coins in large numbers,
during this period implies considerable trade and commerce.
3. 1 Continuity with Change in Indian Civilization
The civilization of India has always been steadily changing. The civilization of Guptas was
different from that of Mauryas, as that of medieval times was different again. The Muslims
altered conditions considerably, and the high flowering of Indian Muslim civilization under the
great Mughals brought yet more changes. The religious life of India, for all her ancient
wisdom, has changed greatly over the centuries. Between the time of early Greek
philosophers and that of St. Thomas Aquinas, Buddhism developed into a great religious

4
movement in India, changed its outlook almost completely, declined finally sank back into
the Hinduism from which it has emerged, but only after Buddhist missionaries had spread
their message throughout Asia. The Athenian acropolis was at least 500 years old before the
first surviving stone Hindu temple was built. . Some of the most popular gods of Hinduism
like Ganesa and Hanuman, were not attested until well after the time of Christ. Certain other
features of Hinduism also, for instance the cult of divine Rama and the complex and difficult
system of physical training known as HATA YOGA, are centuries later than Christianity. The
Rigvedas have been composed long before the Iliad, and there is hardly anything in the Old
Testaments in its present form which is as old as the latest Rig vedic hymns. Some practices
and beliefs of popular Hinduism, for instance the cults of sacred bull and the pipal tree, are
as old as the prehistoric Harappa Culture, and probably even older. In fact every generation
in India for over 4000 years, has bequeathed something to posterity. No land on earth has
such a long cultural continuity as India, since, though there were more civilizations, notably
in Egypt and Iraq, these were virtually forgotten by the inhabitants of those lands, and were
overlaid by new intrusive cultures which were not recorded in any living tradition. On the
other hand in India, the Brahmin still repeats in his daily worship Vedic hymns composed
over 3000years ago, and tradition recalls heroic chieftains and the great battles fought by
them at about the same time. The pre –Vedic Harappan culture bequeathed to later times
sacred animals and trees, the Mother Goddess, the preoccupation with personal cleanliness,
and, less certainly, other aspects of Indian culture. From the Vedic Aryans came many of the
gods, the Vedic hymns, some of the most important personal rituals of Hinduism, the
patriarchal and patrilineal family system, and the horse. In social life and material culture the
same period saw the crystallization of the four classes (Varnas ) of Hindu society, the
introduction of iron, the domestication of elephant, the development of the kingdoms out of
tribal chieftainships. The 16 Mahajanapadas came into existence both in the North and the
South. The 6th century BCE saw the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism on the Indian
arena.
Political developments over the preceding period led to the first great empire of India, that of
Mauryas, when for the first time most of the subcontinent was united under a single
government. This period ( 320- 185 BCE ) produced the Machiavellian system of statecraft
associated with the name of the minister Kautilya, the reputed author of the famous
“Arthasastra “. From the Mauryas also come the earliest surviving stone sculpture of India,
the oldest artificial caves, and the most ancient caves, and the most ancient Buddhist
Stupas. Under Asoka (272- 232 BCE), Buddhism increased its influence and spread to
Ceylon.
The 500 years between the Mauryas and the Guptas saw tremeundous developments in
Indian civilization, partly due to fresh influence brought in by various invaders and traders,
and partly the result of internal developments.
The period from Guptas to the death of Harshavardhana can truly be called the classical
period of Indian civilization. In this age the greatest sculpture of ancient Indian as produced,
the finest literature written, in the poems and plays of Kalidasa. This was the time for the
excavation of cave temples in the Deccan, best Indian mural paintings, typified by Ajanta.
Stone built temples appeared throughout the land.
Between the death of Harsha and the coming of Islam, the elastic devotional religion
(Bhakti), associated with the singing of hymns in the common tongue, appeared in
Tamilnadu, later spread to the entire subcontinent. With the coming of Islam fresh cultural
influences made themselves felt. The Sultanate period saw the introduction of new styles of
architecture, bringing the dome and arch, which was hither to unknown in India and new
schools of miniature paintings, both Muslim and Hindu. Sufi teachers disseminated the
doctrines of Islam and helped in making the religious climate of Northern India favourable to
the spread of popular devotional Hinduism from the South. Paper was introduced replacing
the traditional Indian writing materials – palm-leaf and birch-bark. The Urdu language began
to appear as the lingua franca of Northern India and poets began to compose in the
everyday languages instead of classical Sanskrit. The great days of Mughal Empire
witnessed the perfection of the schools of Islamic architecture and miniature paintings, with
5
the construction of splendid buildings like the TajMahal at Agra and other monuments at
Delhi and at other places. Sikh religion was born at this time as a martial race to play an
important part in the confused political life of the following century.
The 18th century saw the break-up of the mighty Mughal empire and the steady expansion of
the power of the British East India Company. It was a time of general cultural decline in
India, but the genius of the land was still at work. With the 19th century, the sub continent
was exposed to the full force of Western influence, and innovations were too numerous to
list. The East India Company was replaced by the British rule through the Governor-
Generals or Viceroys upto 15th August 1947 the day on which India was given
independence. India was declared Democratic Republic on 26th January 1956. This cursory
survey of the history of India is sufficient in itself to show that, as long as civilization existed
there, the country has never been stagnant, but has steadily developed through the ages.
