Ancient Crux

PRE- HISTORIC PERIOD
Table of Contents
● Introduction
● About History
○ PreHistory
○ Proto History
○ History
● Sources for construction of History
● Pre-historic Period
○ Archeological Sources
● About Stone Age
● Three Phases of Stone Age
○ Palaeolithic Age
■ Lower Palaeolithic
■ Middle Palaeolithic’
■ Upper Palaeolithic
○ Mesolithic Age
○ Neolithic Age
● Chalcolithic Age
● Iron Age
● Megalithic Culture
● Significance of Pre-historic period
● Previous Year Questions
INTRODUCTION
● The English word ‘History’ has been derived from the Greek noun ‘Historia’ which means inquiry,
research, exploration, or information. History, thus, is a discipline associated with learning by
inquiry or research about the past of mankind.
● Herodotus is called the father of History.

○ He wrote a book on history called “ The Histories”.
● History has been divided into three periods:

1. Prehistoric period is that period of our ancient past for which we do not have written records.
2. Proto- history is a transitional stage between Prehistory and History in India. It has a script
written but not deciphered yet.
3. History has a script which is written as well as deciphered.
SOURCES FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF HISTORY

● We know that History is the study of past events and because none of us belong to that period nor
do we have eyewitnesses, historians depend on multiple sources for the construction of ancient
Indian History.
● The sources for reconstructing the history of ancient India can be broadly classified into two major
categories namely- Literary and Non-Literary(Archeological) sources.
For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

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○ Literary sources constitute both religious and secular literature; which are of Indigenous and
Foreign origin as well.
○ The non-literary sources./Archeological sources used for the reconstruction of ancient Indian
history include-Monuments, Inscriptions and Coins.
Note: Sources of each period will be dealt in the respective topics.
PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD
● Human cultures evolved into Civilization in different phases viz., Stone, Chalcolithic/Bronze and
Iron Ages.
● The Stone Age was followed by the Metal Ages – Bronze Age and Iron Age.
● Stone Age belonged to the Prehistoric period whereas Bronze age and Iron Age belonged to the
Protohistoric period in India.

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Note:
● These different stages of human culture are of a technological sequence only, but not the
chronological one.
● Australopithecus is the first human like ancestor evolved around 5 million years ago.
○ Fossils of an australopithecine named ‘Lucy’ has been found in African rock deposits.
● Australopithecines gave rise to Homo habilis, probably around 2 million years ago.
○ Fossils of Homo habilis have been discovered at Omo in Ethiopia and at Olduvai Gorge in
Tanzania.
● The next stage, Homo erectus, is supposed to have existed between 1.5 million years to 200,000
years ago.
○ The earliest fossils of Homo erectus have been found both in Africa and Asia: Koobi Fora
and west Turkana, Kenya, Modjokerto and Sangiran, Java.
● Next to evolve was Neanderthal man and Cromagnon man. They were both Homo sapiens.
Modern man is the Homo sapiens -sapiens meaning the wise one evolved about 50,000 years
ago.
In Indian context, the Pre-historic man first appeared in Bori Caves (Pune region) 1.67 million years
ago. This is the beginning of human history in India.
SOURCES FOR PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD

● Archaeology is very important to study prehistory i.e. the period before the invention of writing.
For example: stone artefacts, pot fragments, bones, wooden artefacts etc.
○ Archaeology is a science that enables us to systematically dig the successive layers of old
mounds and to form an idea of the material life of the people of the past on the basis of
remains found there.
● Archaeological Excavations have brought to light the tools of early humans in India going as far
back as seven lakh years.
Do You Know?
● The dates of remains found in archaeological excavations are fixed by various methods.
● The most important of them is the Radiocarbon or Carbon 14 (C14) dating method.
○ Carbon 14 is a radioactive carbon present in all living objects.
○ It decays, like all radioactive substances, at a uniform rate when the object is dead.
○ By measuring the loss of C14 content in an ancient object (wood or bone) its age can be
determined.
● Robert Bruce Foote is the “father of Prehistoric Archaeology” in India.

● He first discovered a hand axe (Palaeolithic tool) in 1863 in Tamil Nadu’s gravel pit.
STONE AGE
● The earliest man living during the prehistoric period made tools and implements of stone found in
his surroundings-hence, this phase of human development is known as the Stone Age.
● Places where stone was found and where people made tools are known as factory sites.
● The earliest contributions to the study of the stone age in India were made by Shelby Foote (1916),
a geologist.
● On the basis of the different types of tools and techniques, Stone Age is classified into three
periods namely-Palaeolithic , Mesolithic and Neolithic..
○ The word ‘lithic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘lithos’, meaning stone. Palaeolithic means
Old Stone Age, Mesolithic means Middle Stone Age and Neolithic means New Stone Age.

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Three Phases of Stone Age

Stone Age Time Characteristic Features
Period
(Approx.
)
Paleolithic/Old 1.6 Economy/Subsistence- Palaeolithic man was a hunter-gatherer,
Stone Age million- hence this stage of human cultures is known as 'Food-gathering
8,000 BC age'.
(during Tools- Indian Palaeolithic man had used mainly the crude stone
Pleistoce i.e., quartzite tools; hence known as 'Quartzite man'. Chert,
ne flint, quartz, and basalt were also used for tool-making.
Period.) Housing- Lived in caves, rock-shelters and on trees.
Society- Humans were wanderers and led a band organisation
of social life constituting usually the blood relatives.
Note: Fire is believed to be discovered at the end of Palaeolithic
age.

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Mesolithic/Middl 10,000- Economy/Subsistence- This is a transitional period between

e Stone Age 4,000 BC Food gathering and Food production phases. Mesolithic man
(during had continued hunting and gathering; and now had taken up
Holocen fishing, fowling and Pastoralism too.
e Period) Tools- Man had used tiny stone tools i.e., microliths that were
made up of silicates like jasper, chalcedony, chert, agate. Hence
they are known as ‘Microlithic cultures’
Housing- Evidence of Artificially constructed houses were found.
Society- Community life had begun since they lived in sedentary
or semi-permanent settlements.
Note: Mesolithic man had started making hand-made clay
pottery for the first time.
Neolithic/ New 4000- Economy- Neolithic man had taken up full- scale cultivation even
Stone Age 1800 BCE while continuing hunting practices especially in Kashmir Valley
region. Thus hunting-gathering was replaced with Food
producing age. Wheat, barley, rice, cotton, millets etc were
cultivated.
Tools- Neolithic man had used highly polished stone tools like
blades, Celts, chisels, adzes, axe-hammers, arrow heads etc
made of fine grained dark-green traps.
Society- Sedentary life in larger groups had led to the growth of
village system, largely concentrated in Valley regions for fertile
fields and pastures.
PALAEOLITHIC /OLD STONE AGE (1.6 MILLION-8,000 BC)

● The term Palaeolithic is derived from the Greek word palaeo meaning old and lithic meaning
stone. Hence, Palaeolithic age refers to the Old Stone Age.
● In 1885 AD, the term Palaeolithic was coined by John Lubbock, an archaeologist. In India, this age
developed in the Pleistocene period of the Ice Age.
● The time span of Paleolithic period covers 99% of human history and this long stretch of time is
divided into the Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic.
Three phases in the Palaeolithic Age

Lower Palaeolithic Age Middle Palaeolithic Age (1,00,000 Upper Palaeolithic Age
(1.6 million- 1,00,000 BC) - 40,000 B.C.) (40,000 - 8000 B.C)
▪ It covers a greater part of ▪ This age was also called the ▪ In this period, humans
the Ice Age. “age of Flakes". lived as nomadic-hunter
▪ The people were ▪ There was a slight change in gatherers.
wanderers who did not the shape of tools made of ▪ The traces of Homo
know how to grow food stones or bones. They started Sapiens have been
and ate fruits, birds and using blades, points and discovered.
raw animal flesh. scrappers made of flakes. ▪ Rock paintings and
▪ The tools were usually ▪ Still they had no house to live carving have been found
made of hard rock called in. They lived under the rocks, in Bhimbhetka that
Quartzite and hence the in caves and hollow tree reflect art and rituals of
Lower palaeolithic men trunks. They were afraid of this period. Animals
wild creatures. depicted are: Bisons,

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were also called as ▪ Neanderthal Man (early man) elephants, tigers, boars,
"Quartzite Men". dominated this stage of rhinoceros etc.
▪ Fossil of “Homo Erectus” human evolution. ▪ Characteristic feature of
from Hathnora ▪ Important sites: Bankura and upper Palaeolithic art :
(Narmada Basin) of this Purulia (West Bengal), Red and Green colours
age has been found. Nevasa, Nodur, ▪ During this period
▪ This age is represented by Madhmeshwar, Suregaon Climate became less
Sohan Culture, now in (Maharashtra), Malaprabha humid.
Pakistan. Basin and Ghatprabha Basin ▪ Important sites: Kurnool
▪ Important sites: Sohan (Karnataka), Didwana and (A.P.), Meralbhavi
Valley (Punjab in Budha Pushkar (Rajasthan), (Kamataka), Baghor-1 and
Pakistan), Belan Valley Bhimbetka (M.P.), Narmada, Baghor-3 (Central M.P.),
(Mirzapur in U.P.), Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna southern U.P, south Bihar
Narmada Valley (Madhya River Valley plateau, Gujarat, Patne
Pradesh), Didwani ▪ In Bhimbhetka (M.P.), 200 (Maharashtra), Cave
(Rajasthan), Bhimbhetka rock shelters, caves and shelters at Bhimbetka.
(Madhya Pradesh), thousands of painting have ▪ Tools: Blades and Burins
Singrauli Basin (Uttar been traced which belong to ▪ Harpoon, Blade tools
Pradesh), Chhotanagpur middle palaeolithic age found from Renigunta
Basin (Jharkhand). ▪ Tools: blades, points and (Andhra Pradesh)
▪ Traces of this age are also scrappers made of flakes ▪ Ostrich Egg Shells: The
found in Assam, Andhra egg shell of this bird had
Pradesh, Karnataka been used as beads. They
except Sindh and Kerala. are found in Bhimbetka
▪ Tools: Choppers, hand- and Patne. Those from
axes, cleavers. Patne have been dated to
25,000 BC.
MESOLITHIC AGE (10,000 - 4,000 B.C.)

● The term Mesolithic is derived from the Greek word Meso, which means middle and lithic means
stone.
● It was a transitional age/ phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic age, also referred to as
Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age.
● This culture belonged to the Holocene era (which succeeded the Pleistocene era around 10,000
years ago). During this age many environmental changes took place.
● The climate seems to have been wet and warm with heavy rainfall in summers and moderate
level of rainfall in winters.
Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 B.C.)

Key Features Details related to them
Tools ▪ Microlithic Tools: Made up of chipped and flaked stones. Length of
tools varied from 1 cm to 8 cm.
▪ Main tools: Blades Points, Lunate bones, Trapezes, scrappers, arrow
heads, geometric and non-geometric tools
▪ Tools were capable of being used as combination tools by hafting
them in curved wood or bone.
▪ The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan
Rock shelters.
Living Pattern ▪ This age reflects a more specialised and efficient food collection.

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▪ Domestication of Animal: Domestication of animals has been

witnessed from Adamgarh in M.P. and Baghore in Rajasthan. First
animal to be domesticated was wild ancestor of dog.
▪ Later goats and sheep were also domesticated animals.
▪ Introduction of agriculture: Crude form of farming also started.
▪ The last phase of this age saw the beginning of the plant cultivation
and coincided with the Neolithic age.
▪ Change in environment: Many environmental changes took place
during this phase.
Burial Practices ● The bodies were buried in shallow rectangular graves, usually in an
extended position.
● Male burials outnumber female burials.
● There were a few instances of child burials at Mahadaha and
Damdama.
● Differences in grave goods suggested some level of social ranking.
● Bodies were buried in the east-west direction.
● Belief in rebirth: Bodies were buried in the grave with some
foodstuffs, tools, weapons etc as grave goods.
● Evidence: Graves found from Pratapgarh district of Uttar Pradesh.
Important Sites ▪ Mirzapur district and Murhana Pahar in Uttar Pradesh

▪ Bhimbetka caves, Adamgarh, LakhaJuar in Madhya Pradesh
▪ Baghore, Nim Bahera, Mandapiya, Tilwada, Hokhara in Rajasthan
▪ Langhnaj, Pavagarh, Tarsang, Dhamsura, Pithau in Gujarat
▪ Palamu in Jharkhand
▪ Sundargarh and Sambalpur in Orissa
▪ Kapugallu in Telangana
▪ Teri sites of Tirunevalli district in Tamil Nadu (mounds of sand is called
'Teri' in local language)
▪ Ezhuthu Guha in Kerala
▪ Bagor (Rajasthan) on river Kothari is one of the largest and the best
documented Mesolithic sites in India. It also provides the earliest
evidence for the domestication of animals.
▪ Human skeletons have been found in Mahadaha, Damdama and
Sarai Nahar Rai in Uttar Pradesh. At Mahadaha, a man and a woman
were buried together. One burial had an ivory pendant as the grave
good.
Do you know?
● Microliths range in length from under 1 cm to 5 cm.
● The tools are mostly made on short parallel sided blades made of crypto-crystalline silica stone
such as quartzite, chert, chalcedony, jasper, and agate.
● They include miniature versions of some of the upper palaeolithic tool types such as burins,
points, and scrapers.
● They could have been used to make spearheads, arrowheads, knives, daggers, sickles, and
adzes.
● They were embedded in a wooden matrix to make sickles for harvesting plants.

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NEOLITHIC AGE (4,000 - 1,800 B.C.)

● The term Neolithic is derived from Greek work Neo which means new and lithic means stone.
● This term was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865. This age belonged to the Holocene
geological age.
● V. Gorden Childe termed Neolithic phase as Neolithic Revolution because this phase witnessed a
number of innovations.
Neolithic age (4,000 - 1,800 B.C.)

Tools ▪ Tool making became an important profession.
▪ Polished tool culture: During this period a variety of polished tools
were manufactured.
▪ Important tools: stone celts, adzes, chisels, hammer, morters, discs,
sling stones etc.
▪ Function of tools: heavy digging stick for digging ground, sickles for
harvesting, axes for cutting trees, querns and mortars for grinding.
Living Pattern ▪ People became food producers instead of food gatherers.
▪ Division of labour based on sex and age began.
▪ Advent of food production: Cultivated fruits and corn like Ragi and
horse gram (kulathi).
▪ Domestication of animals: Animals like cattle, sheep and goat were
domesticated.
o Evidence of fire-baked earthen figurines suggest that they kept a
large number of cattle.
▪ Emergence of self-sufficient village communities: They lived in
circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed.
New Innovations ▪ Art of producing fire was discovered by the friction of stones.
▪ Bows and arrows were invented for hunting.
▪ They had the knowledge of making boat for undertaking journey.
▪ Wheel discovered.
▪ Art of spinning and weaving clothes was learnt.
Clothings ● The oldest evidence of cotton was found in soils at Mehargarh.
● Clothing was made up of threads of jute, wool and cotton.
● Cotton was the major textile fiber during the neolithic age.
Burial Practices ● In this period the disposal of dead bodies occurred.

● Two types of burial processes – complete and partial were in
practice in North and South India.
○ Complete Burial – circular pit – dead body
○ Partial Burial – selected bones kept in grave
● Burial of pet animal dog along with master – Burzahom and
Gufkaral sites.
● Burial of pet animal goat along with master – Mehargarh of
Baluchistan.
Important Sites ▪ Mehargarh in Baluchistan (Pakistan): Evidence of mud brick houses

(built of sun-dried bricks) have been found with multiple rooms at
Mehargarh. Crops like wheat, barley and cotton were discovered
here.

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▪ Gulfkral (Srinagar): literally means the cave of the potter. It is 41 km

south-west of Srinagar and is famous for pit dwelling, polished stone
tools and graveyards located within households.
▪ Chirand (Bihar): Bone tools made of antlers have been found at
Chirand.
▪ Burzahom (Kashmir): remarkable for pit-dwelling houses,. Probably
dependent upon hunting, fishing and agriculture. Used various tools,
weapons made of bone and coarse grey pottery. Domestic dogs
buried with their masters in graves. People of Burzahom traded with
the Harappan civilisation.
▪ Malur, Piveenal, Nagarjunakonda, Brahmagiri, Maski and
Sanganakallu (South of the Godavari river in South India): They
mainly settled on the top of granite hills or on plateaus found near the
river banks
▪ Hills of Assam and Garo Hills in Meghalaya (North- east India):
Neolithic tools have been found.
CHALCOLITHIC/BRONZE AGE (3000 - 500 BC)

● The end of the neolithic phase saw the use of metals like copper and low grade bronze along with
stone tools.
○ Chalcolithic means stone- copper phase.
● This phase applied to the pre-Harappans. However, in various parts of the country the Chalcolithic
culture appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture.
○ Pre-Harappan phase at Kalibangan in Rajasthan and Banawali in Haryana is distinctly
Chalcolithic.
Chalcolithic /Bronze Age (3000 - 500 BC)

Living pattern ▪ This phase witnessed rural community along with social inequalities.
▪ Fish and rice was their staple diet.
▪ No burnt bricks were used and the houses were constructed of mud
and wattle, though these were used in Gilund.
▪ Houses were either circular or rectangular.
▪ Kept buffaloes and cows; Hunted deer, goats, sheeps and pigs. Remains
of camel have also been found.
Tool Implements ▪ Copper was the first metal to be used by man and Copper smelting was
known.
▪ Microlithic tools made of siliceous material were very common.
▪ People occasionally used low-grade bronze.
▪ Stone grinder, millers and hammers were used for processing of food.
Agriculture ▪ Chalcolithic settlements flourished in the black cotton soil zone.
▪ They cultivated both kharif and rabi crops in rotation.
▪ Crops: Barley, wheat, lentil, black gram, rice, grass pea
▪ Neither plough nor hoe has been attested to chalcolithic sites.
▪ Perforated stone discs and digging sticks were found.
Religious Beliefs/ ▪ Chalcolithic people worshipped Mother Goddess and bull.
Practices ▪ Mother Goddess was depicted on a huge storage jar of Malwa culture
in an applique design.
▪ Fiddle shaped figurines resembling srivatsa, the symbol of Lakshmi,
represent Mother Goddess.

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▪ Two figurines from Inamgaon belonging to the Jorwe culture had been
identified as Proto-Ganesh.
▪ Chalcolithic people worshipped fire as fire altars have been found
during the course of excavations.
Burials ▪ Chalcolithic people believed in life after death.
▪ Dead used to be buried in their respective habitations along with pots
and other objects.
▪ Buried in urn under the floor of their house in the north-south position
in Maharashtra.
▪ Fractional burials were found in eastern India.
▪ Buried in the east-west position in south India.
Ornaments ▪ Manufactured beads of semi-precious stones like steatite, quartz
crystal and carnelian etc.
▪ Copper beads, bangles and anklets were common in use.
CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES AT A GLANCE
Culture Period Ware-features Grown crops Sites

Ahar Culture 2800-1500 B.C White designed Rice, ragi, gram, Ahar, Balahal,
black and red jowar, bajra, Gilund
ware Kulathi, lentil (Rajasthan)
Kayatha 2450-1700 B.C Chocolate Rice, ragi, gram, Chambal and its
culture coloured slipped jowar, bajra, tributaries (M.P.)
ware, red painted kulathi, lentil
buff ware,
combed ware
Malwa Culture 1900-1400 B.C The Malwa ware Wheat and barley Narmada and its
is coarse in fabric tributaries,
with thick buff Navada Toli, Eran,
surface Nagada (The
largest
chalcolithic
settlement) in
M.P.
Savalda 2300-200 B.C - - Dhuria
Culture (Maharashtra)
Jorwe Culture 1500-900 B.C Painted black on Rice, ragi, gram, Maharashtra,
red with matte jowar, bajra, Daimabad and
surface dishes on kulthi, lentil Inamgaon
stand, sprouted
vases, stemmed
cups, jars, basins
etc.
Prabhas 2000-1400 B.C Polished Red - -
Culture Ware (Harappan/
Indus civilisation)
belonged to this
culture
Rangpur 1700 - 1400 B.C Polished Red - -
Culture Ware (Harappan/
Indus civilisation)

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belonged to this
culture
IRON AGE(1500-500 BC)

● Iron age in India began around 1500 B.C and is associated with Painted Grey Ware (PGW).
● Iron age in India led to irrigated rice cultivation and also the spread of material culture.
● Iron Age sites in India: Pirak (1000 B.C.), Graves of Gandhara (1000 B.C.), Dharwar in Karnataka
(1000 B.C.) etc.
● From 1000 BC onwards, Southern Neolithic cultures had got transformed into Megalithic cultures
using iron that flourished from Vidarbha (MH) to Adichanallur (TN).
● In this time period Aryans arrived and Vedic Period was started.
● It is the first major Civilization found on the bank of river Ganga after the Indus Valley Civilization.
● Other Major sites: Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala ka Tila, Kosanbi and Jhusi, Allahabad, Lahuradewa.
MEGALITHIC CULTURE
● The term megalith is derived from Greek word megas which means great and lithos meaning
stone. -hence megaliths refer to monuments built of large stones.
● Megaliths usually refer to the burials made of large stones in graveyards away from the habitation
area.
● Megalithic graves have yielded enlightening evidence regarding these cultural periods, such as
animal bones, iron objects and weapons, pottery, ornaments, beads, and so on.
● In India, archaeologists trace the majority of the megaliths to the Iron Age (1500 BC to 500 BC),
though some sites precede the Iron Age, extending up to 2000 BC.
● Megaliths are spread across the Indian subcontinent.
○ The majority of megalithic sites are found in Peninsular India, concentrated in the states of
Maharashtra (mainly in Vidarbha), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and
Telangana.
● Megalithic people used high-quality Black and Red Ware pottery .
● Sangam Age can be placed in Megalithic culture phase, thus the dawn of civilization in South India
is associated with Megalithic cultures.
Note: Sangam period will be discussed in detail in respective class.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD

● Prehistory represents the longest part of the human past, and is associated with the emergence
of anatomically modern humans and important developments in stone tool technology and
subsistence strategies.
● The beginnings of animal and plant domestication did not lead to the extinction of hunting and
gathering.
● One of the striking features of this period was the co-existence and interaction among neolithic,
neolithic–chalcolithic, rural chalcolithic, urban chalcolithic, and hunter-gatherer communities.
● In the long run, the importance of the advent of food production lay not only in its immediate
consequences, but also in the potential it created for future changes.
● In certain areas, the process of food production and its associated cultural developments
eventually led to the emergence of proto-urban settlements, and then full-fledged cities.
UPSC PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION

PRELIMS
1.Consider the following pairs:
( Historical place ) (Well-known for)

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1. Burzahom Rock-cut shrines

2. Chandra ketugarh Terracotta art
3. Ganeshwar Copper artefacts
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2
(c) 3 only
(d) 2 and 3
Answer: (D)
MAINS
1.Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but also a fine
aesthetic sense comparable to modern painting. Critically evaluate this comment.

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HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
● Introduction
● Discovery
● Time Period and Three Phases of Harappan Civilization
● Origin of Harappan Civilisation
● Expansion of Harappan Civilisation
● Key Features of the IVC
○ Economy and Trade
○ Political Organisation
○ Social Organization
○ Religious beliefs and Practises
○ Harappan Script
○ Weights and Measures
○ Art
● Decline and Disappearance of Indus Valley Civilisation
● Transmission of the Harappan Traditions
● Harappan Sites: At a Glance
● Previous Year Questions (UPSC)
INTRODUCTION
Harappan civilization , also referred to as the Indus Valley civilization, is the first civilization of the
Indian subcontinent. Harappan civilization belonged to the Proto-historic period, and is a Bronze
Age civilization. It was one of the four earliest civilisations of the world, along with Civilisation of
Mesopotamia between Tigris and Euphrates River, Shang/Chinese Civilisation on River Hwang Ho,
Egyptian Civilisation on River Nile.
Why is it called Harappan Culture?

Initially, most of the sites of this civilization like Harappa and Mohenjodaro were discovered in
the Indus Valley alone. Hence, historians called this as Indus Valley Civilisation. Later, a large
number of sites belonging to this civilization have been found in areas far away from the Indus
Valley. For example, Kalibangan and Lothal. Therefore, historians felt that the name Indus Valley
Civilization is not appropriate. Further, most of these sites have many similarities to the
urbanised culture of the people of Harappa, the first site of this culture to be discovered in 1921.
Therefore, this civilization is now called the Harappan Culture
SOURCES
● Since the script of Harappa has not been deciphered yet, archeological sources form the basis
for the study of Harappan civilisation that include-seals, Harappan towns and monuments,
sculptures and figurines etc. which have been discussed in detail in consequent topics.
DISCOVERY
● Though excavated in 1921, Harappa had attracted the attention of a British traveller, Charles
Merson as early as in 1826. He found old bricks in Harappa in large numbers.
● Harappan sites were noticed by Colonel Burns when he went to meet Maharaja Ranjit Singh in
1831.

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● Alexander Cunningham , the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of. India (ASI)
and often called the father of Indian archaeology, inspected Harappan site in 1853 and 1857.
● In 1856, Harappan ruins were excavated to meet the demand for bricks to lay railway lines
between Karachi and Lahore. It was during this digging process that the existence of an old
civilisation was unravelled. But unfortunately, no serious efforts were made to bring that
civilization to light.
● It was in 1921, Daya Ram Sahni got the site excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of
Punjab (now in Pakistan) on the left bank of River Ravi.
● In 1922, Rakhal Das Banerji discovered the remains of civilization at Mohenjodaro in the
Larkana district of Sindh (now in Pakistan).
● The two excavations(Harappa and Mohenjo Daro) prepared the foundation of a new chapter in
the history which is studied under the name of Indus Valley Civilization.
○ John Marshall was the first to use the term Indus Valley Civilisation.
Note:
● Excavations at these sites have been a continuous process and usually involve many excavators
at different periods of times. For the convenience of students, only main excavators and their
year of excavation are mentioned.
TIME PERIOD AND PHASES

● Based on the archaeological findings the Harappan civilization has been dated between 2600
B.C–1900 BC.
○ There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan ,in the
same area. The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan civilisation
to distinguish it from these cultures.
Three Phases of Harappan Civilisation
Phase Time Period Description Important Sites
Early 3500 BC–2600 BC This phase was marked by Amri, Kotdiji, Sothi, Rehman
Harappan some town-planning in the Dheri, Bhirrana, Rakhigarhi
phase form of mud structures, and Banwali
elementary trade, arts, and
crafts, etc.
Mature 2600 BC–1900 BC This was the period in which Mohenjo Daro, Harappa,
Harappan we noticed well developed Ganeriwala, Chanhudaro,
phase towns with burnt brick Dholavira, Kalibangan,
structures, inland and foreign Rakhigarhi, Lothal, Ropar,
trade, crafts of various types, Banwali and Surkatoda.
etc. Note: All mature Harappan
sites were urban centers.
Late 1900 BC–1400 BC This was the phase of decline Rangapur, Lothal,
Harappan during which many cities were Alamgirpur, Hulas, and
phase abandoned, and the trade Daimabad .
disappeared leading to the
gradual decay of the significant
urban traits.

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* A general time range is specified as there is a great deal of variation in the dates for different
phases.
*A site can belong to more than one phase as the phases of Harappan civilization existed in the same
place in different time periods.
ORIGIN OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION

About the origin of the Harappan Civilisation, many scholars have presented different thoughts:
● E.J.H. Mackay has considered that the origin of the Harappan Civilisation was due to the
migration of people from Sumer (Southern Mesopotamia).
● D.H. Gordon and Martin Wheeler considered that the Harappan Civilisation was the result of
migration from Western Asia.
● Amalananda Ghosh has considered that pre-Harappan culture matured to Harappan Civilisation.
● M.F. Rafique Mughal considered that the development of Harappan Civilisation occurred in the
region of Ravi river around Harappa refuting the earlier belief that Harappan Civilisation was
inspired by Mesopotamian Civilisation.
EXTENT OF HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
● Harappan civilization was spread over a vast area which included not only the present day states
of India such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Western Uttar Pradesh but
also Pakistan and some parts of Afghanistan.

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Boundaries of Harappan civilisation

● Westernmost Site: Sutkagen dor ( Makran Coast of Pakistan)
● Easternmost Site : Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)
● Northernmost Site: Manda Akhnoor (Jammu)
● Southernmost Site: Daimabad (Maharashtra)
● The area under Harappan civilisation forms a triangle and accounts for about 1299600 square
kms, which is larger than Pakistan and certainly larger than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. No
other cultural zone in the third and second millennium B.C. in the world was as large as the
Harappan zone.
Note:
● The location of settlements suggests that the Harappa, Kalibangan (On River GhaggarHakra
generally associated with the lost river Saraswati), Mohenjodaro axis was the heartland of this
civilization and most of the settlements are located in this region.
● This area had certain uniform features in terms of the soil type, climate and subsistence pattern.
The land was flat and depended on the monsoons and the Himalayan rivers for the supply of
water. Due to its distinct geographical feature, agro-pastoral economy was the dominant feature
in this region.
Region/State Major Archaeological Sites

Afghanistan Shortughai, Mundigak
Balochistan Mehrgarh, Kili gul Muhammad, Rana Ghundai, Dabarkot, Balakot, Nindo Bari,
(Pakistan) Anjira, Sutkagendor
Punjab Harappa, Jalilpur, Sandhanwala, Derawar, Ghaneriwal, Saraikhola
(Pakistan)
Sindh Mohenjo Daro, Amari, Kotdizi, Rehman Dheri, Sukur, Alhadino, Chanhudaro,
Alimurad, Jbukar, Jhangar
Jammu Kashmir Manda
Haryana Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Bhagawanpura
Rajasthan Kalibangan, Ganeshwar. Shishawal, Bara, Hanumangarh, Mithal, Chhupas
Uttar Pradesh Alamgirpur, Manpur, Bargaon, Hulas, Sanauli
Gujarat Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotda, Bhagatrao, Rangpur, Rozdi, Desalpur,
Prabhashpattan
Maharashtra Daimabad
KEY FEATURES OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES
The most interesting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its town-planning. It is marked by
considerable uniformity, though one can notice some regional variations as well. The uniformity is
noticed in the lay-out of the towns, streets, structures, brick size, drains etc.
City-Layout

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● Each city was divided into two parts viz., acropolis (upper town/Citadel) on a higher mound on
the western side and town proper (lower town) on the eastern side of the settlement.
● The citadel contains large structures which might have functioned as administrative or ritual
centres.
○ The Citadel owes its height to the fact that buildings were constructed on mud brick
platforms.
○ It was walled, which meant that it was physically separated from the Lower Town.
● The residential buildings are built in the lower town.
● The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed
the grid system. This is true of almost all Indus settlements regardless of size. Roads cross one
another almost at right angles and the city was divided into so many blocks.
Exceptions and Deviations from basic City-Layout

● Lothal: The citadel was not walled off , but was built at a height. No clear internal division of
the town into citadel and lower towns was present in Lothal. Rather, a quadrangular fortified
lay-out i.e., town dividing into six sections, each built on wide platform of mud bricks
separated by roads was excavated.
● Dholavira:It was divided into three divisions viz., upper, middle and lower towns.
● Chanhudaro:No citadel was found in Chanhudaro.
● Kalibangan and Surkotada:Lower towns were also fortified in these sites.
● Banwali: This site lacked a grid pattern of planning and systematic drainage system. Here
roads are neither always straight nor do they cut each other at right angles.
Note:The entire settlement was fortified in Dholavira and Lothal and sections with the town were
separated by walls.
Drainage System
One of the most impressive characteristics of the Harappan settlements is their drainage system.
Sites like Harappa, Kalibangan, Nausharo, Chanhudaro, Allahdino, Dholavira, Lothal, Mohenjodaro
have given evidence of elaborate drainage facilities.
● The drainage system of the Harappans was elaborate and well laid out. That included :
○ management of waste water inside the houses, intramural drains, vertical drain pipes in the
walls, chutes through walls to the streets, drains from bathing floors into street drains

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● Every house had drains, which opened into the street drains.
● The street drains at all sites were made of baked bricks. The one at Allah Dino is of stone.
● We also have evidence for the use of gypsum and lime plaster in the bottom of the drains at
Mohenjo Daro.
● In fact, at Mohenjodaro, drains dated to Early Harappa and the Transitional phases have been
found.
● Most of these drains were covered with manholes; bricks or stone slabs (which could be
removed for cleaning).
● Small settling pools and traps were built into the system of drainage to catch coarse sediment.
This was periodically collected.
Houses
● The houses were largely built of burnt bricks.
Do you Know?
Harappans’ bricks, whether sun-dried or baked, were of a standardised ratio, where the length
and breadth were four times and twice the height respectively (1:2:4 ratio). Such bricks were
used at all Harappan settlements.
● The houses differed in size from a single-room house in Harappa to bigger structures.
● The bigger houses had many rooms surrounding a square courtyard and were provided with
private wells, kitchens and bathing platforms.
● What is also interesting is an apparent concern for privacy: there are no windows in the walls
along the ground level.
○ Besides, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
● Some houses had staircases to reach a second storey or the roof.
The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro

The most important public place of Mohenjodaro seems to be the great bath, comprising the tank
which is situated in the citadel mound. It is an example of beautiful brickwork which measures
11.88 *7.01 meters and 2.43 meters deep.
● The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four
sides.
● There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank, which was made
watertight by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of gypsum.
● There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well.
● Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.
● Across a lane to the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four on each side of a
corridor, with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the corridor.
The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the Citadel, with
several distinctive buildings), has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a
special ritual bath.
Granaries
It appears that granaries constituted an important part of the Harappan cities.
● In Mohenjodaro the largest building is a granary, which is 45.71 mts long and 15.23 mts wide.
● In the citadel of Harappa as many as two rows of six granaries are found.
○ Each granary measured 15.23 mts * 6.09 mts and lay within a few meters of the river’s bank.
The combined floor space of the twelve units would be about 8381025 square metres.
Approximately it had the same area as the Great Granary at Mohenjo Daro.

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● At Kalibangan , brick platforms are noticed in the southern part , which may have been used for
granaries.
ECONOMY
The prosperity of the Harappan civilization was based on its flourishing economic activities such as
agriculture, arts and crafts, and trade. The availability of fertile Indus alluvium contributed to the
surplus in agricultural production along with pastoralism. It helped the Harappan people to indulge
in exchange, both internal and external, with others and also develop crafts and industries.
Agriculture
● Crops Grown-Grains found at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea and sesame.
○ High quality barley was produced at Banawali.
○ Millets are found from sites in Gujarat.
○ Finds of rice are relatively rare.
○ The evidence for rice has come from Lothal and Rangpur in the form of husks embedded in
pottery.
○ Harappans were the earliest people to produce cotton. The Greeks called it Sindon (derived
from Sindh)..
○ A piece of woven cloth has been found at Mohenjodaro.
● Technology-Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known,
and archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.
○ Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali
(Haryana).
○ Evidence of a ploughed field is found at Kalibangan (Rajasthan). The field had two sets of
furrows at right angles to each other, suggesting that two different crops were grown
together.
● Irrigation-Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably
required for agriculture.
○ Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not
in Punjab or Sind.
○ Water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) may have been used to store water for
agriculture.
● Storage of grains- Food grains were stored in huge granaries like those found at Mohenjodaro,
Harappa, Lothal and Kalibangan.
Domestication of Animals
● Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.
Studies done by archaeo-zoologists indicate that these animals were domesticated.
● Bones of wild species such as boar, deer and gharial are also found. We do not know whether
the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or obtained meat from other hunting
communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.
● Horse was possibly known only in the late Harappan phases, but extremely rare.
○ Evidence of horses were found from sites like Surkatoda (complete remains of horse), Lothal
and Dholavira.
● No evidence of a cow had yet been found, but a bull/humped bull was present.
● Bones of camels, which were probably used as beasts of burden, were found at Kalibangan.
● Bones of marine catfish at Harappa were discovered which suggests that coastal communities
may have traded in dried fish in inland cities. At coastal sites in Gujarat, molluscs provided a
protein-rich diet to the people.
● Cats and dogs were domesticated as evident from the marks of their feet.
● Asses and Camels were used as beasts of burden.

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● Rabbits, Wild fowl, Pigeons etc. have been found in pottery paintings.
● Elephants were domesticated in Gujarat.
● No evidence of Lion was found.
● A single instance of Indian rhinoceros has been reported at Amri.
Crafts and Industry

A number of specialized crafts and profession-based industries viz., bead-making, metallurgical, ship-
building, textiles, brick laying, carpentry, shell-cutting, seal-making, weights-making, stone masonry,
pottery and terracotta art had flourished in Harappan Civilization.
● Bead-making factories- These were found at sites like Lothal, Chanhudaro and Dholavira.
○ Materials used for making beads include copper, bronze, silver, gold, carnelian (red color
stone), steatite, jasper, faience (gem), quartz, shell, ivory, terracotta etc.
● Metallurgical industries-Workshops of copper, bronze-smiths producing utensils, tools,
weapons and figurines were excavated at sites like Lothal, Dholavira.
○ Copper, bronze weapons production on a massive scale is evident from Sukkur.
○ Antimony rod that was found at Harappa indicates their higher metallurgical knowledge.
Do You Know?
Harappans had no knowledge of iron and had used only copper, bronze tools and weapons which
are defensive in character.
● Textile industries-These were developed at Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Chanhudaro.

○ Fragments of woven cloth, spindle whorls, and needles were found at Mohenjo Daro.
● Seals- Making of seals was the greatest artistic creation of Harappans. An animal with a short
inscription, sometimes only inscription, was carved in detail on steatite seals. More than 2500
seals were found so far, a large number of them were from Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.
● Boat-making industry -It was located at Lothal. A huge tank found at Lothal may have been a
dockyard, where boats and ships came in from the sea and through the river channel. Goods
were probably loaded and unloaded here.
The excavated site of Lothal is the only port-town of the Indus Valley Civilisation. A metropolis
with an upper and a lower town had in on its northern side a basin with vertical wall, inlet and
outlet channels which has been identified as a tidal dockyard. Satellite images show that the river
channel, now dried, would have brought in a considerable volume of water during high tide which
would have filled the basin and facilitated sailing of boats upstream. The remains of stone
anchors, marine shells, sealings which trace its source in the Persian Gulf together with the
structure identified as a warehouse further aid the comprehension of the functioning of the Lothal
port.
● Shell-cutting industry-It was found at Mohenjo Daro, Lothal, Balakot etc.

● Ivory-cutting industry -It was found at Mohenjo Daro.
Do you Know?
The Harappans procured materials for craft production from different regions..
● Shell -Nageshwar and Balakot.
● Lapis lazuli -Shortughai( Afghanistan).
● Carnelian- Bharuch in Gujarat).
● Steatite -South Rajasthan and north Gujarat.
● Copper-Khetri region of Rajasthan, Oman and Balochistan.

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● Gold -Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar in South India.

● Silver-Afghanistan, Iran
● Tin -Afghanistan, Iran
● Agates & Chalcedony-Saurashtra in Gujarat
● Lead-South India
● Lapis Lazuli-Afghanistan
● Turquoise-Khorasan
● Amethyst-Maharashtra
● Jade-Pamir in Central Asia), Carnelian ( Bharuch in Gujarat).
Trade
● Internal Trade: Harappan cities had a flourishing internal trade between the cities. The river
Indus served as the high waterway through which most of this trade was carried out.
● External Trade: They traded with Mesopotamia, Persia and Arabia.
● Major exports were - cotton textiles, food grains, ornaments, luxury goods, timber, ivory
products, lapis lazuli etc. Imports included precious metals like silver, tin, copper, gold and
woolen textiles.
● Harappans did not use metallic money. Most probably they carried on all exchanges through
barter exchange. A wide variety of goods were traded.
○ For example - the shell from as far away as Makran and Kutch coast reached Harappa to be
processed into bangles.
○ Sukkur-Rohri hills provided many sites with their chert blades.
○ Rajasthan provided gold, silver, lead, semi-precious stones and copper to the rest of the
sites, and in return acquired chert and shell
● Further, the presence of seals and uniform weights implied an existence of a regulated internal
trade network.
Evidences of Contacts with Distant Lands

Oman:
● Both the Omani copper and Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel, suggesting a common
origin.
● A distinctive type of vessel, a large Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of black clay has
been found at Omani sites.
● Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region
called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman, and interestingly enough copper found at
Mesopotamian sites also contains traces of nickel.
Mesopotamia:
● Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of
Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha(possibly the Harappan region). They mention the products
from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.
● It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea.
Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, we find depictions of
ships and boats on seals.
● Many Harappan seals have been discovered in Mesopotamia.
Bahrain:
● The round “Persian Gulf” seal found in Bahrain sometimes carries Harappan motifs.
● Interestingly, local “Dilmun” weights followed the Harappan standard.