India has enjoyed itself over 4000 years of civilization, and every period of its history has left
something to the present day.
4. Importance of Ancient Indian History
The study of Ancient Indian History is important for several reasons. It tells us how, when
and where people developed the earliest cultures in our country. It indicates how they
started agriculture which made life secure and settled. It shows how the ancient Indians
discovered and utilized natural resources, and created the means for their livelihood. We
come to know how they took farming, spinning, weaving, metal working and so on, how they
cleared forests, and found villages, cities, and finally large kingdoms.
The people are not considered civilized unless they know writing. The different forms of
writing prevalent in India today are all derived from the ancient scripts. This is also true of the
languages that we speak today. The languages we use have roots in ancient times, and
have developed through the ages.
5. UNITY IN DIVERSITY IN INDIAN HISTORY
· Ancient Indian history is interesting because India proved to be a crucible of ethnic
groups. The Pre-Aryans, the Indo-Aryans, the Greeks, the Scythians, the Huns, the
Turks etc., made India their home. Each ethnic group contributed its might to the
evolution of Indian culture. All these peoples mixed up so inextricably with one
another that at present none of them can be clearly identified in their original form.
· Indian history has exhibited unity in diversity inspite of the existence of different
races, communities, Tribes, food habits, dress, castes, languages, religious faiths,
Customs and traditions in the sub- continent. These people live side by side
harmoniously respecting the sentiments and religious beliefs of other communities.
· Since ancient times, India has been the land of several religions. Ancient India
witnessed the birth of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism; but all these cultures and
religions intermingled and acted and reacted upon one another. Hindus, Muslims,
Christians, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis and different tribal people have been living
peacefully for several centuries in the sub-continent. Our country shows a deep
underlying unity in spite of great diversity.
· The ancient Indians strove for unity and they looked upon this vast sub-continent as
one land. The name Bharatavarsha or the land of Bharata was given to the whole
country, after the name of an ancient tribe called the Bharatas. Our ancient poets,
philosophers and writers viewed the country as an integral unit. They spoke of the
land stretching from the Himalayas to the sea as the proper domain of single
universal monarch. This kind of political unity was attained at least twice during
Mauryan and Gupta periods. In spite of lack of political unity, political formations all
over the country assumed more or less the same shape. The idea that India
constituted one single geographical unit persisted in the minds of conquerors and
cultural leaders.
· The unity of India was also recognized by the foreign invaders. They first came into
contact with the people living on the Sindhu or the Indus, and so they named the
6
 whole country after this river. The word ‘Hind’ is derived from the Sanskrit term
‘Sindhu’ and in course of time the country came to be known as India, which is very
close to the Greek.
· In Indian history, we find continuous efforts made through the ages for the linguistic
and cultural unity of the country. In the 3rd century BCE, Prakrit served as the lingua
franca of the country. Throughout the major portion of India, Ashoka’s inscriptions
were written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script. Later Sanskrit acquired the same
position and served as the state language in the remote parts of the country. Another
notable fact is that the ancient Epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata were studied with
same zeal and devotion throughout the country.
· Indian history deserves our attention because of a peculiar type of social system
developed in this country. Although the Indian values and ideas were expressed in
different forms, the substance remained the same throughout the country.
· The most important feature of the Indian climate is the monsoon which varies from
region to region. Except along the West- Coast little rain falls from October to May,
when cultivation can only be carried by carefully husbanding the waters of rivers and
streams, and raising a winter crop by irrigation. The temperature of North India varies
from the South India during summer months. It has been often said that the scale of
natural phenomena in India, and her total dependence on the monsoon, have helped
to form the character of her people.
· However, the underlying unity in integrity and the plural character of Indian society
remain the real strength for the development of the country.
6. Summary
As can be seen from the above, it is clear that India’s enduring inheritance of climate , land,
and people, the basis on which its high civilization has been built, and which will remain,
more or less unchanging, to condition the lives of her people in all their triumphs. Hence,
India has emerged as a multi religious and multi cultural society.
The great achievement of India is its immense irrigation works and splendid temples,
Mosques and Churches, Buddhist Stupas and Viharas and the long campaigns of their
armies – do not suggest a devitalized people. The magnitude of the population of India is
quite in keeping with the immensity of its geographical dimensions. This unity was
undoubtedly nurtured in the nineteenth century by a uniform system of administration and
the spread of education on modern lines.
The study of India’s past assumes special significance in the context of the problems we
face in the modern times. The success of the ancients in surmounting the difficulties
presented by nature and human factors can build our hope and confidence in future.
We have many survivals of ancient, medieval and later times persisting in the present day
society. The old norms, values, social customs, and ritualistic practices are so deeply
ingrained in the minds of the people that they cannot easily get rid of them.