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POLITICAL ORGANISATION
● Due to undeciphered Indus script and the failure of archaeological evidence in explaining
political aspects, there has been an ambiguity about the political and administrative structure of
Harappan Civilization.
● A number of hypotheses were sprung up viz., rule of priestly class or mercantile community or
local governments.
○ Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, and that
everybody enjoyed equal status.
○ Others feel there was no single ruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler,
Harappa another, and so forth.
○ Yet others argue that there was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence
for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of
settlements near sources of raw
● However, it is clear that uniform town-planning, well-maintained drain-age system, sanitation
and sullage facilities, granaries, uniform weights and measures, standardized bricks etc were
possible only by a centralized administration.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
● People-Harappan people were hetero-geneous , majority of them being Mediterraneans who
are linguistically Dravidians. Other racial groups included Proto-Austroloids (dancing girls),
Mongoloids (priest- head) and Alpinoids (skeletal remains).
● Division-The fact that there were different types of houses indicates that there were different
social classes.
● Dress and Ornaments-Both men and women wore two pieces of cloth, mostly cotton or woolen.
Hair-dresses were also found. They were beauty-conscious; used to wear a variety of jewelry,
ornaments viz., bangles, bracelets, ear-rings, finger-rings, collyrium, lipsticks, mirrors.
● Food Habits- They ate both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food.They even had dairy knowledge.
● Recreation-The seem to have had a great liking for dance and music. They were also familiar
with indoor games like dice. A large number of terracotta toys were found in Mohenjo Daro.
Women in Harappan Society

● The presence of worship of female deities does not necessarily translate into power or a high
social position for ordinary women.
○ Instead it reflects the ability to visualize divinity in feminine form.
● While some of the female figurines found at Harappan sites may represent goddesses, many
seem to represent ordinary, mortal women.
● Terracotta figurines of women at work are few.
○ Figurines depicting women grinding or kneading something have been found at Nausharo,
Harappa, and Mohenjo Daro, suggesting the association of women with food-processing
activities.
● In ancient societies, childbirth was a process fraught with danger.
○ Some of the fat female terracotta figurines may represent pregnant women.
○ Recent excavations at Harappa have yielded a burial with a woman and baby, perhaps a
case of death in childbirth.
○ Some female figurines found at Harappan sites carry a suckling infant on the left hip;
others show women carrying infants close to their breast.
○ An unusual terracotta figurine found at Naushahro shows a male with feminine headdress
holding an infant.
○ Tiny terracotta figurines of small children have been found at most sites.

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RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTISES

We do not have any specific information about the religious beliefs of the Harappan people.
However, on the basis of archaeological finds we can come to certain conclusions like:
● No temples have been found from any of the Harappan sites.
● Figurines resembling a female deity have been found. They suggest worship of the Mother
Goddess.
● A seal with a male figure(Pashupati Mahadeva) sitting in a yogic posture with a trident-like
headgear, surrounded by animals, has been found. This has a lot of similarities with Shiva. From
this it is figured.that the Harappans might be worshipping “proto-Shiva”, that is, an early form of
one of the major deities of Hinduism.
● Phallus worship is evident from stone lingam that was found at Mohenjo Daro.
● Animal and Tee worship i.e., of unicorn, humped bull and Pipal tree is evident from their seals.
● Snake cult is evident from the terracotta figurine of snake Goddess found at Gumla.
● Fire worship and rituals -Fire altars with cattle bones were found at sites like Kalibangan, Lothal,
Rakhigarhi and Bijnor.
● The origin of “Swastika Symbol” can be traced from Harappan Civilization.
● Amulets, showing their belief in evil spirits, were found in large numbers.
○ For example, a terracotta amulet having a ship symbol was found at Mohenjo Daro.
○ Shamanistic practice may also be present, hints being from copper tablets of Mohenjo Daro.
Do You Know ?
Shamans are men and women who claim magical and healing powers, as well as an ability to
communicate with the other world.
● Burial practices and grave-goods indicate their belief in life after death.
Burial Practices of Harappans

The dead of Harappan civilization were buried with a varying number of earthen pots. In some
graves the dead were buried along with goods such as bangles, beads, copper mirrors. This may
indicate that the Harappans believed in life after death. Harappans practiced majorly three forms
of burial methods viz.,
1. Complete burial -Burial of dead in north-south direction along with grave-goods.
2. Fractional burial-Burial of bones after exposing the dead body to birds and wild beasts.
3. Post-cremation burial-Cremation followed by burial of ashes.
These different practices in different regions of Harappan civilization may reflect diversity in
religious beliefs.
Harappan Burials:
● At Lothal three joint or double burials with male and female bodies together were discovered.
● Kalibangan has yielded evidence of a symbolic burial i.e., a burial which contains pots but no
bones or skeleton.
● Largest cemetery of 70 burials was unearthed at Farmana (Haryana).
● Four skeletal remains of mature-Harappan phase were found at Rakhigarhi (Haryana).
● A skeleton probably of a woman was found at Bijnor (Rajasthan)
● A skeleton having a copper crown on its skull was found at Chandayan(U.P.)
● A coffin burial has been found at Harappa.
● A dog buried with human oval pit burials was discovered in Ropar(Punjab).
● Pot-burials were found in Surkotada(Gujarat).
Harappan Script
● The Harappan script has not been deciphered so far.

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○ The inscriptions discovered so far are short, usually engraved on seals.

○ Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs.
○ This makes the task of decipherment all the more; difficult.
● The Harappan script is not alphabetical but mainly pictographic.
○ Altogether 250 to 400 pictographs have been found and in the form of a picture each letter
stands for some sound, idea or object.
○ The script was written from right to left.
Do You Know?
One of the longest Indus inscriptions known is found at Dholavira in Gujarat. There are 10
symbols in the panel, each one is about 37 centimetres high and the board on which the letters
were inscribed appears to have been about 3 meters long. One of the symbols is repeated 4
times. Based on its location near the entrance to the citadel, this large inscription has been called
a "sign board.”
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

● Exchanges of Harappans were regulated by a precise and uniform system of weights, usually
made of a stone called chert and generally cubical , with no markings.
● The lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the
higher denominations followed the decimal system.
○ The smaller weights were probably used for weighing jewellery and beads.
● Metal scale-pans have also been found.
○ A bronze measurement rod and a stick inscribed with measuring marks were found at
Harappa.
ART
The forms of art found from various sites of the civilisation include sculptures, seals, pottery,
jewellery, terracotta figures, etc.
Seals
● Seals are considered 'the outstanding contribution of the Indus Civilization' to ancient
craftsmanship. More than 2000 seals have been found from the Harappan settlements.
● The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, usually made from the soft
river stone, steatite.
○ Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered.
○ Some seals have also been found in gold and ivory.
● Seals were generally square in shape and made of steatite but some round seals have also
been found.
● The designs on the seals include a wide range of animals associated with groups of signs in a
semi-pictographic script.
○ Some seals have only scripts carved on them and some others bear trees, human and semi-
human forms.
○ Some seals show the use of various kinds of geometric patterns.
● The animal motifs used in seals are the Indian bison, bull, rhinoceros, tiger and elephant.
○ Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called the “unicorn” – depicted on
seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures. These kinds of seals might have been used
for religious purposes.
● The purpose of producing seals was mainly commercial-Seals could have been used for exchange
of goods between distant cities.

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Pashupati Seal
The most remarkable Harappan seal is the one depicted with a figure in the centre and animals
around, generally identified as the Pashupati Seal. This seal depicts a human figure seated cross-
legged. An elephant and a tiger are depicted to the right side of the seated figure, while on the
left a rhinoceros and a buffalo are seen. In addition to these animals two antelopes are shown
below the seat.
Pottery
● The Harappan pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheelmade wares, very few being hand-
made.
● Plain pottery is more common than painted ware.
○ Plain pottery is generally of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip.
○ The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which geometric and animal designs
are executed in glossy black paint.
● Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprises small vases decorated with geometric patterns
in red, black, and green, rarely white and yellow.
● Harappan pots were generally decorated with the designs of trees and circles. The images of
men are also found on some pottery fragments.
Note: More details with respect to Harappan Art will be discussed in Art and Culture classes.
DECLINE AND DISAPPEARANCE OF HARAPPAN CIVILISATION

● The Harappan culture flourished until about 1900 BC; afterwards the culture began to decline.
● By the 19th century BC, the two important sites Harappa and Mohenjo-daro disappeared, but
the Harappan culture at other sites faded out gradually and continued in its degenerate phase in
the outlying fringes in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
● Harappan civilization was followed by Jhooker culture (Jhooker was the first site where
evidence of the existence of this culture was found). This culture developed in West Punjab and
Bahawalpur is known as Graveyard-H culture.
● Important theories and their explanation regarding decline of the Indus culture are as follows:
Theories of Decline Explanation
1. Flood and ● Among the causes spelled out for the decline of the Harappan
Earthquakes Theory civilization, scholars have used the evidence of flooding in
Mohenjo Daro.
● It appears from the records of the principal excavators that in
Mohenjodaro various periods of occupation were separated by
evidences of deep flooding
● This can be inferred from the fact that the houses and streets of
Mohenjodaro were covered with silty clay and collapsed building
material many times in its long history.
● This silty clay seems to have been left by the flood waters which
had submerged the streets and houses.
Thus, many scholars believe that the evidence is indicative of
abnormal floods in Mohenjo Daro. These floods led to the temporary
desertion and reoccupation of the city throughout its history A stage
came when the impoverished Harappans could not take it anymore
and they simply abandoned the settlement.

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2. The Shifting away ● H.T.Lambrick has offered his own explanation for the decline.
of Indus Theory ● He believes that changes in the course of the river Indus could be
the cause of the destruction of Mohenjo Daro.
● Apparently, the river Indus shifted about thirty miles away from
Mohenjo Daro.
● The people of the city and the surrounding food producing villages
deserted the area because they were starved of water.
● This kind of thing happened many times in the history of
Mohenjodaro.
3. Increased aridity ● D.P. Agarwal and Sood have introduced a new theory for the
and drying up of decline of the Harappan civilization.
Ghaggar Theory ● They believe that the Harappan civilization declined because of
the increasing aridity in this area and the drying up of the river
Ghaggar Hakra.
● Basing their conclusions on the studies conducted in the U.S.A.,
Australia and Rajasthan they have shown that there was an
increase in the arid conditions by the middle of the second
millennium BCE
● In semi-arid regions like those of the Harappa, even a minor
reduction in moisture and water availability could spell disaster.
● It would affect agricultural production which in turn would put
the city economies under stress.
● Apparently, the ecological disturbances brought by the increased
aridity and the shift in the drainage pattern led to the decline of
the Harappan civilization.
4. Barbarian Invasions ● R.C.Wheeler believed that the Harappan civilization was

Theory destroyed by the Aryan invaders.
● It has been pointed out that in the late phases of occupation at
Mohenjodaro there is evidence of a massacre. Human skeletons
have been found lying on the streets.
● Since there are no remains of other cultural groups having forts in
this area in this historical phase, Wheeler believed that it was the
Harappan cities that were being described in the Rigveda as the ‘
Hariyupia’.
● The name of the place sounds very similar to that of Harappa. This
evidence led Wheeler to conclude that it was the Aryan invaders
who destroyed the cities of Harappa.
5.Ecological ● Scholars like Fairservis try to explain the decay of the Harappan
Imbalance Theory civilization in terms of the problems of ecology.
● He computed the population of the Harappan cities and worked
out the food requirements of the townsmen.
● According to Fairservis’s calculation the delicate ecological
balance of these semi-arid areas was being disturbed because the
human and cattle population in these areas was fast depleting the
scanty forests, food and fuel resources.
● The combined needs of the Harappan townsmen, peasants and
pastoralists exceeded the limited production capacities of these
areas.

14
● With the forests and grass cover gradually disappearing, there

were more floods and droughts.
● This depletion of the subsistence base caused strain on the entire
economy of the civilization.
There is no single cause that can explain the decline of civilization in totality. At the maximum these
can explain the decay of certain sites or areas only. Hence, each of the theories has met with
criticism. Nevertheless, the archaeological evidence indicates that the Harappan civilization did not
collapse all of a sudden but declined gradually and ultimately merged with other local cultures.
TRANSMISSION OF THE HARAPPAN TRADITIONS

The end of the cities did not mean the end of the Harappan tradition. It is evident from
archaeological remains that the Harappan communities merged into the surrounding agricultural
groups. The Harappan communities which continued after the urban phase would have definitely
retained their older traditions such as:
● The cults of Pasupati (Siva) and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to have come
down to us from the Harappan tradition.
● Similarly, the cult of sacred places, rivers or trees and sacred animals show a distinct continuity
in the subsequent historic civilization of India.
● The evidence of fire worship and sacrifice in Kalibangan and Lothal is significant. These were the
most significant elements of the Vedic religion.
● It is a possibility that aryans might have learnt these practices from Harappan priesthood. That
is, the priestly groups of the Harappans merged into the ruling groups of the Aryans. As such
the Harappan religious tradition would be transmitted to historical India
● Many aspects of domestic life like the house plans, disposition of water supply and attention to
bathing survived in the settlements of the subsequent periods.
● The traditional weight and currency system of India, based on a ratio of sixteen as the unit, was
already present in the Harappan civilization; it might well have been derived from there.
● The techniques of making potter’s wheel in modern India is similar to those used by the
Harappans.
○ For Example: The folk communities retained the traditions of craftsmanship as is evident
from the pottery and tool making traditions.
● Bullock carts and boats used in modern India were already present in the Harappan cities.
● Evidence from places such as Hastinapura, kaushambi, Atranji Khera near Aligarh, along with
the deccan sites like Navdatoli and Nevasa , show that there were many settlements who knew
the use of metal that they learned from Harappans.
Thus, despite of the decline , many elements of the Harappan civilization have been preserved
without a breakdown to the present day.
HARAPPAN SITES: AT A GLANCE
Name of site Year of Excavator River/Region Major Archaeological Findings

excavat
i-on

15
Harappa 1921 Daya Ram Montgomery ● It is a planned city with a grid

Sahni district of pattern.
Punjab (Now in
Pakistan) on the Major Findings:
bank of Ravi ● 6 granaries covering an area of
river 275 square metres.
● Coffin burial.
● Cemetery-H of alien people.
● Virgin-Goddess.
● Stone symbols of Lingam and
Yoni.
● Pear-shaped 16 firepits- ash and
tar-coal found in these pits
indicate that the Harappan
people had the knowledge of
making tar-coal.
● More than 891 Seals.
● Wheat and Barley in wooden
mortar.
● Copper scale, Dice, Vanity box,
Copper made mirror, workmen's
quarter.
Mohenjo- 1922 R D Banerjee Larkana district It is Grid planned city.

Daro in Sindh on the Major Findings:
bank of Indus ● Great Granary
River (Now in ● Great Bath (the largest building)
Pakistan) ● Assembly hall
● Shell strips
● Pashupati Mahadeva Seal
● Bronze image of a nude woman
dancer-Dancing girl.
● Steatite image of bearded man
Human skeletons showing
invasion and massacre.
● Painted seal (Demi God).
● Clay Figure of mother goddess.
Sutkagen- 1927 R.L. Stein Dasht river It is Port city-acted as a trade point
dor Balochistan between Harappa and Babylon.
(Pakistan) Major Findings:
● Human bones
● Copper axe
● Ash pot

16
Chanhu-daro 1931 N Gopal Indus River It is City without a citadel.

Majumdar Sindh Major Findings
● Inkpot
● Lipstick
● Metal works
● Shell-ornament makers
● Bead makers
● Dog's paw imprint on a brick
● Terracotta bullock cart
● Bronze toy cart with seated
drivers
Amri 1935 N.G. Indus river Major Findings:

Majumdar Sindh (Pakistan) ● Evidence of Antelope
Kalibangan 1953 Amalananda Rajasthan on This site shows both the Pre-
Ghosh the left bank of harappan & Harappan phases.
Ghaggar river Major Findings:
● Furrowed land (Pre-harappan)
● 7 fire altars
● Camel bones
● Well
● Wheels of a toy cart
● Mesopotamian cylindrical seal
● Gram
● Tiger marked seal
Kot Diji 1955- Faizal Ahmed Indus River Major Findings:

57 Khan Sindh (Pakistan) ● Wheel made painted pottery
● 16 layers of culture
● Defensive wall and aligned streets
● Metallurgy and artistic toys
● 5 figurines of Mother Goddess
Rangpur 1953 M S Vats, B B Mahar river Major Findings:

Lal and S R (Gujarat) ● Cultivation of rice
Rao
Ropar 1955- Y.D. (Yagya Sutlej River Major Findings:

56 Dutta) Punjab (India) ● Burying a dog with a master in a
Sharma rectangular mudbrick chamber.
● Scented soil
● Five-fold cultures (Harappa,
Kushan. Gupta and Medieval)

17
Lothal 1954- S R Rao Between Major Findings:

58 Bhogava & ● First man-made port in the world
Sabarmati rivers Dockyard made by burnt bricks.
Ahmedabad ● Painted jar (bird-fox).
district (Gujarat) ● Bead makers factory.
● Rice husk
● Fire altars
● A measuring scale
● Chess board
● Terracotta figurines of a horse
and a ship etc.
● Double burial (Male & Female)
● Dyeing Vat
● Persian/Iranian seal
● Bharainean seal
Alamgirpur 1958 Y.D. Sharma Hindon River Easternmost site of Civilization

Meerut Major Findings:
● Impression of cloth on a trough
Surkotada 1964 J.P. (Jagpati) Luni River Kutch Major Findings:

Joshi (Gujarat) ● Bones of horse
● Bead making shops
● Oval grave
● Pot burials
Banawali 1973 R.N. Ghaggar river Major Findings:

(Ravindra Hisar district ● Shows both pre Harappan &
Nath) Bisht (Haryana) Harappan phase
● Toy plough
● Clay figures of mother Goddess
● Good quantity of barley and rice
● Lack of systematic drainage
system
Balakot 1963 - George F The Arabian Sea Major Findings:

79 Dales Las Bela Valley ● Mounds (9.7 mts height, 2.8 sq.
hectare of area)

18
Dholavira 1985- R. N. Bisht Luni River Major Findings:

90 Rann of Kutch ● Unique water management.
(Gujarat) ● Largest site of large wells and a
bath.
● Three parts of the city.
● Seven cultural stages.
● Largest Harappan inscription used
for civil purposes.
● A stadium.
● Sign Boards
Rakhigarhi 1969 Prof Ghaggar-Hakra Major Findings:

(the largest Surajbhan River Plain ● Planned city- Evidence of paved
Indian site of Hisar district roads, drainage system, large
Indus (Haryana) rainwater collection, storage
Civilization) system, terracotta bricks.
● Pits surrounded by walls have
been found, which are thought to
be for sacrificial or some religious
ceremonies.
● A burial site has been found with
11 skeletons, with their heads in
the north direction- Near the
heads of these skeletons, utensils
for everyday use were kept.
● A granary belonging to the
mature Harappan phase.
● Hunting tools like copper hafts
and fish hooks.
● Cotton cloth traces preserved on
silver or bronze objects.
● Two of the skeletons, a man
between 35 and 40 years old and
a woman in early 20s were found
buried together side by side with
the men's head facing the
women.
● Two granaries including a granary
with guard-room.
● Evidence of large-scale rainwater
collection.
● A cemetery with 8 graves and
symbolic burial
● Four complete human skeletons
with grave-goods .
Manda 1975- J.P. Joshi & Chenab river Major Findings:

76 Madhu Bala Akhnoor ● Northernmost site of civilization
(Jammu) ● Copper pin
● Saddle querns
● Pot-shreds bearing incised Indus

19
script
● An unfinished seal
● Pre-Harappan and Harappan Red
Ware.
➢ Excavations at these sites have been a continuous process and usually involve many excavators
at different periods of times. For the convenience of students, In the above table only main
excavators and their year of excavation are mentioned.
➢ Mohenjodaro is the largest site of the Harappan Civilization.
➢ Rakhigarhi is the largest Indian site of Harappan Civilization.
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

PRELIMS
Q.1) Which one of the following is not a Harappan site?
(a) Chanhudaro
(b) Kot Diji
(c) Sohgaura
(d) Desalpur
Answer: (C)
Q.2) With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley
people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley
Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and
iron.
3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people
having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (C)
Q.3) Which of the following characterizes/ characterize the people of Indus Civilization?
1. They possessed great palaces and temples.
2. They worshipped both male and female deities.
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.
Select the correct statement/ statements using the codes given below. (2013)
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None of the statements given above is correct
Answer: (B)

20
MAINS
1. The ancient civilization in the Indian sub-continent differed from those of Egypt,
Mesopotamia and Greece in that its culture and traditions have been preserved without a
breakdown to the present day. Comment.
2. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of IVC provided inputs to the present day
urbanisation?

21
Vedic Age/Period
Vedic Age/Period
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Sources of Vedic Period
3. Advent of Aryans: Theories related to Original Home of Aryans
4. Geographical Expansion of Aryans in India
5. Phases of Vedic Period
a. Early Vedic / Rig Vedic Period:
i. Geographical location
ii. Economy
iii. Society
iv. Polity
v. Religion
b. Later Vedic Period:
i. Geographical location
ii. Economy
iii. Society
iv. Polity
v. Religion
6. Vedic Literature
a. Shruti Literature
i. Vedas
ii. Brahmanas
iii. Aranyakas
iv. Upanishads
b. Smriti Literature
i. Vedangas
ii. Sutras
iii. Puranas
iv. Epics
v. Dharshana
vi. Upavedas
vii. Dharmasastras
7.Previous Years Questions
INTRODUCTION
Vedic Age (1500 BC -600 BC), in the history of India, is the period during which Vedas were
composed. The associated culture is referred to as Vedic civilization and was centered in the
northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.Vedic civilization denotes the beginning
of the historic period in India.
Do You Know?
Harappan Civilization declined by around 1750 BC and Vedic civilization began around 1500 BC.
There is a gap of around 250 years between these two major events, and we know nothing about
the events associated with this gap.

1
Vedic Age/Period
SOURCES OF VEDIC PERIOD

Vedic texts (Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Puranas and Epics like Ramayana and
Mahabharata etc.) are believed to be composed by the Indo-Aryans and they are the primary
sources for the reconstruction of the Vedic culture/Vedic age. They shed light on the political, social,
economic, and religious life of the Aryans.
[Note: Vedic literature has been discussed ahead in detail.]
ADVENT OF ARYANS
● The term ‘Aryan’ represents a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages, from which
later emerged Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek etc.
○ Vedic people belonged to the Nordic race.
Do You Know?
Sanskrit words 'matri 'and ‘pitri’ are similar to the Latin ‘mater and ‘pater’. Similarly, Inar of the
Hittite (Turkey) language is similar to ‘Indra’ of the Vedas. ‘Suryyas’ and ‘Maruttash’ of the Kassite
(Mesopotamia) inscriptions are equivalent of the Vedic ‘Surya’ and ‘Marut’.
ORIGINAL HOME
● Some Historians believe that the Aryans were native to the soil of India while others believe that
the Aryans migrated from outside, i.e. Central Asia (Max Muller); Europe, Arctic region (B.G.
Tilak) and so on.
● The following five important theories are put forward regarding the original home of Aryans:
Central Asian • This theory was advocated by the famous German orientalist Max Mueller.
Theory • Max Mueller made a comparative study of “Avesta” and “Vedas” and
concluded that ancient ancestors of Indian and Iranian Aryans must have
lived for a very long period of time. Hence the original homeland of the
Aryans must be the region adjacent to these countries.
o The vegetation and animals which are mentioned in "Vedas" and
"Avesta" are similar to those found in Central Asia. Hence, the original
homeland of Aryans must be the region of Central Asia.
European • Many scholars believe that the continent of Europe was the homeland of
Theory Aryans and the ancestors of Indian Aryans belonged to them.
• This theory was forwarded by Sir W. Jones in 1786 which was based on
comparative linguistics.
• He pointed that Greek, Latin, Gothic, English and Sanskrit language have
almost similar words for mother and father. Thus, the speakers of these
languages have the same ancestors.
Indian Theory • Dr. Sampurnanand and A. C. Das declared that "Sapta Sindhu” region was
the homeland of the Aryans.
• According to Ganganath Jha "Brahmarishi Desh" was the land of the
Aryans.
• L. D. Kala propagated for Kashmir.
• R. B. Pandey believed Madhya Pradesh to be the locale of Aryans.
Tibetan • Swami Dayanand Saraswati gave the theory that Tibet was the original
Theory home of the Aryans and also tried to give the facts by referring to Vedas
and other books.
Arctic Region • This theory was put forward by Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
Theory o His theory was based on the comparative study of 'Avesta' and

2
Vedic Age/Period
'Vedas'.
o Vedas speak about 6 months long day and long nights.
o He believed that Northern Arctic region was suitable for dwelling.
Aryans initially lived there but with the climatic and geographical
changes, Aryans had to move out.
● Based on the philological evidence, originally the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the
Steppes stretching from southern Russia to Central Asia. From here, a group of them migrated to
northwest India and came to be called Indo-Aryans or just Aryans. .
● Aryans had migrated to the Indian subcontinent in several waves spanning several hundred
years, and it seems the earliest wave of migration was around 1500 BCE.
Archaeology about Aryan Migration
The archaeological excavations at various sites suggest that :

1. Earlier scholars believed that the Indo-Aryans caused the downfall of the Harappan civilization
by destroying the Harappan towns and cities. They quoted Rigvedic hymns which invoke Indra
to destroy the dwellers of the forts. But archaeological evidence has shown that the decline of
the Harappan civilization was not caused by any large-scale destruction brought about by an
alien invading group.
2. Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware with the Aryans also do not receive
strong support from archaeological evidence. If the PGW cultures were related to the Aryans,
then keeping the theory of invasion in mind, we should have found this pottery type in the
areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab i.e. along the route taken by the so-called Aryan migrants.
However, we find these pottery types confined to a particular geographical region comprising
Haryana, Upper Ganga basin and eastern Rajasthan.
3. It was earlier thought that there exists a time gap and hence, a cultural discontinuity between
the Late Harappan and the post-Harappan Chalcolithic period. However, recent excavations at
Bhagwanpura, Dadheri (Haryana), and Manda (Jammu) have shown that the Late Harappan
and Painted Grey Wares could be found together without any breaks. Hence “invasion”
cannot be proved on the basis of the excavated sites.
Conclusion
● First, there is no substantial proof in archaeology that there was large-scale migration of
people from central or Western Asia into the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE.
● Second, archaeologically there is no proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan civilization
and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization.
Hence , it is said popularly-“Archaeology knows of no Aryans, only literature knows of Aryans.”
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPANSION OF ARYANS IN INDIA

● Aryans first appeared around 1500 BC in the Sapta Sindhu region ( Land of the Seven Rivers)
around which the Harappan culture once flourished.
● From 1000 BC on-wards, with the introduction of iron technology, Aryans had started deserting
‘Sapta Sindhu' region and expanding further eastwards; finally settled in Gangetic plains (1000-
600 BC).

3
Vedic Age/Period
PHASES OF VEDIC PERIOD

● Vedic texts reflect two stages of development in terms of literature as well as social and cultural
evolution.
● The Rigveda which is the oldest Vedic text reflects one stage of social and cultural development
whereas the other three Vedas reflect another stage. The first stage is known as the Rigvedic
period or Early Vedic period and the later stage is known as the Later Vedic period.
Phases of Vedic period

Early Vedic or Rig Vedic Period ( 1500 - Later Vedic Period (1000 - 600 BC)
1000 BC)
Rig Vedic period refers to the period in Later Vedic period was the period in which three
which Rig Veda was compiled. Vedas along with their respective Brahmanas,
Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed
EARLY VEDIC OR RIG VEDIC PERIOD (1500 - 1000 BC)

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION:
● The early Vedic Aryans lived in the area known as sapta-sindhu (Land of seven rivers).

4
Vedic Age/Period
Sapta Sindhu region largely covers the northwestern part of South Asia up to river Yamuna i.e.,
Eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Punjab and some parts of Western Uttar Pradesh.
In Zend Avesta, an ancient Iranian text that shares similarities with Rig Veda, rivers in
Afghanistan like Kubha, Indus and its tributaries and Saraswati river are mentioned. Whereas,
Rig Veda mentions Indus and its five tributaries along with Saraswati river -and hence the identity
of these seven rivers is not clearly established.
Rig Vedic Rivers

● More than 25 rivers were mentioned in RigVeda.
● Most referred rivers are Sindhu (73 times), Saraswati (19 times), Ganga (twice), Yamuna (thrice)
and Sarayu (twice).
● According to the Rigveda, the Saraswati was the most pious river. In the Rig Veda, Saraswati is
referred as Matetama (best of all mothers), Devitama (best of all goddesses) and Naditama
(best of all rivers).
● Some of the prominent rivers mentioned in the Rigveda include-
River RigVedic name Region
Indus Sindhu Punjab
Ravi Parushini, Iravati Punjab
Jhelum Vitasta Punjab
Chenab Asikni Punjab
Beas Vipas Punjab
Sutlej Sutudri Punjab
Gomati Gumal Afghanistan
Kurram Krumu Afghanistan
Kabul Khubha Afghanistan
Swath Suvastu Afghanistan
Ghaggar Drishadvati Rajasthan
Saraswati Sarsuti Rajasthan
Ganga Ganga Uttar Pradesh
Sarayu Guljaram Uttarakhand
Note:
● River Narmada is not mentioned in RigVeda.
● Early Vedic Aryans were never exposed to seas whereas the references of 'Samudra' in RigVeda
is attributed to the confluence of rivers, not sea.
ECONOMY
● The Early Vedic society was pastoral; cattle rearing was the dominant occupational activity.

5
Vedic Age/Period
○ A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce.
● Hymns of the Rigveda yield extensive evidence of the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic
society. This provides evidence that-
○ They domesticated animals like cows (referred 176 times in RgVeda), oxen, horses (215
times), camels, goats, sheep etc. for the purposes of milk, meat and hides.
○ Elephants were rarely domesticated.
○ In wild animals lion was frequently referred but not tiger.
Do You Know?
Many linguistic expressions in the Rigveda are associated with the cow (gau).
● Cattle was the chief measure of wealth and a wealthy man who owned many cattle was
called ‘gomat’.
● The terms used for conflicts and battles in this period were gavishti, gavesana, gavyat, etc
○ ‘Gavishti’ means ‘In search of cows’.
● The raja or the chief is called the ‘gopati’ or one who protects cows.
● ‘Godhuli’ is used as a term for a measure of time.
● Distance is called ‘Gavyuti’.
● A daughter is called ‘Duhitr’ or one who milks the cows.
● Kinship units are labelled as ‘gotra’.
All these terms are derived from the word gau and suggest that social relations and all-important
areas of Rigvedic life centred round the rearing of cows. Literary references to pasture lands, cow
pens, dairy products and domesticated animals are also found in most of the hymns and prayers.
Agriculture
● The evidence for agriculture in comparison with pastoral activities in the early portions is
meager and mostly late insertions.
○ A few references show that they had knowledge of agriculture and practiced it to
supplement their food requirements.
● Agriculture was their secondary economic activity for subsistence.
○ Note-Sapta Sindhu region received low rainfall and all the rivers mentioned in the Rigveda
are known to change their courses frequently. This along with lack of iron tools and
implements had restricted Early Vedic people to take up large-scale cultivation.
● Crops-They produced yava (modern jau or barley), which was rather a generic word for cereals.
○ Apart from ‘Yava’ or barley, no other grains are mentioned in RigVeda.
● Agricultural Technology-The Early Vedic people had no knowledge of iron technology and the
only metal referred in RigVeda is 'Aya' (copper either in its pure form or alloyed form).
○ Copper did not have as much value in agricultural operations as iron implements.
○ Agricultural tools mentioned in the Rigveda are- langala or sira (the plough), the wooden
phala (ploughshare), Khanitra (hoe), the datra (sickle) and the parasue (axe).
○ Fire was used to burn down the forest cover and shifting agriculture was practised.
Do You Know?
Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in the Early Vedic society. Tribal
conflicts led to the payment of tributes and prestations, i.e. bali, to the victorious chiefs by the
defeated or the subordinate groups. The rest of the clansmen of the victorious tribe had a share in
the spoils and booty won in the war. The chief also fed and gave gifts to his clansmen during
ceremonial occasions. Thus, Historians consider RigVedic economy as a ‘Gift economy’
Note: There was no concept of private property based on land-ownership in RigVedic Period.

6
Vedic Age/Period
Trade and commerce

● Apart from cattle-rearing and small-scale cultivation, people were engaged in many other
economic activities. Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-making, metal smeltry etc.
were some such activities. The products of these activities were exchanged through barter.
However, cows were the most favoured medium of exchange.
SOCIETY
Structure of Society
● The basic social unit was the Kula, or the family, and the Kulapa i.e. ‘one who protects the
family’ denoted the eldest male member or the head of the family.
● The family was part of a larger grouping called vis or clan.
● The clans settled in villages or grama.
● One or more than one clans made jana or tribe and the chief of the tribe was the raja or the
gopati. The jana was the largest social unit.
○ All the members of a clan were related to each other by blood relation.
○ The membership of a tribe was based on birth and not on residence in a certain area.
Tribe (Jana), Head of the Tribe (Rajan) Tribal Unit/Clan (Vis), Village (Grama), Family (Kula),
Head of the family (Kulapa).
Nature of Society
● The Early Vedic society was a tribal and largely an egalitarian society.
○ Social relations were based on kinship ties.
○ There was no caste division.
○ Occupation was not based on birth and members of a family could adopt different
occupations.
● However, certain differences did exist during the period.
○ Society was economically stratified, and we do find references to rich people possessing
chariots, cattle, etc. and making generous gifts of them.
■ Certain practices during this period, such as concentration of larger share of the war
booty in the hands of the chiefs and priests resulted in the creation of some
inequalities within a tribe during the later part of this Vedic phase.
○ Gradually, the Rig Vedic tribals society was divided into three groups- warriors, priests and
the ordinary people.
■ The sudra category came into existence only towards the end of the Rigvedic period.
● This means that the division of society in the early Vedic period was not sharp. This is indicated
by the following verse in the Rigveda: “I am a poet, my father is a physician and my mother
grinds grain upon the stone. Striving for wealth, with varied plans, we follow our desires like
cattle.”
○ Varna or colour was the basis of initial differentiation between the Vedic and non-Vedic
people. Rigveda mentions arya varna and dasa varna.
Do You Know?
The authors of the Rigveda distinguished themselves from other groups whom they called Dasas
and Dasyus. The Dasas are described as dark, full-lipped, snub-nosed, worshippers of the phallus
and of hostile speech. They were rich in cattle and lived in fortified strongholds.
● Dasas were, also mentioned in ancient Iranian literature, probably a branch of early Aryans.
● Dasyus were original inhabitants of the country, possibly phallus worshipers.
● References of Trasadasyu, an Aryan chief who overpowered Dasyus, and 'dasyuhatya'
(slaughter of Dasyus) were found in RigVeda.

7
Vedic Age/Period
● Aryans were soft towards Dasas and were hostile towards Dasyus.
Rigveda also mentions another group of people called the Panis who were wealthy in cattle
treasures.
● Occupation-Rig Veda mentions various occupational groups such as those of weavers, smiths,
carpenters, leather workers, chariot-makers, priests etc. The chariot-makers occupied special
social status and Bronze-smiths and carpenters were frequently referred to in RigVeda.
○ Takshan refers to the carpenter and rathakara refers to the chariot maker.
○ The weaver was called as 'Vaya' whereas the Charakha was called as 'Tasar'.
○ The goldsmith was called as 'Hiranyakar' who used to make Jewellery of gold, both for
human and horses.
○ There are no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages in the Rigveda.
○ There are multiple references of slaves.
● Trade: The trade was on the levels of exchanges and involved only “barter system”.
○ The people involved in trade was called as 'Pani'.
○ Cows were the most favoured medium of exchange.
● Society was patriarchal.
○ The birth of a son was the common desire of the people.
○ The importance given to the male members is reflected in the Rigvedic hymns, where the
desire for a son is a constant prayer.
Do You Know?
● Vedic Aryans used to wear colourful cloths of cotton and wool. Such colourful cloths were
embroidered by women, known as Peshaskari.
● The dress of Aryans consisted of: Nivi (Loin cloth), Vas (all over cover like chadar), Adhivas
(covered upper body).
● The head was tied by a turban or a headgear or 'Pagri'.
● 'Uttariya' was worn both by men and women.
● The popular drink of the Aryans was ‘somaras’.
Position of Women
● Comparatively, the women in Early Vedic society enjoyed a respectable position.
● Monogamy was the usual norm of marriage but both polygamy and polyandry were also
present.
o Marriages took place after attaining maturity. After marriage the wife went to her husband’s
house.
● Though Sati was mentioned , it was never practiced in a strict sense and was only symbolic.
● There were no references of child marriage.
● There are few references to widow remarriage.
○ Niyoga (levirate)-marrying the husband's younger brother after the death of one's husband
was allowed.
● Women were educated and they had access to the tribal assemblies. There are also instances of
women who composed hymns.
○ Learned women, who chose the path of Vedic studies, were called 'brahmavadinis'.
○ Brahmavadins viz. Lopamudra, Gosha and Apala had contributed to the hymns of RigVeda.
Do You Know?
RigVeda mentions 22 female scholars and sages that include -Ghosha, Lopamudra, Sulabha

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Vedic Age/Period
Maitreyi, Gargi Kakshivati, Dakshina Prajapathya, Vishvavar, Atreyi, Godha,, Apala, Yami
Vivasvathi, Lopamudra, Romasha Svanya,, Aditi Dakshayeni,, Ratri Bharadwaja, Vasukra Pathni,
Surya Savitri, Indrani, Sarma Devasuni, Urvashi, Shashwati, Angirasi, and Sri Laksha.
POLITY
● The polity of the early vedic period was a tribal one where democratic principles were generally
predominant.
● We have mentioned above that the chief social unit of the Aryans was known as jana. The chief
of jana was the political leader called rajan.
○ The post of the chief was not hereditary. The tribe generally elected him.
■ Though the succession in one family was known but that was not based on the rule of
primogeniture (i.e., the eldest son acquiring the position).
● The main function of the rajan was to protect the jana and cattle from the enemies. He was
helped in his task by the tribal assemblies called sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana and parishad.
○ Out of these sabha and samiti were the most important assemblies.
■ All aspects of life were discussed in these assemblies. These may include wars,
distribution of the spoils of wars, judicial and religious activities etc. Thus these
assemblies in a way limited the powers of the chiefs. Interestingly, women were also
allowed to participate in the deliberations of the sabha and samiti.
Tribal Assemblies of Early Vedic Period

● It was the council of elders of the clan.
Sabha ● Referred as 'Narista'-meaning its resolutions cannot be denied.
● Women had special representation in this assembly.
● It was the General assembly of the entire clan.

Samiti ● Its most important function was the election of Rajan.
● Rigveda refers to this assembly 122 times- probably it might be the most
important one.
● This assembly was a kind of dispute resolutionary body, but was not
directly involved in administrative functions.
Vidhata ● It took up the task of distribution and re-distribution of wealth among the
clan.
● Women had special representation in this assembly.
● No much information is available regarding this assembly.
Gana ● It also participated in distribution of wealth of the clan.
Functionaries:
In the day to day administration, the king was assisted by the following functionaries:
● Purohita-He was the most important functionary.The purohita assisted and advised the chief on
various matters.
○ His role also included to offer prayers and perform rituals. Two priests who played a major
part in the time of Rig Veda are Vasishtha and Visvamitra.
● Senapati- He was the next important functionary. He assisted Rajan in waging wars.
● Vrajapati-He was the officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture lands. He led the heads of
the families called kulapas or the heads of the fighting hordes/units called gramanis to battle.
● Gramani- He was the head of village or fighting hordes/units, He was referred as 'Rajakarte'
(king-maker) in RigVeda.
● Takshan, the carpenter and rathakara, the chariot maker were responsible for making chariots.

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Vedic Age/Period
Note:
● There is no official mentioned as a collector of taxes.
○ The people offered to the chief what is called bali- It was just a voluntary contribution made
by the ordinary tribesmen on special occasions.
● Rig veda does not mention any officer for administering justice.
○ But it was not an ideal society.-There were cases of theft and burglary and especially theft of
cows is heard. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial activities.
● Army- The sena or army was not a permanent fighting group.
○ In times of war, Rajan mustered a militia whose military functions were performed by
different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, sardha.
○ The warrior category was the ‘rajanya’.
All this shows that the early Vedic polity was an uncomplicated system based on the support and
active participation of all the tribesmen. This situation, however, changed during the later Vedic
phase.
Tribal Conflicts
● Possession of cattle and the pastoral lands was the bone of contention between different groups
and led to occasional intertribal fights and conflicts.
○ When gramas clashed with one another, it caused Sangrama (war).
● The most decisive intra-tribal conflict (Gavisti) referred in RigVeda is Dasarajna( Battle of Ten
Kings).
Dasarajna( The Battle of Ten Kings)

● This battle was fought on the banks of river Parushini (Ravi).
● The battle was fought between the Bharata tribe and a confederation of 5 Aryan and 5 non-
Aryan tribes led by the Puru tribe.
○ 5 Aryan Tribes were-Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu and Druhyu.
○ 5 Non-Aryan Tribes were-Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin.
● This battle is also known as “Priests' conflict”, since Sudasa of Bharata tribe was supported by
Vasista while Purukutsa was supported by Viswamitra.
● Reason for the battle-There was a dispute among these tribes in matters of cattle issue, river
water sharing and control over pastures of Sapta Sindhu region.
● Outcome- Bharata tribe won the battle and this battle had established the supremacy of
Bharata tribe.
RELIGION
● The religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda.
● RigVedic religion is materialistic in nature-The prayers to propitiate gods for physical protection
and for material gains were the main concerns of the Rigvedic people.
● The Vedic religion was sacrificial in nature i.e., sacrifices or yajnas were performed:
○ To invoke the gods, in order to grant boons;
○ Victory in battles, or
○ For acquisition of cattle, sons etc.
RigVedic Gods
● Early Vedic people worshipped the natural forces around them like wind, water, rain, thunder,
fire etc.
● The attributes of the Rigvedic gods reflect the tribal and patriarchal nature of the society as we
do not find many goddesses mentioned in the text.
○ Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, Soma, etc. are all male gods.

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Vedic Age/Period
○In comparison, we have only a few goddesses such as Ushas, Sarasvati, Prithvi, etc which
occupy secondary positions in the pantheon.
● The functions of different gods reflect their needs in the society.
○ Since the Rigvedic people were engaged in wars with each other they worshipped Indra as a
god. He is the most frequently mentioned god in the Rigveda. He carried the thunderbolt
and was also respected as a weather god who brought rains.
○ Maruts the god of storm aided Indra in the wars in the way tribesmen aided their leader in
the tribal wars.
○ Agni, the fire god was the god of the home and was considered an intermediary between
gods and men.
○ Soma was associated with plants and herbs. Soma was also a plant from which an
intoxicating juice was extracted. This juice was drunk at sacrifices.
○ Varuna, another important deity, was the keeper of the cosmic order known as rita. This rita
was an important aspect of tribal set-up.
○ Pushan was the god of the roads, herdsmen and cattle. In the life of the pastoral nomads,
this god must have been very important.
Other gods were similarly associated with other aspects of nature and life.
RigVedic Gods
● Most important God of Early Vedic people.

Indra ● RigVeda devoted 250 hymns to him.
● Indra was the god of strength and the god of thunder.
● Varuna is water god.

Varuna ● Upholder of Rta (cosmic and moral order).
● Punishes immoral people with Pasha.
● Aryans appealed him for forgiveness.
● RigVeda devoted 20 hymns to him.
● Agni is Fire god.
Agni ● Priest of gods (intermediary between men and god).
● Soma is god of plants.
Soma ● King of gods.
Other Vayu(Wind god); Marutha( God of storms); Yama(God of death); Aswins(Healers of
prominent diseases), pushan(Protector of cattle), Dyaus (God of Heaven).
Gods
RigVedic Aditi(Earth goddess); Ushas(Goddess of dawn), Aranyasi(Godess of forests);
Godesses Savitri(Godess of light); Ila(Mother of cattle herds).
LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 - 600 BC)

● The period that followed Rig Vedic period is known as the Later Vedic period. This period is also
marked as Iron- PGW Age because of the use of iron in agriculture and painted grey ware
(PGW).
● The history of this period is based mainly on the Vedic texts which were completed after the age
of the Rig Veda.

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Vedic Age/Period
GEOGRAPHICAL EXPANSION
● The literature of this period mentions the Arabian sea, the Vindhya range and the Northern
plains of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.
● During this period, the Aryans moved into Eastward and southward regions.
○ In the East, Aryans inhabited the Awadh region and after that they entered into Bihar. A
proof of the Eastward march was given in the Satapatha Brahmana through the story of
Agni and Videha.
● The Later Vedas give three broad divisions of India:
○ Aryavarta (Northern India);
○ Madhyadesa (Central India); and
○ Dakshina Patha (Southern India).
Major Kingdoms of the Later Vedic Period

● Panchal (Bareilly, Badayun & Farrukhabad in U.P.)
● Kushinagar (Eastern region of Uttar Pradesh)
● Kashi (Modem Varanasi)
● Koshal (Faizabad in Uttar Pradesh)
● Southern Madra (Near Amritsar)
● Uttara Madra (Kashmir)
● Eastern Madra (Near Kangra)
● Kekaya (On the bank of Beas River east of Gandhar kingdom)
● Gandhar (Rawalpindi & Peshawar)
ECONOMY
● During the Later Vedic Period, the pastoral economy of the Early Vedic period was replaced by a
sedentary agrarian economy.
Agriculture
● Agriculture was the mainstay of the Later Vedic people. This is largely due to-
○ the establishment of settlements in the most fertile and virgin lands of Ganga-Yamuna doab
and mid-Gangetic valley which are suitable for high agricultural productivity; and
○ the use of iron tools and agricultural implements in land reclamation.
● The buffalo had been domesticated for the agricultural purposes. This animal was extremely
useful in ploughing the swampy land.
● The number and varieties of plant food increased. Apart from barley, people now cultivated
wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet,sugarcane etc.
○ With the beginning of food production agricultural produce began to be offered in the
rituals.
■ Tila, from which the first widely used vegetable food-oil was derived increasingly, came
to be used in rituals.
● With the passage of time the Vedic people also acquired better knowledge of seasons, m nuring
and irrigation.
All these developments resulted in the substantial enlargement of certain settlements such as
Hastinapur and Kaushambi towards the end of the Later Vedic period. These settlements slowly
began to acquire characteristics of towns. Such rudimentary towns inhabited mainly by the chiefs,
princes, priests and artisans were supported by the peasants who could spare for them some part of
their produce voluntarily or involuntarily.

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Vedic Age/Period
Do You Know?
● Vedic texts refer to rice with multiple names like- Vrihi, Tandula and Sali.
● ‘Godhuma’ denotes wheat
Use of Iron
● The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the later Vedic period was the
beginning of the use of iron around 1000 BC.
○ The iron metal is called Syama or Krishna ayas in the later Vedic texts.
○ Iron implements buried with dead bodies have been discovered in good numbers.
● Archaeological evidence at Baluchistan , Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan has shown that
iron began to be used around 1000 BC which is also the period of later Vedic literature.
Do You Know?
● The objects which are found in the excavations are iron tipped arrowheads, spearheads, etc.
i.e. weapons of which the largest number comes from the Ahichhatra excavations.
● Sickles, hoes, axes are rarely found in the excavations.
● One ploughshare has been reported from Jakhera which probably belongs to the end of this
period.
Thus, from the excavations, it appears that the use of iron was restricted to making weapons and y
had not much affected the agricultural operations in later Vedic period.
Crafts
● The Later Vedic period saw the rise of diverse arts and crafts.
● Some important craftsmen mentioned in the Later Vedic texts include- Vyaya (Weaver),
Kulala(Potter);Tashta(Carpenter),Karmara(Black-smith), Hiranyakara (Gold-smith), and
Rathakara (Chariot-maker).
● Pottery- Black and red ware, Black slipped ware, Painted Grey Ware and Red Ware.
Do You Know?
Archaeologists refer to Aryan culture as PGW (Painted-Grey Ware) Culture. PGW, exclusively used
by Aryans, is thin wheel-made grey to ash-grey pottery, painted with black linear designs on both
the inner and outer surfaces.
Note: Pottery will be discussed in detail in Art and culture classes.
Trade and Commerce

● There was growth of trade and commerce.
○ This led to the rise of urban centers in Indo-Gangetic basin viz., Hastinapur, Kausambi,
Ahichchatra etc
● There was no mention of coined money and the Barter system has continued in economic
transactions.
○ Nishka, Satamana (100 silver units) and Krishala (copper object having fixed value) were
used as means of exchange.
● Money-lending activity had become an important profession.
○ Kusidin (usurer) is referred for the first time in Satapatha Brahmana.
SOCIETY
● The family remains the basic unit of the Vedic society. However, its composition underwent a
change.

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Vedic Age/Period
○ The later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint-family with three or four
generations living together.
○ The institution of gotra developed in this period. This means that people having common
gotra descended from a common ancestor and no marriage between the members of the
same gotra could take place.
● Patriarchal Family System-The eldest of male members of the family perceived as the head of
family, called as 'grihapati'.
Varna system
The most important change was the rise and growth of social differentiation in the form of varna
system.
● The 10th Mandala in Purushsukta of Rigveda mentions a clear-cut division of the society.
● Duties assigned to each varna:
○ Brahman-Teaching, learning, performance and hosting of sacrifice
■ The growing number of sacrifices and rituals during the period made the brahmanas very
powerful. They conducted various rituals including those related to different stages of
agricultural operations. This made them all the more important.
○ Kshatriya-Learning, hosting sacrifice and protection of people and land
■ The kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers. They along with brahmanas
controlled all aspects of life.
○ Vaishya-Trade and agriculture; the agriculturists, traders and artisans belonged to this varna
■ The brahmanas and the kshatriyas were dependent on the tributes (gifts and taxes) paid
to them by the vaishyas.
○ Shudra- They were at the bottom of the social hierarchy and were ordained to be in the
service of the three upper varnas.
■ They were not entitled to the ritual of upanayana samskara (investiture with sacred
thread necessary to acquire education). This can be construed as the beginning of the
imposition of disabilities on the shudras as well as the beginning of the concept of ritual
pollution.
● The other three varnas (Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishya) were entitled to such a ceremony and
hence they were known as dvijas.
Chatur-Varnashrama system
Another important institution that began to take shape in this period was ashrama or different
stages of life.In this, a person's life is divided into four parts and he was assigned some duties with
respect to his age:
1. Brahmacharya ashrama-Studentship
2. Grihastha ashrama-Householder
3. Van-prastha ashram-Partial retirement from household life
4. Sanayas ashrama -Complete retirement from social life
Concept of Purushartha
● Every man was expected to follow four main duties in his life: Artha (economic values), Kama
(pleasure), Dharma (righteousness), and Moksha (liberation).
System of Marriage
● Monogamous marriages were preferred even though polygamy was frequent.
● 'Inter-Varna' marriages were disliked, whereas 'same gotra/ family’ marriages were forbidden.
● There were two types of legalized structures of marriages:
○ Anuloma marriage was used to perform between bridegroom from higher Varna and bride
from lower Varna.

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Vedic Age/Period
○ Pratiloma marriage was used to perform between bridegroom from lower varna and bride
from higher varna.
● Asta-vivaha -This refers to the eight types of marriages prevalent during the period.
Astavivaha
S.No. Type of Marriage Description
1 Brahma Most idealistic marriage; duly dowried, and marriage in same Varna
with the consent of parents
2 Daiva Giving daughter to a priest in lieu of dakshina
3 Arsa Marriage with a token bride-price of a cow and a bull
4 Prajaprathya Marriage without dowry or bride-price
5 Gandharva Clandestine marriage with the consent of the both parties; meant for
kshatriyas
6 Asura Marriage by purchase which was meant for Vysyas
7 Rakshasa Marriage by capture which was also meant for Kshatriyas
8 Paisacha Marriage by seducing girl with intoxicants, meant for Shudras
Note: First four marriages were permissible to Brahmans.
Position of Women
● This period onwards status of women had started deteriorating.Some restrictions on women
appeared during this period.
○ In a text women have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine.
○ In another text a daughter has been said to be the source of all sorrows.
○ The participation of women in public meetings was restricted.
○ Husband received the status as a Patiparmeshwar (God).
○ According to the Satapatha Brahmana, a wife was supposed to eat only after the husband
had finished eating.
○ Manusmriti laid down various restrictions regarding the traditional rights for women in his
book Manusmriti.
○ Hindu Dharmashastras denied offering prayers and sacrifices, practices of penances and
undertake religious pilgrimages for women.
POLITY
The changes in the material and social life during the later Vedic period led to changes in the political
sphere as well.
● The small tribal states (Janas) of Rig Vedic period were replaced by large territorial states
(Janapada).

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Vedic Age/Period
○ Puru and Bharata tribes of RigVedic period were merged to form Kuru rajya.
○ Srijanya, Krivi, Turuvasa, Somaka, Keshin tribes were merged into Panchala kingdom.
● Monarchy-The chiefship had become hereditary and tribal polity was now replaced by a
monarchical system of governance.
○ The idea of the divine nature of kingship gets a mention in the literature of this period. The
brahmanas helped the chiefs in this process
○ To assert his authority over subjects, the king began to perform public rituals to get religious
sanctity and to secure titles like Samrat, Virat, and Bhoja.
● As the chiefs became more powerful, the authority of the popular assemblies started waning.
○ The officers were appointed to help the chief in administration and they acquired the
functions of the popular assemblies as main advisors.
● A rudimentary army too emerged as an important element of the political structure during this
period.
Do You Know?
There were two theories regarding the origin of kingship.
● Aitareya Brahmana explained the rational theory of election by common consent of origin of
kingship
● Taittiriya Brahmana explained the divine origin of kingship.
● There were five Types of State System that include-

○ Rajya(Central kingdom) - Ruled by the Raja
○ Bhojya (Southern kingdom)- Ruled by the Bhoja
○ Swarajya (Western kingdom)- Ruled by Svarat
○ \Vairajya (Northern kingdom)- Ruled by the Virat
○ Samrajya (Eastern kingdom)- Ruled by the Samrat.
● Tax system-The king levied taxes like ‘Bali’, ‘sulka’ and ‘Bhaga’.
Bureaucracy
There were officers/ministers known as ‘Ratnins’ to assist the king in the administration. Some
important Ratnins and other officials include :
● Purohita -Chief Priest, also called the Rastra Gopa
● Senani-Supreme Commander of the Army
● Vrajapati-Officer Incharge of the Pasture land
● Jivagribha-Police Officer
● Spasas/ Dutas-Spies, who sometimes worked as messengers
● Gramani-Leader of the village
● Madhya Masi-Mediator of disputes
● Kulapati-Family head
● Bhagadugha-Tax Collector
● Sangrahitri-Treasurer
● Mahishi -Chief Queen
● Suta-Charioteer
● Govikartana-King's campanian in games
● Akshavapa-Accountant
● Sthapati-Chief Judge
● Gramyavadin-Village Judge
● Rathakara -Chariot maker
● Adhikrita-Village officer- lowest in the rank

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Vedic Age/Period
Note: Satapata Brahmana calls Suta and Gramani as 'Arajano Rajakarte' (non-royal king makers).
All these elements do not show that a janapada or territorial state with all its attributes had
emerged in the later Vedic period but the process has started and soon after the vedic period in the
sixth century BC the rise of sixteen mahajanpadas in the northern India is noticed.
RELIGION
As in the later Vedic period agriculture had become an important activity of the people. Changes in
the material life naturally resulted in a change in their attitude towards gods and goddesses too.
Continuous interactions with the local non-Aryan population also contributed to these changes.
● Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra (Trinity) which were smaller deities in the Rigveda became
extremely important.
○ Rigvedic Gods like Indra, Varuna and Surya became unpopular.
○ All the Natural forces were made subordinate to the Trinity were reduced to the position of
Astadikpalas.
● Pushan became the God of the shudra, who was the protector of cattle in the early Vedic
period.
● The religion became very complex in the Later Vedic period.
○ Speculative philosophies like transmigration of soul, salvation, karma etc began to dominate
Vedic religion.
● Increase in the frequency and number of the yajna.
○ This was probably the result of the growing importance of a class of brahmanas and their
efforts to maintain their supremacy in the changing society.
○ These yajnas brought to them a large amount of wealth in form of dana and dakshina.
● Some of the important yajnas were -
○ Asvamedha- meant to establish kings supremacy over other kings
○ Rajasuya-Consecration ceremony which conferred supreme power to the kings
○ Vajapeya -Chariot race which was meant to re-establish a king’s supremacy over his people.
● Sacrifices became far more important in rituals.

○ Sacrifices varied and codified with various types of rules and regulations i.e. karmakanda.
○ The right of performance of sacrifices became the monopoly of the priestly class.
People began to oppose these sacrifices during the later Vedic period itself. A large number of
cattle and other animals which were sacrificed at the end of each yajna must have hampered the
growth of economy. Therefore, a path of good conduct and self-sacrifice was recommended for
happiness and welfare in the last sections of the Vedas, called the Upnishads.
● Private rituals-Shodasakarmas (16 rituals) were expected to be performed by an individual to
get salvation during his lifetime from conception to cremation.
Shodasakarmas (16 rituals)
S.No. Ritual Description
1 Garbhadana A ceremony to promote conception in women
2 Pumsavana A ceremony to procure a male child
3 Simantonyaya A ceremony to ensure the safety of child in womb
4 Jatakarma A birth ceremony before cutting umbilical chord; an astrologer is called

on to interpret future of the child

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Vedic Age/Period
5 Namakarna A ceremony of naming child
6 Nishkramana Child is taken outside house to get exposed to the sun
7 Annaprasana A ceremony to introduce solid food to a child
8 Chudakarma Tonsure ceremony
9 Karnabheda A piercing ceremony
10 Vidyarambha A ceremony to introduce formal learning to a child
11 Upanayana Initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of three higher Varnas
12 Vedarambha A ceremony to start Vedic education
13 Keshanta Shaving of head at gurukul
14 Samavartana Home-coming ceremony from student-hood
15 Vivaha Marriage ceremony
16 Antyesti Funeral rites by son
VEDIC LITERATURE
Vedic literature is classified into two sets of literature: The Shruti and The Smriti.
Shruti Literature- The term ‘Shruti’ literally means “what was heard”. This literature, also known as
Vedic Literature, is thought to be eternal and thought to be revealed by gods to rishis. They are
orally transmitted for many centuries and later compiled into written texts. Shruti literature
includes- Vedas; Brahmanas ; Aranyakas; and Upanishads,. These are believed to be during 1500
BC-500 BC.
Smriti Literature- The term ‘Smriti’ literally means “that which was remembered”. These texts are
usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down but constantly revised. These are believed
to be written after Vedas i.e. post 1000 BC. The Smriti Literature includes- Vedangas, Shutras,
Puranas, Epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata); Dharshana and Upavedas.

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Vedic Age/Period
SHRUTI LITERATURE
Vedas There are four Vedas namely- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharvan
Veda. RigVeda, Sama Veda and Yajurveda are collectively known as 'Vedatrayi'.
Atharva Veda is a later addition and believed to be composed by non-Aryans.
Many scholars consider Bharatamuni's “Natyasastra” or sometimes,
Mahabharata as Panchama Veda (5th Veda).
(1)Rig Veda- It's the earliest of entire Vedic literature. It consists of

hymns(mantras) addressed to nature gods like Varuna (rain), Vayu (wind), Indira
(thunder), Surya(sun), and Usha (dawn).
● It is in verse form and contains 1028 hymns divided into 10 Mandalas /
Books. Each Mandala is ascribed to a particular family of seers. For instance,
III Mandala is associated with Viswamitra and VI Mandala is to Vasista.
● Famous Gayatri mantra which is dedicated to Goddess Savitri (Goddess of
light) is in III Mandala.
● Dasarajna (Battle of Ten Kings) is described in VII Mandala.
● Purusha Sukta which gives the first reference of Varna system is in X
Mandala. It explains that four Varnas were born from the mouth, arms, belly
and legs of the Creator respectively.
(2)Yajur Veda-It consists of hymns for rituals and sacrifices. It also prescribes the
procedures to be adopted at the time of performing different sacrifices.
● It consists of two parts namely – Krishna Yajurveda (in prose form) and
Shukla Yajurveda (in verse form).
(3)Sama Veda- The Samaveda is the Rig Veda set in musical form. It consists of
1063 hymns from the Rigveda arranged in keeping with the requirements of
melody.
(4)Atharvan Veda-It contains 711 hymns divided into 20 Khandas. Most of

these hymns are used to ward off evil spirits. It describes the popular beliefs and
superstitions of the humble folk due to non-Aryan influence.
Brahmanas Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and they
elaborately describe the various sacrifices and rituals, along with their mystic
meanings. A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant – RigVeda (2), Sama Veda (10),
Yajurveda (6) and Atharvan Veda(1). Important Brahmanas and associated
vedas include-
● Aithareya Brahmana- RigVeda
● Taittariya Brahmana-Krishna Yajurveda
● Satapata Brahmana-Shukla Yajurveda
● Tandyamana Brahmana-Sama veda
● Gopatha Brahmana-Atharvan Veda

19
Vedic Age/Period
Aranyakas Aranyakas are the appendices ( concluding portions) of the Brahmanas. They
deal with philosophical doctrines and mysticism to answer the various complex
questions related to human life. The word Aranyaka means 'the forest' and
these are called 'forest books' written mainly for the hermits and students living
in the jungles.
Upanishads Literally means ' sitting at the foot of' guru to get knowledge, they are the
concluding portions of Vedas, thus referred as “Vedantas”. They are in prose as
well as verse form. .
● Upanishads talk about the philosophical concepts and principles such as
Karma (right action), Atman (true self or soul), Brahman (ultimate reality)
and moksha (liberation from the birth and death cycle).
● They also contain Vedic doctrines that explain the process of self-realisation
through practices such as yoga and meditation.
There are 108 Upanishads classified according to the Vedas-10 out of them are
considered as 'Dasa or Mukhya Upanishads'. The names of Mukhya Upanishads
along with associated Vedas include-
● Aithareya-Rigveda
● Kena and Chandogya-Samaveda
● Isa and Brihadaranyaka- Shukla Yajurveda
● Katha and Taittariya-Krishna Yajurveda
● Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya-Atharvan Veda
Upanishads Vs Vedas
● The Upanishads contain the essence of the Vedas. They are the concluding
portions of the Vedas and are the source of the Vedanta philosophy.
● The Vedas start out as mythical and ritual texts. Whereas Upanishads have
been telling man, what it is that he should do, what it is that he should not
do; what paths, if adopted, will lead to good, what paths if adopted will lead
him to bad, and so on.
● The thoughtful way of Upanishad is deemed to be a bit more advanced than
the outward-looking nature of Vedas. Each Upanishad represents any of the
four Vedas, thereby explaining the profound truths hidden in that Veda with
an inner looking attitude.
● Upanishads laid the foundation for various philosophical systems that
developed in India. The three most famous Vedanta systems still prevalent
in India are Advaita, Dvaita and Vishishtaadvaita, which had borrowed the
ideologies from the important Upanishads.
● Upanishads are key texts that helped to develop and grow Samkya, Yoga,
Mimamsa, Buddhism, and Jainism.
Note-
● Our national motto ‘Satyameva Jayate’ is a part of a mantra from Mundaka
Upanishad.
● Brihadaranyaka Upanishad contains discussion between Yagnavalka and his
two wives, Gargi and Maitreyi.
● The first reference of Ahimsa is in Chandogya Upanishad.

20
Vedic Age/Period
Smriti Literature
Vedangas Vedangas are the supplements/limbs of Vedas and help in understanding the
Vedas. There are 6 such Vedangas-
1. Shiksha- It deals with the study of sounds and pronunciation(Phonetics)
of Vedic hymns.
2. Kalpa-It deals with the practical, ceremonial, sacrificial and ritual aspect
of the Vedas.
3. Vyakarana-It deals with Sanskrit grammar used in Vedic hymns.
4. Nirukta -It deals with etymology (study of origin of words) of the words
used in Vedas.
5. Chhanda -It deals with metrics( pattern in which one must recite any
mantra).
6. Jyotisa-It deals with the astronomical and astrological aspects of fixing
auspicious date and time to perfom vedic rites and rituals etc.
Sutras Kalpasutra is based on Vedic literature and has four sub divisions:
1. Srauta Sutras-They deal with major rituals such as the asvamedha and the
rajasuya.
2. Griha Sutras -They lay down the norms for domestic rituals including rites of
passage.
3. Dharma Sutras -They lay down social norms and conduct.
4. Sulba Sutras-They lay down principles of geometry that were used for
constructing the sacrificial altar.
Puranas Puranas are mythological works that propagate religious and spiritual messages
through parables and fables. These Puranas contain important geographical
information/ histories and deal with the mysteries of creation, re-creation and
dynastic genealogies(dynastic history).
● There were eighteen major Puranas: the Markandeya, Vayu, Brahmanda,
Vishnu, Matsya, Bhagvata, Kurma, Vamana, Linga, Varaha, Padma, Narada,
Agni, Garuda, Brahma, Skanda, Brahmavaivarta and the Bhavisya Purana
Puranas as Scripture of Masses
● The Puranas were recited in popular gatherings and were generally
considered as the scripture of the masses.
● The Sanskrit of the Vedas is archaic and difficult to master; the subtle
metaphysics of the Upanishads is difficult for a common person to
understand; the Puranas, hence, are of special value as they present Vedic
truths in a simple manner.
● The aim of the Puranas is to impress on the minds of the masses the
teachings of the Vedas and to generate in them devotion to God, through
concrete examples, myths, stories, legends, lives of saints, kings and great
men, allegories and chronicles of great historical events.
● The Puranic literature is encyclopedic, and it includes diverse topics such as
cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages,
and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy,
grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and
philosophy.
● The Puranas not only educated the masses and infused them with noble
ideals, they also tactfully solved social and economic problems that arose due

21
Vedic Age/Period
to social upheavals and foreign invasions. This way, Puranas disseminated

secular knowledge through legends and myths among the masses during the
ancient period in India.
Epics There are two Mahakavyas(Epics) namely-Ramayana and Mahabharata-both

seem to have been finally compiled by 400 AD. They reflect social, economic and
political conditions from the 10th century BC to the 4th century AD.
(1)Ramayana-It is considered as the Adikavya and believed to be composed by
Valmiki. The Ramayana of Valmiki originally consisted of 6000 verses than 12,000
verses and was finally expanded to 24,000 verses in 7 Kandas(sections).
(2)Mahabharata-It is believed to be composed by Ved Vyasa. It originally
consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jaya gita (a song dealing with victory).
These later got expanded to 24,000 verses and came to be known as Bharata
because it contained the stories of the descendents of one of the earliest Vedic
tribes called Bharata. A further expanded version of 1,00,000 verses was named
Mahabharata in 18 Parvas(books) plus Harivamsa supplement.
Note-Bhagavad Gita is part of Bhishmaparva of Mahabharata.
Dharshana There are six schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshana. They all
propagate the virtues of life.
1. Nyaya by Gautama-It is a school of logic and realism.It held that liberation is
gained through right knowledge i.e., by negating both illusion and
unhappiness using logic.
2. Vaishesika by Kanada-It postulated that all the objects in the physical
universe are reducible to ‘paramanu’ (atom). It held that knowledge and
liberation was achievable by fully recognizing the atomic nature of the
Universe and its difference from the soul. This atomic theory marked the
beginning of Physics in India.
3. Purvamimansa by Jaimini-It regards Vedas as eternal and rituals are of
primary importance. Thus it recommended the performance of Vedic rituals
and sacrifices to attain salvation (ritualism).
4. Sankhya by Kapila-It has no faith in existence of God. It held that world was
created and evolved by Nature/Prakriti. It further asserts that soul can attain
liberation only through real knowledge that is to be acquired through
observation and inference.
5. Yoga by Patanjali-It believes in salvation through meditation and physical
application. It had influenced the development of physiology and anatomy in
ancient times.
6. Uttaramimansa by Bhadarayana-It is the summary of the teachings of the
Upanishads. It dealt with metaphysical concepts like aatma-brahma, karma
doctrine, meditation, devotional Hinduism etc. It held that brahma is reality
and everything else is myth.
Upavedas There are four Upavedas.

1. Dhanurveda (deals with the art of warfare)-It is upaveda to Rigveda.
2. Gandharvaveda (deals with the music)-It is part of Yajurveda.
3. Silpaveda (deals with are and architecture)-It is part of Samaveda.
4. Ayurveda (deals with medicine)-It is part of Atharvana Veda.

22
Vedic Age/Period
Dharmasastra Dharmasastras are the source of religious law for Hindus. There are eighteen
s main Smritis or Dharma Sastras. The most important are those of Manu,
Yajnavalkya and Parasara. The other fifteen are those of Vishnu, Daksha,
Samvarta, Vyasa, Harita, Satatapa, Vasishtha, Yama, Apastamba, Gautama,
Devala, Sankha-Likhita, Usana, Atri and Saunaka.
Manusmriti:
● It is the earliest Hindu Law book, dated 2nd -3rd century AD, and translated
into English by William Jones in 1794.
● While 58 verses are attributed to Manu, the remaining 2000+ to his disciple
Bhrigu.
● It is mainly targeted to Brahmans (1034 verses) and Kshatriyas (971 verses).
● Important commentaries on Manusmriti were by Bharuchi (7th -11th c) and
Medhatithi (9th -11th c).
Narada Smriti:
● Dated 100-400 AD, it is known as judicial text par excellence.
● It exclusively deals with procedural and substantive law.
Yagnavalka Smriti:
● It is dated between 3rd and 5th century AD(Guptan period).
● ItIt divides dharma into three categories - Achara, Vyavahara, and
Prayaschitta.
● It is more advanced and unconventional Law book so that it allows widows to
inherit property.
UPSC PREVIOUS YEARS MAINS QUESTIONS

PRELIMS
1. Which one of the following four Vedas contains an account of magical charms and spells?
(a) Rig-veda
(b) Yajur-Veda
(c) Atharva-Veda
(d) Sama-veda
Ans:( C)
2. With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people,
which of the following statements is/are correct?
(1) Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley
Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
(2) Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and
iron.
(3) Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people
having been aware of this animal.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

23
Vedic Age/Period
Answer: (C)
Mains
1. Describe the social life of the later vedic people. How was it different from the Rig vedic life.
2. Examine the view that sacrifice was a ritual and a form of social exchange in vedic India.
3. Evaluate the conceptual basis of the vedic deities.
4. Evaluate the contributions of the Puranas in disseminating secular knowledge among the masses
in ancient India.
5. “The Upanishadic principles embody the epitome of vedic thought.” Discuss.
6. “Archaeology knows of no Aryans, only literature knows of Aryans.” Critically examine.

24
MAHAJANAPADAS AND RISE OF MAGADHAN EMPIRE
Table of Contents
● Introduction
● Sources
● Reasons for the growth of Mahajanapadas
● The Mahajanapadas
● Types of Government
● Society during the age of Mahajanapadas
● Economy during the age of Mahajanapadas
● Religion during the age of Mahajanapadas
● Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire
○ Causes of the Rise of Magadha
○ Political history of Magadha
INTRODUCTION
From the sixth century B.C onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and
western Bihar facilitated the formation of large territorial states known as Mahajanapadas. This
period between 600-300 BC in the history of India has different names such as “Pre-Mauryan
period” , “Age of Shodasa Mahajanapadas” (16 Mahajanapadas), “Age of Second urbanization”,
“Age of Buddha” and “Age of Sutras”.
SOURCES
The period 600 BCE - 300 BCE has rich evidence from both literary and archaeological sources.
LITERARY SOURCES
● Vedic Literature: Mentions about 9 Janapadas.
● Panini: Mentions about 22 Janapadas including Kosala, Magadha and Vatsa.
● Buddhist Texts: Mahavastu Buddhist scripture and Anguttara Nikaya (Fourth of the five Nikayas
in SuttaPitaka, one of the three Tripitaka Buddhist texts in Pali) mentioned about 16
Mahajanapadas.
● Jaina Text: Bhagavati Sutta mentioned 16 Mahajanapadas.
● Brahmana Texts: They dealt with the methods of performing Vedic rituals. They referred to
many Janapadas and Mahajanapadas and provided us insights into the settlement of agricultural
communities.
ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES
● Pottery:Black-and-Red Ware (BRW) and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
○ Note: Pottery will be discussed in detail in art and culture class.
● Coins: Punch- Marked Coins (marked the beginning of the use of money in the subcontinent).
● Material Evidences: House remains and objects used by people.

1
REASONS FOR THE GROWTH OF MAHAJANAPADAS/URBAN CENTRES

● Resources: The area was rich in resources, had fertile Ganga plains and surplus agriculture
production.
● Use of Iron and Wet Rice Cultivation: Iron axes could be used to clear forests and iron plough
shares could facilitate agricultural operations.
○ Beginning of Paddy transplantation(the practice of removing the seedling where it has
grown and planting it in another place) lead to the surplus production.
● Geography: High rainfall, along with its fertile alluvial soil made the region particularly well
suited for paddy cultivation.
● Society: Society in the Indo-Ganga divide, the upper Ganga valley and the Ganga-Yamuna doab
was well settled and well-established agrarian society.
● Revenue and taxes: Growth in crop production increased the collection of agricultural taxes by
the kings of the mahajanapadas.
○ Revenue from these taxes helped in maintaining the administrative and military apparatus.
● Democratic growth: As per studies, rice consuming societies have higher fertility rates.
○ Thus paddy production in the fertile Ganga valley would have led to demographic growth.
○ This increased population was necessary for the emerging urban centers.
● Other important members of societies: The city was inhabited by a range of non-agrarian
professionals such physicians, scribes, entertainers, craftspersons, artisans, etc.
THE MAHAJANAPADAS
● In the age of Buddha, there were 16 large states called Mahajanapadas.
● The Buddhist text
Anguttara Nikaya (part of
Sutta Pitaka) mention the
names of these 16
Mahajanapadas(Shodasa
Mahajanapadas).
● Even the Jaina text
Bhagwati Sutra and
another Buddhist text
Mahavastu have the names
of the 16 mahajanapadas.
○ However, Vanga and
Maleya had replaced
Gandhara and Kamboja
in Bhagawati Sutra
whereas Mahavastu
added Sibi and Dasarna
in place of Gandhara
and Kamboja.
● Geographical location- The
16 Mahajanapadas were
mostly situated north of the

2
Vindhyas and extended from the north-west frontier to Bihar.
The 16 Mahajanapadas(Shodasa Mahajanapadas)

S.N Mahajanapada Capital Modern Major Facts
o. Location
1 Anga Champa Eastern ● It had a port city called Tamralipti and
Bihar & merchants sailed from here to
Bengal Suvarnabhumi (South East Asia).
● Bimbisara annexed Anga to Magadha .
2. Magadha Rajgir/ Southern ● Magadha became the most important
Rajagriha Bihar mahajanapada in about in about two
hundred years.
● Note-The details are discussed in the
later section of this chapter.
3. Vajji Vaishali Northern ● Vajji was a confederation of 8
Bihar republican states (Astakulika) like –
Lichchavians of Vaishali, Jnatrikas of
Kundagrama, Vaidehas of Mithila.
● Most powerful clan of Vajji was
Lichchavians of Vaishali.
● Lichchavian ruler Chetaka was a
contemporary to Buddha.
● Both Buddha and Mahavira visited
Vaishali several times.
● Vajji gave 16 years of tough resistance
to Ajatasatru before its annexation to
Magadha.
4. Kasi Kashi/ Varanasi ● It was annexed by Kosala during the
Banaras lifetime of Buddha; part of it was given
to Bimbisara (Magadha) as dowry.
Later Ajatasatru had annexed it to
Magadha.
5. Kosala Sravasti Eastern UP ● Kosala contained an important city
called Ayodhya.
● Kosala also included the tribal
republican territory of Sakyas of
Kapilavastu, the birthplace of the
Buddha.
● Kosala ruler Prasenajit was
● It was annexed to Magadha during the
reign of Ajatasatru.
6. Malla Two Parts of UP
capitals- and Bihar ● Oligrachy or Republic form of
government was followed in Malla and

3
Kusinara they were referred to as Gana

and Pava Sanghas.
● Buddha died at Kusinara and Lord
Mahavira attained Nirvana at Pava.
● It was annexed to Magadha by
Ajatasatru.
7. Vatsa Kausambi Allahabad ● Lord Buddha visited Kausambi and
region of UP stayed at Gositarama monastery.
● Its ruler being Udayana was a
● Udayana was the hero of many
romantic legends like-
“Swapnavasavadatta” (Bhasa),
“Ratnavali” (Harsha).
● Vatsa was annexed to Avanti during
the reign of Palaka of Pradyota
dynasty.
8. Kuru Indraprast Delhi- ● The epic Mahabharata tells a conflict
ha Meerut between two branches of the reigning
region Kuru clan.
9. Panchala Two Western ● According to ancient texts,there were
capitals- Uttar two lineages of Panchalas – northern
Ahichchatr Pradesh Panchalas and southern Panchalas.
a and These two lineages were divided by the
Kampilya river Bhagirathi.
● Ahichchatra was the capital of
northern Panchalas whereas Kampilya
was the capital of southern Panchalas.
10. Avanti Two Central ● Chanda Pradyota Mahasena was the
Capitals- Malwa and powerful ruler of the Avanti .
Ujjain & the ● Sisunaga had annexed Avanti to
Mahismati adjoining Magadha.
parts of
Madhya
Pradesh
11. Shurasena Mathura Western UP ● It had the Oligarchy or Republic form
of government and were referred to as
Gana Sanghas.
● Avantiputra, one of the prominent
rulers of Surasena was a chief disciple
of Buddha. He ensured the spread of
Buddhism in Mathura.
● It was annexed into the
12. Matsya Viratanaga Jaipur ● It once formed a part of the Chedi

4
ra region of Mahajanapada, which is evident from

Rajasthan the fact that king Sujata ruled over
both Matsya and Chedi.
13. Chedi Sothivati/ Bundelkhan ● Chedis were mentioned in the Rigveda.
Suktimati d region
14. Asmaka or Potali/ Parts of ● It was the only Mahajanapada situated
Assaka Podana Maharashtr to the south of the Vindhya Range and
a and was in Dakshinapatha.
● Brahmadatta and Aruna were the
Telangana
important rulers of the Asmaka.
on the
banks of
River
Godavari
15. Kamboja Poonch/R Rajouri and ● Arthashastra refers this as as Varta-
ajpura Hajra Sastropajivin Samgha which means
(Kashmir), confederation of agriculturists, traders,
NWFP herdsmen and warriors.
(Pakistan) ● It was famous for excellent breed of
horses.
● It was under Persian rule by 6th c BC,
later under Greeks; resisted
Alexander’s invasion.
16. Gandhara Taxila Parts of ● Taxila was an important learning
Pakistan centre in ancient India.
and ● Its ruler Pukkusati was a contemporary
Afghanistan of Buddha and Bimbisara.
● Persians conquered it in the second
half of 6th c B.C. and later was ruled by
Greeks too.
● Later Chandragupta Maurya liberated
it from foreign rule by annexed it to
Magadha.
POLITY OF MAHAJANAPADAS
There were two types of polity: Monarchy (in Kingdoms) and Republics (or Gana-Sangha).
● Vajji (Confederation of many clans); Shakya and Malla (single clan) were Republics whereas all
other Mahajanapadas had monarchy.
Features Monarchy (Kingdoms) Gana-Sangha (Republic)
Government Centralized and Hereditary ● Decentralized and was not
hereditary.
● Authority was vested in the
council of the chief of the
clan.
Spread Great alluvial plains of Ganga Foothills of the Himalayas

5
and its tributaries.

Administrative working Through King, who was Through debate, discussion, and
advised by Mantri-Parishad voting in the assembly called
(ministers) Santhagara
Opinions The Brahmanical system did Tolerant to unorthodox views
not tolerate other views. e.g. Mahavira and Buddha views
contrary to Vedic system.
Loyalty Caste and King loyalty Clan loyalty
SOCIETY DURING THE AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS

The society of the sixth to fourth century B.C. underwent tremendous change.
● This was the time when cities came into existence for the first time in historical India.
● This was also the time when a literate tradition began. Towards the end of this period the society
had acquired the knowledge of writing and the earliest script of ancient India is called the Brahmi
script.
Various sections of society during this period were:

● Brahmanas: Brahman is one who is born a Brahman. He may change his profession, still he
remains a Brahman. The Brahmanical texts give them the privilege of mediation between man
and god. They had the exclusive rights of performing sacrifices.
● Kshatriyas: In the Brahmanical texts the Kshatriyas have been equated with the warrior caste.
This is the second highest caste in the varna order.Buddha and Mahavira belonged to this group
● Vaishyas and the Gahapati: Vaishya was the third caste in the ritual order. They were entrusted
with cattle herding, agriculture and trade. The Buddhist literature on the other hand used the
term Gahapati more frequently. Gahapati literally means the master of the household. The
setthi was a high-level businessman, associated with trade and money-lending.
● Shudras: The Shudras were the lowest caste in the Brahmanical order. Their only duty was
service to the other three castes.
● Wandering Ascetics (Paribrajakas and Sramanas): These were people who had renounced their
homes. They travelled from place to place and held discussions on the meaning of life, society
and spirituality. Among them were people like the Buddha and Mahavira.
Condition of Women:
● Women were looked down on compared to men.
● They were described as incapable of sitting in a public assembly.
● They were permanently in the charge of men-father, brother or son.
● Their main function was producing legitimate heirs.
● Many women spent their lives labouring for their masters and mistresses.
ECONOMY DURING THE AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS

● Growth of Food Production: Cereals like rice, barley, wheat and millets were produced over the
wider areas of land. Preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was encouraged.

6
● Crafts Industries:Major industries were clay working like pottery, terracotta figurines. modelli-ng
and to some extent also brickmaking; carpentry and wood-working; metal-working; stone-
working; glass industry; bone and ivory-working etc.
○ The Pali canon refers to many different kinds of artisans, some of whom must have lived and
worked in or near cities, supplying goods for an urban clientele. These included the vehicle
maker (yanakara), ivory worker (dantakara), metal smith (kammara), goldsmith
(suvannakara), silk weaver (kosiyakara), carpenter (palaganda), needle maker (suchikara),
reed worker (nalakara), garland maker (malakara), and potter (kumbhakara).
● Occupations:Early Buddhist texts mention a wide range of occupations (sippa, kamma), both
rural and urban .
○ The king employed many different kinds of specialists, including soldiers (yodhajivas) of
various kinds—foot soldiers, archers, members of the cavalry, elephant corps, and chariot
wing.
○ Others in the king’s service (rajaporisas) included ministers (mahamachchas), governors
(ratthikas), estate managers (pettanikas), the royal chamberlain (thapati), elephant trainers
(hattirohas), policemen (rajabhatas), jailors (bandhanagarikas), slaves (dasas and dasis), and
wage-workers (kammakaras).
○ Urban occupations included those of the physician (vejja, bhisakka), surgeon (sallakata),
scribe (lekha), accounting (ganana) and money changing.
○ Types of entertainers include the actor (nata), dancer (nataka), magician (sokajjayika),
acrobat (langhika), drummer (kumbhathunika), and woman fortune-teller (ikkhanika).
○ There are also references to the accomplished courtesan (ganika) and the ordinary prostitute
(vesi).
● Guilds: The expansion of towns brought about an increase in the number of artisans who were
organized in guilds . Buddhist texts offer evidence of the emergence of guilds. Terms such as
shreni, nigama, puga, vrata, and sangha are used in ancient Indian texts to refer to various kinds
of corporate organizations, including guilds.
○ The Vinaya Pitaka mentions the guilds (puga) of Shravasti providing a regular supply of food
for monks and nuns. More details about guild organization and activities are available in the
Jatakas, which list 18 guilds and suggest the close association of heads of guilds with kings.
Functions of Guilds
Guilds were voluntary associations of merchants dealing in the same type of commodity such as
grains, textiles, betel leaves, horses, perfumes, etc. The guilds framed their own rules and
regulations regarding the membership and the code of conduct. Besides serving the purpose of
keeping the members of a trade together like a close community, the guilds undertook many
useful roles such as administrative, economic, charitable and banking functions.
● Welfare of Members-The guilds had a good deal of administrative control over their
members. Looking after the interests of their members making things convenient for them
was their prime concern.
● Money Lending-There are references suggesting that the king’s spies borrowed from guilds
on the pretext of procuring various types of merchandise. This shows that guilds loaned
money to artisans and merchants as well. Epigraphic evidence shows that not only the
general public, even the royalty deposited money with them. However, the guilds had limited

7
scope in banking in comparison to modern banks.

○ A Mathura Inscription (2nd century AD) refers to the two permanent endowments of
550 silver coins each with two guilds to feed Brahmins and the poor from out of the
interest money.
● Charity-Guilds engaged in works of charity as well. Guilds worked to alleviate distress and
undertook works of piety and charity as a matter of duty. They were expected to use part of
their profits for preservation and maintenance of assembly halls, watersheds, shrines, tanks
and gardens, as also for helping widows, the poor and destitute.
● Judicial Functions-Besides these functions, the guilds could try their members for offence in
accordance with their own customs and usages, which came to acquire almost the status of
law.
○ A guild member had to abide by both guild and state laws.
○ However, the jurisdiction of guild courts was confined to civil cases alone.
● Religious-The guild merchants also acted as the custodians of religious interests. The
inscriptions refer to numerous instances when they collectively agreed to pay an additional
tax on the sale and purchase of their goods for the maintenance of temples or temple
functions.
The guild normally worked under the leadership of a chief who was elected by its members. He
performed the functions of a magistrate in deciding the economic affairs of the guild. He could
punish, condemn or even expel those members who violated the guild rules. One of his main
duties was to deal directly with the King, and settle the market tolls and taxes on behalf of his
fellow merchants.
● The growth of corporate activity enabled the guild chiefs to consolidate their power and
position in society, and many of them acted as the representative of their members on the
local administrative councils.
● The Gautama Dharmasutra enjoins upon the king to consult guild representatives while
dealing with matters concerning guilds
● Trade and Trade Routes:In this period trade, both inland and foreign, was fairly active
Merchants made fortunes by dealing in articles like silks, muslin, amour, perfumes, ivory, ivory
works and jewellery etc. They travelled long distances up and down the great rivers of the
country, and even undertook coastal voyages to Burma and Sri Lanka from Tamluk in the east
and from Broach in the west.
○ The two major trans-regional routes of the time were known as the Uttarapatha and
Dakshinapatha (these terms were also sometimes used to refer to regions).
○ The Uttarapatha was the major trans-regional trade route of northern India. It stretched
from the north-west, across the Indo-Gangetic plains, up to the port of Tamralipti on the Bay
of Bengal.
○ The Dakshinapatha stretched from Pataliputra in Magadha to Pratishthana on the Godavari,
and was also connected to ports on the western coast.
● Coinage: Pali texts contain the first definite references to coins, e.g., kahapana, nikkha, kamsa,
pada, masaka, and kakanika. The literary evidence is corroborated by archaeological evidence of
punch-marked coins from many sites, most of them made of silver.

8
○ The beginning of money did not mean the end of barter, but it did mark a qualitative change
in economic transactions, with long-term implications for trade. I
○ It also ushered in usury (money-lending). Pali texts contain many references to this
profession, instruments of credit, people pawning their possessions, the occasional pledging
of wife or children by debtors, and bankruptcy. Debtors were in fact debarred from joining
the Buddhist sangha until they had paid their debt
Punch-Marked Coins
Punch-marked coins, also known as Aahat coins, are a type of early coinage of
India, dating to about the 6th and 2nd centuries BC. These were of irregular
shapes.
• After the discovery of the Ai-Khanum hoard at the Greek site of Ai-Khanum
on the Amu-Darya River (the ancient Oxus) in 1970, numerous punch-marked coins
were found. This coinage, with its characteristic set of five punches, was attributed
to the Mauryan emperors and their predecessors, the kings of Magadha.
• It was later identified that there were five series of punch-marked coins
with four punches attributed to the Kosala empire.
• Ashtadhyayi cites that the metallic pieces were stamped (ahata) with
symbols (rupa). As the name indicates, these coins carry symbols of various types,
punched on pieces of silver of defined weight. These weight units were called Ratti,
weighing 0.11.
• The motifs found on these coins were mostly drawn from nature like the
sun, animal motifs, trees, hills etc.; some were geometrical symbols. All these
motifs initially had symbolic designs and later were developed into representational design,
RELIGION DURING THE AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS

The sixth century B.C. was an important stage in Indian history as far as the development of new
religions is concerned. In this period, we notice a growing opposition to the ritualistic orthodox ideas
of the Brahmanas. This ultimately led to the emergence of many heterodox religious movements.
Among these Buddhism and Jainism developed into well organised popular religions.
Note: This topic will be discussed in detail in the class of ‘Buddhism and Jainism’.
RISE AND GROWTH OF THE MAGADHAN EMPIRE

The political history of India from the 6th century BC onwards is the history of struggles between
the Mahajanapadas for supremacy. By 350 BC , Magadha emerged to be the most powerful and
thus succeeded in founding an empire.

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CAUSES OF THE RISE OF MAGADHA

• Political factors: Magadha was governed by capable and ambitious rulers such as Bimbisara,
Ajatashatru, and Mahapadmananda.
• Geographic factors: Rajagriha, Magadha's capital, was also known as Girivraja because it was
encircled by a set of five hills that served as a natural fort.
o Also Pataliputra, the later capital of Magadha, was known as Jaladurga because it was
situated at the confluence of the Ganga, the Gandak, the son, and, the Ghagra. These rivers
acted as natural defence.
• Economic factors: Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was
important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies (c) making the land fertile.
o Parts of Magadha were forested.
o Elephants, which lived in the forest, were captured and trained for the army.
o Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts and chariots.
o Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools
and weapons.

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Note:
• Magadha had achieved superior military technology due to the use of two weapons,
mahashilakantaka and rathamusala.
o Mahashilakantaka: a large sized catapult used for hurling rocks.
o Rathamusala: a chariot fitted with a mace which caused terrific destruction when driven
through the enemy ranks.
POLITICAL HISTORY OF MAGADHA

Important Rulers of Magadha empire
Dynasty King/ Ruler Facts related to them
Haryanka Bimbisara • He was a contemporary to Buddha and Mahavira.
Dynasty (544-493 B.C.) • His capital was Rajagriha.
(560 BCE to • He annexed Anga and followed the policy of matrimonial
413 BCE) alliances with Kosala, Vajji and Madra clan of Punjab to
consolidate his position.
• He sent his famous physician, Jivaka, to the neighbouring
state of Avanti when its ruler, Chanda Pradyota fell ill .
• His son Ajatasatru killed him and became the next ruler.
Ajatasatru • Pali literature described him ‘Uposatha’ (Buddhist

(493-462 B.C.) confession).
• He was a contemporary to both Mahavira and Buddha.
• He annexed Kosala, Vajji , Kasi and Malla to Magadha.
• According to Hiuen Tsang, the fortified capital Rajagriha was
built by Ajatasatru.
• During his regib, Magadha was able to produce two new
weapons of war namely- Mahasilakantaka and Rathamusala.
• With his patronage the first Buddhist Council was held
under Mahakasyapa at Rajgriha in 483 BC.
• Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son Udayabhadra/Udayana.
Sisunaga Sisunaga • He was the founder of Sisunaga dynasty; he ascended the
Dynasty throne after the popular rebellion.
(430-364 • He shifted his capital to Vaishali.
B.C.) • He annexed Avanti and Vatsa to Magadha.
• He was succeeded by his son Kalasoka or Kakavarna.
Kalasoka • He shifted capital from Vaishali to Pataliputra.
• During his reign, the Second Buddhist Council was held at
Vaishali under Sabakami in 383 BC.
Nanda Mahapadma • Puranas call him Mahapadma while Mahabodhivamsa
(364-324 Nanda describes his name as Ugrasena.
B.C.) • He completed the work which was started by Bimbisara,
made Magadha the most extensive and powerful kingdom in
India and ushered in the age of the Empire in this country..

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Dhana Nanda • He is the last ruler of Nanada Dynasty.

• Alexander invaded north-western India during his reign and
reached up to the banks of the Beas.
o Alexander invaded India through Khyber pass on the
invitation of Taxila ruler, Ambi (Omphis) and conquered
many kingdoms of NW India.
o Alexander fought the famous Battle of Hydaspes on the
banks of river Jhelum in 326 BCE against Porus, the ruler
of Punjab and defeated him.
o Alexander had never gone beyond river Beas as his army
resisted to march further east. Thus he never encountered
Nanda’s army.
• Chandra Gupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty
with the help of Chanakya in 321 BC.
Note:
• The period c. 600–300 BCE marks the early historical period in north India.
• It was an age when the increasing social, economic, and political complexities of the previous
centuries manifested themselves in the emergence of cities.
• The vast majority of people, however, continued to live in villages. Urbanism created new socio-
economic divisions and elites.
• The institution of jati (caste) started taking shape. The strengthening of patriarchal control
within the household led to the increasing subordination of women.
• These centuries were marked by a remarkable prominence of the ideal of renunciation and an
intense level of philosophical debate and questioning.
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

PRELIMS
Q.1) Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?
1. Avanti
2. Gandhara
3. Kosala
4. Magadha
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 4
(c) 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 3 and 4
Answer: (C)
Q.2) With reference to the guilds (Shreni) of ancient India that played a very important role in the
country’s economy, which of the following statements is /are correct?
1. Every guild was registered with the central authority of the State and the king was the chief
administrative authority on them.

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2. The wages, rules of work, standards and prices were fixed by the guild.
3. The guild had judicial powers over its own members.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (C)

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Buddhism and Jainism
Table of Contents
● Introduction
● Reasons for Rise of New Religions
● Impact of the New Religious Movements
● Buddhism
○ About Gautam Buddha
○ The Twelve Deeds of Buddha
○ Panchamahakalyan (Five important events in Buddha’s Life)
○ Buddha Path(Asta Mahasthanas)
○ Reasons for the rise of Buddhism
○ Spread of Buddhism
○ Buddhist Doctrines/Teachings of Buddhism
○ Buddhist Councils
○ Sects of Buddhism
○ Philosophical Schools of Buddhism
○ Bodhisattvas
○ Buddhist Missionaries
○ Buddhist Literature
○ Decline of Buddhism
● Jainism
○ 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism
○ ‘Pancha Kalyanakas’ (Five Auspicious Events in the life of a Tirthankara)
○ Vardhaman Mahavira
○ Teachings of Jainism
○ Principles of Jainism
○ Sect/Schools of Jainism
○ Later Developments
○ Council of Jainism
○ Jaina Literature
○ Patrons of Jainism
● Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism
● Differences between Buddhism and Jainism
● Decline of Jainism
Introduction
The 6th Century B.C was a period of religious turmoil in India. In this period, we notice a growing
opposition to the ritualistic orthodox ideas of the Brahmanas. This ultimately led to the emergence
of many heterodox religious movements. Among these Buddhism and Jainism developed into well
organised popular religions.
Do You Know?
Buddhism and Jainism were not the only religions, which challenged brahmanical dominance.
According to the Buddhist sources, more than 62 sects and philosophies flourished in this period.
Prominent among them were -Ajivika and Carvaka.
● Ajivika-The sect was said to be established by Nanda Vachcha, who was followed by Kisa
Sankichcha. The third religious chief was Makkali Gosala, who popularised this sect. The

1
Ajivikas believed that the thought and deed of an individual were predetermined (decided
before birth). Gosala preached and died sixteen years before Mahavira.
● Carvaka-The Charvakas believed in complete materialism. They held that an individual's body
is formed of matter and finally would end in matter. Therefore, the aim of human life should
be to enjoy all the material pleasures of life. Propounders of this philosophy include-Purana
Kassapa, Ajita Kesakambalin, and Pakudha Kachchayna.
Reasons for Rise of New Religions

● Social Reasons : A Brahmin centred, caste based, hierarchical set up was prevalent in the
society. The authority to interpret the scriptures was vested with the Brahmin. Temples, which
were the centres of social life, were controlled by them. Laws of pollution were strictly imposed
upon the people of the lower caste. Tribes and Dravidians were out of the caste structure.
● Economic Reasons: Agriculture and cattle rearing were the main source of wealth and livelihood
for the people. Brahmins found out ways and means to exploit the lower sections in the society.
Kings were made to perform yagas, yajnas, and digvijayas through which the Brahmins benefited
a lot. The ordinary people had to contribute a major portion of their income to the kings,
Brahmins, and temples.
● Religious Reasons: Mode of worship, rituals, and religious ceremonies were interpreted by the
Brahmins to suit their interest. The Vedas, Aranyakas, Mimamsas and Upanishads were written
to perpetuate the hegemony of the Brahmins.
● Political Reasons-Kshatriyas (ruling class who were now more powerful due to the expansion of
territories ) and Vaishyas (traders who were now prosperous due to flourishing trade) were
unhappy with Brahmanical domination. Thus, these classes supported the new religions like
Buddhism and Jainism.
Note: Both Buddhism and Jainism originated as an alternative tradition to the excessive importance
given to rituals and sacrifices in Vedic tradition. It was also a reaction to the gross neglect of the
social problems of the time, as well as a revolt against the hegemony of the Brahmins in the society.
Impact of the New Religious Movements
The rise and development of the new religious ideas had brought some significant changes in
contemporary social life. Following are some of the important changes.
● Social equity: The idea of social equality was popularised in this period. The Buddhists and Jains
did not give any importance to the caste system. They accepted members of different castes in
their religious order.
● Acceptance of women in the Buddhist order: This gave women equal status with men in the
society.
● Favour to the trading community: Brahmanical texts had assigned an inferior position to
traders. Sea voyages were also condemned. But Buddhists and Jains did not give any importance
to caste and did not look down upon sea voyages.
● Focus on local languages: The new religions gave importance to languages like Prakrit, Pali and
Ardha Magadhi. Buddhist and Jaina philosophies were discussed in these languages and later,
canons were written in the local language. This paved the way for the development of
vernacular literature. Thus the Jains, for the first time, gave a literary shape to the mixed dialect,
Ardha Magadhi, by writing their canons in this dialect.
Buddhism
● Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha.
● Buddha was born as Siddhartha to the ruler of Sakya gana, and was a kshatriya.
● When Buddha was at the age of 29 years, he left the comforts of his home in search of
knowledge.

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● He attained enlightenment at the age of 35 years and since then, he was known as the Buddha
or the Enlightened One.
About Gautam Buddha(566-486 BCE)
Birth In 566 B.C, on Vaishakha Poornima day, in Lumbini near Kapilavastu in

Nepal.
Note-From the Mauryan emperor Ashoka's Rummindei Pillar inscription,
it is known that Lumbini is the birthplace of Buddha.
Father Suddodhana, the ruler of Sakhya tribe/gana of Kapilavastu.
Mother Mahamaya. However, Buddha was brought up by his aunt Prajapati

Gautami (First Buddhist nun), as Mahamaya died 7 days after his birth.
Spouse Buddha was married to Yasodhara (Princess of Shakya Dynasty) at 16

years of age and had a son Rahula.
Teachers Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta
The Twelve Deeds of Buddha

Serial no. About Deeds Details
1. Descent from Tushita ● The Bodhisattva Mahasattva gave his last teaching to
Pure Land the countless bodhisattvas in Tushita Pure Land, before
placing his crown on the head of Maitreya, the coming
buddha, and descending to Jambudvipa in the form of
a white elephant with six tusks.
2. Entry into his mother’s ● The elephant entered the womb of his mother Queen
womb Mayadevi, while she slept in the city of Kapilavastu,
northern India.
● It was the night of the full moon on the fifteenth day
of the month of Vesak (fourth month of the lunar
calendar).
3. Birth in Lumbini ● Queen Mayadevi, heavy with child, entered Lumbini

Park in southern Nepal.
● The bodhisattva emerged from her right side as she
held onto a branch of a fig tree.
● He took seven steps in each of the four directions and
declared: “Thus have I come for the wellbeing of the
world.”
4. Becoming skilled in the ● In the city of Shakya, Prince Siddhartha studied and
arts and playing the mastered many arts.
sports of youth ● He also excelled in kingly sports.
5. Taking charge of the ● In the town of Serkya at age twenty-nine, Prince

3
kingdom and keeping a Siddhartha married Princess Yasodhara and led a life of
harem love and pleasure with her and many others.
6. Upon going to the four ● During a drive outside the palace walls one day, the
gates of the city, Prince saw an old man, a sick man and the body of a
becoming discouraged dead man – sights which sparked his renunciation.
with cyclic existence ● He left his father’s kingdom, cut off his hair, donned
and leaving the monks’ robes and sought instruction from sages Arada
householder’s life and Udraka.
7. Practicing austerities ● At the Nairanjana River, Siddhartha sought wisdom by

for six years practicing austerities with five noble companions for
six years.
● He then realized that it was not possible to attain the
highest wisdom through asceticism alone.
8. Going to the Bodhi Tree ● Siddhartha went to Bodhgaya in Magadha to attain

enlightenment, as all the previous buddhas had done.
● At the Bodhi Tree he sat on his pile of grasses, legs
crossed, and vowed not to rise before attaining
enlightenment.
9. Overcoming the hosts ● Mara sent many kinds of hosts, both wrathful and
of demons sensual, to waylay the prince – yet he sat in single-
pointed concentration and did not move.
● Asserting that the seat used by all buddhas on the day
of their enlightenment belonged to him, he touched
the earth with his right hand calling the Earth Goddess
as his witness.
● Afterthat Mara and his hosts fled.
10. Becoming fully ● Siddhartha sat in solitude under the Bodhi Tree.
enlightened on the ● During the second watch of the night he saw his
fifteenth day of the countless past lives and the passing of endless living
fourth month forms in the constant round of rebirths.
● During the third watch, he attained full
enlightenment.
● The buddhas of the ten directions paid homage to him.
11. Turning the wheel of ● For seven weeks the Buddha sat in silent
the doctrine on the contemplation under the Bodhi Tree.
fourth day of the sixth ● He was implored by the gods Brahma and Indra to
month teach.
○ “Please do not pass into nirvana,” they said.
○ “Fulfill your vow and share this precious
attainment with the living beings of this world.”
● He journeyed to Varanasi to turn the wheel of the
doctrine.
● He ordained the five ascetics as his first disciples, and

4
taught the Four Noble Truths.

● In the second turning of the wheel he taught the
Perfection of Wisdom to innumerable bodhisattvas in
Rajgir.
● In the third turning, the Buddha clarified the
relationship between the teachings of the first and
second turnings especially with regard to emptiness
and taught buddha nature.
12. Passing from sorrow in ● During his eightieth year, the Buddha explained to his
the city of Kushinagar disciple Venerable Ananda that he had reached the
end of his days.
● He went to Kushinagar and on the day of the full moon,
lay down on his right side, with his back to the north.
● After giving his last precepts to his disciples, he passed
into parinirvana – going beyond the opposites of
samsara and nirvana.
● He manifested relics that were divided into eight parts
and placed in eight great stupas.
Panchamahakalyan (Five important events in Buddha’s Life)
Event Buddha’s Age Place Symbol
Birth Lumbini, Nepal Lotus and Bull
Great Renunciation 29 Buddha’s Kingdom Horse

(Mahabhinishkramana)
Enlightenment (Nirvana ) 35 Bodh Gaya, Bihar Bodhi Tree
First Sermon Deer Park, Sarnath, Wheel

(Dhammachakraparivartan) Benaras, Uttar
Pradesh
Death (Mahaparinirvana) 80 Kusinagar, Uttar Stupa or footprints

Pradesh
Buddha Path(Asta Mahasthanas)

This refers to Eight Great Places of Buddhist Heritage which are connected with the important
events of the life of the Buddha. These include-
1. Lumbini (Nepal): Buddha was born.
2. Bodh Gaya (Bihar): Attained enlightenment.
3. Sarnath (Varanasi, U.P.): First sermon.
4. Kushinagar (Gorakhpur, U.P.): Buddha died.
5. Rajgir (Bihar): Where the Lord tamed a mad elephant.
6. Vaishali (Bihar): Where a monkey offered honey to him.
7. Sravasti (U.P): Seat on a 1000 petaled lotus and created multiple representations of himself.
8. Sankasya (Farrukhabad, Uttar Pradesh): He descended from heaven.

5
Reasons for the rise of Buddhism

● Liberal & democratic- Unlike Brahmanism, it was far more liberal & democratic.
● Simple language-Pali language used by Buddha was the language of masses.
● Equality-People were admitted into the Sangha irrespective of caste distinctions.
● Simple & Inexpensive-Advocated a spiritual path without any material obligation of satisfying
gods through sacrifices.
● Royal Patronage-from Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanishka and Harshavardhana.
Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism was accepted by a large section of people.
● People of Magadha, Kosala and Kausambi had embraced Buddhism.
● The republics of Sakyas, Vajjis and Mallas also followed the process.
● Later on, Asoka and Kanishka made Buddhism a state religion and it spread into central Asia,
West Asia and Sri Lanka.
Reasons for the spread of Buddhism

● Attraction for masses: Emphasis on practical morality, an easily acceptable solution to the
problems of mankind and a simple philosophy, attracted the masses towards Buddhism.
● Focus on social equality: The ideas of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism made
many lay followers accept Buddhism.
● Respect for people: Merchants, like Anathirpindika, and courtesans, like Amrapali, accepted the
faith because they got due respect in this religion.
● Use of popular language: The use of popular language (Pali) to explain the doctrines also helped
in the spread of the religion.
● This was because the Brahmanical religion had limited itself so the use of Sanskrit which was not
the language of the masses.
● Kings’ patronage: The patronage extended by kings was another important reason for the rapid
growth of Buddhism.
○ For example, according to tradition Asoka sent his son Mahendra and his daughter
Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism.
○ He also established many monastries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.
● The institution of Sangha: It had helped to organise the spread of Buddhism effectively.
○ The Sangha was the religious order of the Buddhists.
○ It was a well organised and powerful institution which popularised Buddhism.
○ Membership was open to all persons, irrespective of caste, above fifteen years of age.
Criminals, lepers and persons affected by infectious diseases were not given admission into
the Sangha.
○ Initially Buddha was not in favour of admitting women in the Sangha.
○ However he admitted them at the repeated requests of his chief disciple Ananda and his
foster mother Mahapajapati Gotami.
Buddhist Doctrines/Teachings of Buddhism

Four noble Truths(Ariya-Sachchani)
1. Dukha (Truth of suffering): Everything is suffering (Sabbam Dukham).
2. Samudaya (Truth of the cause of suffering): Trishna (desire) is the main cause.
3. Nirodha (Truth of the end of suffering): End by the attainment of Nibbana/Nirvana.
4. Ashtangika-Marga (Path to the end of suffering): Contained in the eightfold path.

6
Eightfold Path(Astangika Marg)
1. Right Vision (Samma-Ditthi): Understanding nature of reality.

2. Right Thought or Attitude (Samma-Sankappa): Emotional intelligence and acting from love and
compassion.
3. Right or Whole Speech (Samma-Vacca): Truthful, clear, uplifting and unharmful
communications.
4. Right or Integral Action (Samma-Kammanta): Ethical code of conduct for the members of the
monastic order.
5. Right or Proper Livelihood (Samma-Ajiva): Livelihood action on ethical principles of non-
exploitation.
6. Right Effort or Energy (Samma-Vayama): Directing energy to creative and healing action towards
conscious evolution.
7. Right Mindfulness or Thorough Awareness (Samma-Sati): Knowing one’s own self and watching
self behaviour.

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8. Right Concentration or Meditation (Samma-Samadhi): Absorbed in modes of consciousness and

awareness.
Middle Path
Buddha asked followers to avoid the two extremes of indulgence in worldly pleasure and the
practice of strict abstinence and asceticism. He ascribed instead the 'Madhyam Marg' or the middle
path.
Pancasila (Five Refrains)

The following five refrains are the basic practice in Buddhism:
1. No killing: Not killing any living being. For Buddhists, this includes animals, so many Buddhists
choose to be vegetarian.
2. No stealing: Not stealing from anyone.
3. No lying: Not lying or gossiping about other people.
4. No sexual misconduct: Not having too much sensual pleasure. For example, not looking at
people in a lustful way or committing adultery.
5. No intoxicants: Not drinking alcohol or taking drugs, as these do not help you to think clearly.
Three Jewels( Trisaranya)
Jewels Details
Buddha (the enlightened) ● The Buddha refers both to the historical Buddha and to the ideal
of Buddhahood itself.
Dharma (doctrine) ● The Dharma primarily means the teachings of the Buddha, or the
truth he understood.
● The word ‘Dharma’ has many meanings but most importantly it
means the unmediated Truth (as experienced by the Enlightened
mind).
Sangha (commune) ● Sangha is the spiritual community.

● It also refers to the people with whom we share our spiritual lives.
Five Aggregates (Panch Skanda/Pancha~Khanda)

1. Rupa (includes five physical sense organs and the corresponding physical objects).
○ Eye- Visible form
○ Nose- Odour
○ Ear-Sound
○ Toung- Taste
○ Body- Tangible things that we can feel
2. Vedana (Aggregate of feelings, arising out of contact with the object of the senses).
3. Sanna (Aggregate of perception turns an indefinite experience into an identified and recognised
experience).
4. Sankharas (Conditioned response to the object of experience).
5. Vinnana/Vijnana (Co-presence of sense organs with consciousness and the objects of sense
organs can produce experience).
The Law of Dependent Organisation (Patichcha-Samuppada)
This law explains the reason of Dukkha and the key to its liberation. Five causes of rebirth and
suffering :

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1. Ignorance (avija)
2. Craving (tanha)
3. Clinging (upadana)
4. Mental formation (sankhara)
5. Becoming (bhava)
By removing the above factors, one can break the vicious cycle of rebirth and suffering.
Do You Know?
● Originally, Buddhism does not recognise the existence of God and soul (atman).
● Buddhism never supported the Varna system.
Buddhist Councils
After the death of Buddha t Buddhist councils were held to decide the questions of faith and
religious orders in Buddhism
Council President Patron Venue Outcome
First Council Monk King Sattapani ● Teachings of Buddha were

(483 BC) Mahakasyapa Ajatshatru cave at divided into three Pitakas/
(Haryanka Rajgriha Buddhist canon/ Pali Canon:
Dynasty) ○ Vinaya Pitaka: Contains the
rules of the Buddhist order.
Recited by Upali.
○ Suttapitaka: Recited by
Ananda. Collections of
Buddha’s sermons on
matters of doctrine and
ethical beliefs.
○ Abhidhamma Piṭaka:
Elaborate Buddhist
doctrines, particularly about
mind, also called the
“systematic philosophy”
basket.
Second Sabakami Kalasoka Vaishali ● Aim: Settle the disagreements of

Council (Shisunaga different subdivisions.
(386 B.C) Dynasty) ● Split of the Buddhist order into:
○ Sthaviravadinis
(Theravada): Wanted to
preserve the teachings of
Buddha in the original spirit.
○ Mahasanghikas (Great
Community): Interpreted
the Buddha’s teachings
more liberally.They did not
subscribe that Buddha was a
human being. They did not
like the idea that Buddha

9
was a human being who

lived and died. They
transcended him to a high
divine position even before
his enlightenment.It is
generally accepted, that
what we know today as the
Mahayana arose from the
Mahasanghikas sect.
● Council rejected the
Mahasangikas as canonical
Buddhist texts.
Third Moggliputta King Ashoka Patliputra ● Made Sthaviravada School as an

Council Tissa. (Mauryan orthodox school – believed that
(250 BC ) Dynasty) the past, present, and future are
all simultaneous.
● Codification of Abhidhamma
Pitaka, dealing with Buddhist
philosophy written in Pali.
Fourth Vasumitra. King Kundalvana, ● According to Si-Yu-Ki, this

Council (72 Ashvaghosa was Kanishka of Kashmir. council was convened to unite
AD) his deputy (Kushan the then 18 sects of Buddhism.
Empire) ● This council had brought 18 sects
into two schools-Mahayana
(Great Vehicle): and Hinayana
(Lesser vehicle/Abandoned
Vehicle).
● “Mahavibhashasastra”, a
Sarvasti-vadin doctrine, was
compiled.
● Elaborate commentaries on
Tripitakas viz., Upadesa Sastras,
Vibhasa Sastras were prepared.
● Deliberations in the council
were held in Sanskrit.
Fifth council Jagarabhivamsa, King Mandalay, ● Theravada Buddhist Council.

(1871) Narindhabhidha Mindon Burma ● 729 stone slabs were engraved
ja and with Buddhist teachings.
Sumangalasami. ● These Slabs are miniature pitaka
pagodas.
Sixth Prime Minister Burmese Yangoon, ● Aimed to affirm and preserve

Council U Nu government Burma. Dhamma and Vinaya
(1954) ● Special Maha Passana
Guha(cave) was built.

10
Sects of Buddhism
● Buddhist philosophy did not remain static during its long history.
● As seen in the outcome of Buddhist councils, the first major schism in Buddhism occurred during
the second Council held at Vaishali where the Buddhist order was split into two schools namely-
Sthaviravadins, and Mahasanghikas.
○ Further subdivisions of the Mahasanghikas over the next seven centuries included the
Lokottaravadins, the Ekavyavaharikas, and the Kaukkutikas.
○ A subdivision within the Sthaviravadins emerged in the 3rd century BC, when the
Sarvastivadins (followers of the Doctrine That All Is Real-believes that all things exist, and
exist continuously, in the past and the future as well as in the present.) broke away from the
Vibhajyavadins (Those Who Make Distinctions).
■ Other prominent offshoots of the Sthaviravadins were-the Sammatiyas and the
Vatsiputriyas, both known for their theory of pudgala (“person”); the Sautrantikas, who
recognized the authority of the sutras (words of the Buddha) but not of the
Abhidharma, the more schematic part of the canon; the Mahisasakas and the
Dharmaguptas, whose names probably reflect their place of origin and founding
teacher; and the Theravadins (Pali form of Sthaviravadins)
● During the fourth council, all the then 18 sects formed into either of the two major schools of
Buddhism namely-Mahayana Buddhism and Hinayana Buddhism.
○ Sects like Sthaviravadins, Sammatiyas and Sautantrikas came to form - Hinayana led by
Sthaviravadins.
○ Sarvastivadins, Mahasangikas, Chaityakas, Purvasila, Aparasila etc were formed into -
Mahayana led by Mahasangikas.
Difference between Hinayana and Mahayana

Early Buddhist teachings had given great importance to self-effort in achieving nibbana(nirvana).
Besides, the Buddha was regarded as a human being who attained enlightenment and nibbana
through his own efforts. However, gradually the idea of a saviour emerged. It was believed that he
was the one who could ensure salvation. Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisattva also
developed.
● Bodhisattvas were perceived as deeply compassionate beings who accumulated merit through
their efforts but used this not to attain nibbana and thereby abandon the world, but to help
others. The worship of images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas became an important part of this
tradition.
○ This new way of thinking was called Mahayana – literally, the “great vehicle”. Those who
adopted these beliefs described the older tradition as Hinayana or the “lesser vehicle”.
Hinayana Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism
Literally means ‘Lesser Vehicle’ Literally means Greater Vehicle
These are Anti-changers These are Pro-changers
Opposed idolatry; instead worshipped Worshipped Buddha and Bodhisattvas in human form.
scriptures and symbols that associated
with the life of Buddha like lotus, pipal
tree etc
Do not accept the existence of God and Worshiped Buddha as God

soul

11
Believed in individual salvation Holds that Salvation is to all without any efforts
Its literature is in Pali Its literature is in Sanskrit
Have no belief in future Buddha Worship of Maitreya(future Buddha) is found
Gave importance to Sangha Emphasis is on individual rather than on Sangha
Note:
● Supporters of Mahayana regarded other Buddhists as followers of Hinayana. However, followers
of the older tradition described themselves as theravadins, that is, those who followed the path
of old, respected teachers, the theras.
Vajrayana Buddhism
● It is called Tantric Buddhism.
○ This sect of Buddhism was developed around 900 AD in India.
○ Major patrons in India were Palas of Bihar and Bengal.
○ Now Vajrayanism is prevalent in Tibet, Mongolia, and some parts of Siberia.
● The followers of Vajrayana believed that release of salvation could be best achieved by acquiring
magical powers which were called Vajra, meaning thunderbolt or diamond.
● This form of Buddhism was focussed on feminine divinities who were the force or potency (Sakti)
behind the male divinities.
○ Worship of Taras (wives of Bodhisattvas) and other female deities like Chakreswari is
practised.
Two Sub-Sects of Vajrayanism
Kalachakrayana ● It gives much importance to tantric cults.

● Lamas belong to this tradition.
● “Guhyasutras” and “Manjushri Mulakalpa” are associated with it.
Sahajayana ● It believed in salvation through sexual intercourse.
Other Sects of Buddhism
Zen
● It originated in China.
● It belongs to Mahayana Buddhism.
● Meditation is the key of this school.
Theravada
● Originated in Sri Lanka and later spread to Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar and Thailand.
● Oldest branch.
● Believed in original thoughts of Buddha.
Philosophical Schools of Buddhism

● The Vaibhasika School: The Vaibhasika derives its name from its exclusive emphasis on a
particular commentary, the abhidhammamahavaibhasa of Abhidhamma. In the true spirit of the
doctrine of dependent origination, the Vaibhasika holds that reality is pure flux and change. This
school belongs to Hinayana.

12
○The Vaibhasika speaks about the existence of the mental and the non-mental realities.
○It teaches that we can really know the external entities and the world outside. This notion is
known as bahya-pratyeka-vada.
● The Sautrantika School: The name Sautrantika, derived from the fact that it gives greater
importance to the authority of the sutra-pitaka of the Pali Canon. This school belongs to
Hinayana Buddhism.
○ The Sautrantika subscribes both the mental and the non-mental reality.
○ Note: The important difference between both these schools is that while the Vaibhasika
maintains direct perception of the external objects, the Sautrantika holds the inference from
the perceptions which are representations of external objects.
● Yogakara / Vignanavadins: This school belongs to Mahayana Buddhism. It is the idealistic
school of Buddhism which is against the complete realism of Hinayanism.
○ For Yogacara, all internal and external objects are ideas of the mind. Thus, it is impossible to
demonstrate the independent existence of external objects.
● Madhyamika / Sunyavadins: This school also belongs to Mahayana Buddhism. The literal
meaning of the term Madhaymika is ‘the farer of the Middle Way’.
○ It is a mid-way between idealism of Yogakara and realism of Hinayana Sunyavadins holds
that whatever we perceive is illusion.
○ The Madhaymika avoids all the extremes, such as, eternalism and annihilationism, self and
non-self, matter and spirit, unity and plurality, and identity and difference.
○ The founder of this school is supposed to be Nagarjuna of the second century CE. Aryadeva,
Candrakirti, Kumarajiva, and Santideva are the other prominent figures of this school.
Bodhisattvas
● Bodhisattvas are individuals on the path to becoming Buddha or attaining salvation.
○ In other words, Bodhisattvas are the previous births of Lord Buddha, and those who had not
achieved full Buddha-hood. They featured in Jataka tales.
Important Bodhisattvas:
Name Characteristics
Avalokiteshvara ● Bodhisattva of compassion, depicted as a female, holding a lotus in

(Perceiver of all the hand.
sounds) ● Described in the Lotus Sutra (texts of the Mahayana school).
● Padmapani Lokesvara: Most popular.
Maitreya (Bodhisattva ● It’s still not Buddha and resides in the Tusita Heaven (Buddhist
of the Future) cosmology).
● Laughing Buddha: Incarnation of Maitreya
● It will appear on Earth in the future as the successor of Gautam
Buddha, the present Budha.
Manjushri ● Iconic figures in Mahayana Buddhism

● In Sanskrit, it means "Gentle Glory".
● It cuts through ignorance and personifies correct knowledge.
Bodhisattva ● Represented as a male Bodhisattva, wielding a flaming sword “Vajra

(Bodhisattva of Sword of Discriminating Light” in the right hand, and a Blue Lotus

13
Wisdom) flower in the left hand.
Samantabhadra ● Bodhisattva of Practice and Meditation

● Samantabhadra, Manjushri and Buddha, together form the
Shakyamuni trinity in Buddhism. (Important)
Ksitigarbha (Womb of ● Saviour of the oppressed, the dying, and the dreamer of evil dreams
the Earth) ● The Bodhisattva of Mortals.
● Akasagarbha (boundless space treasury): Twin both of Ksitigarbha.
Vajrapani( ● One of the three protective deities around Buddha.

Thunderbolt-bearing ● He is sometimes referred to as a Dhyani-Bodhisattva, equivalent to
Bodhisattva) Akshobhya, the second Dhyani Buddha.
● In human form, it holds the vajra in his right hand.
● It helps to emove the feelings of worthlessness and low self-esteem
in people.
Buddhist Missionaries
Missionaries were sent to distant places right from 3rd C BC as per the resolution passed in
Pataliputra Buddhist Council.
Kashyapa Matanga Propagated Mahayanism
Kumarajiva Madhyamika of Mahayanism

China
Acharya Nagarjuna Madhyamika; translated Buddhist texts
into Chinese
Padmasambhava
Tibet Athista Dipankara, Propagated Vajrayanism
Santharakshita
Nepal Vasubandhu Propagated Yogakara of Mahayanism
SE Asia Srignana Propagated Hinayanism
Buddhist Literature
● Hinayana literature is in Pali whereas Mahayana literary works are in Sanskrit.
Pali Literature
Pali Literature can be divided into-
● Canonical literature(Sacred Literature)-Tripitakas ; Commentaries on Nigayas; Jatakas;
Suttanipata; Theragadha; Therigadha; Buddhavamsa etc.
● Non-Canonical literature- Milindapanho; Divyavadana; Mahavastu; Dipavamsa; Mahavamsa;
Kulavamsa; Vamsada Pakasini etc.

14
Tripitakas
Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Vinaya Pitaka(Basket of Abhidhamma Pitaka(Basket of

Discourse) Discipline) Analysis)
● Digha-Nikaya: Collection ● Suttavibhaṅga: ● Dhamma-sangani:

of Long Discourse Pāṭimokkha and Classification of
● Majjhima-Nikaya: Middle commentary Phenomenon
length Discourse ○ Mahāvibhaṅga: rules ● Vibhanga: Division
● Samyutta-Nikaya: for monks ● Dhatu-katha: Discourse of
Kindred Discourse ○ Bhikkhunīvibhaṅga: elements
● Anguttara-Nikaya: rules for nuns ● Puggala-pannatti: Human
Gradual Discourse ● Khandhaka: 22 chapters types
● Khuddaka-Nikaya: on various topics ● Katha-vatthu: Points of
Miscellaneous Discourse ● Parivāra: analyses of rules Controversy
from various points of view ● Yamaka: The Book of Pairs
● Patthana: Casual Relations
Jatakas
They contain the stories of the previous birth of the Buddha. It was believed that before he was
actually born as Gautama, the Buddha passed through over 550 births. Each birth story is called a
Jataka. These stories throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions of the period
between the fifth and second centuries BC.
● Jataka stories that are frequently depicted on Buddhist stupas and monuments are Chhadanta
Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.
Some Important Non-Canonical Pali Literature

● Milinda Panho: Dialogue between Indo-Greek king Milinda/Menandet and Buddhist monk
Nagasena.
● Dipavamsa -Deals with Sri Lankan history from earliest times to 362 CE corresponding to the
death of Sri Lankan king Mahasena.
● Mahavamsa-It is the enlarged version of Dipavamsa. According to it, Buddhism was introduced
in Sri Lanka by Mahendra and Sanghamitra.
● Vamsadapakasini-It is a commentary on Mahavamsa and an important source to know
Buddhism.
Sanskrit Literature
● Vaipulya Sutras which includes “Lalithavistara” , a biography of Buddha.
● Karandavyuha is on Avalokiteswara’s glorification.
● Sukhavativyuha is on Amitabha
● Sadharma Kundarika;Madhyamika-karika; Pragna Paramita etc.
Do You Know?
● Buddhist Sangha is a religious congregation of Bikshus and Bikshunis which have an elected
head. They are open to all irrespective of caste, creed and sex. But minors, slaves, debtors,
soldiers and people with contagious diseases were restricted to join Sangha.
● There are two kinds of followers of Buddhism - Bikshus and Upasakas.
○ Bikshus are, known as Shramanas, staunch Buddhists who renounced worldly desires.
○ Upasakas are lay-worshipers who have family life but faith in Buddhism.

15
● Upavasatha / Pavarama - During three or four months of rainy season Buddhist monks
required to take up a fixed abode and depend for their subsistence on the neighboring
households. During this Upavasatha period, they used to preach Buddhist principles to people
in the evenings. They used to meet every fortnight to make general confessions of any breach
of Sangha.
● Viharas or Aramas are dwellings as well as educational centres / monasteries of Buddhist
monks.
● Chaityas are halls of Buddhist worship that house a stupa.
● Some of the greatest Buddhist scholars include-Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga, Vasubandhu,
Dignaga, Dharmakirti, Gunaprabha and Shakyaprabha.
Decline of Buddhism
There had been a gradual decline of Buddhism in India after 4th C AD. . It was confined to eastern
India (Bengal, Bihar regions) in an altered form i.e., Vajrayana by 8th C AD.
Reasons for Decline of Buddhism

● Corruption in Buddhist Sangha-Latter monks gave up austerity and indulged in luxuries. Moral
standards deteriorated.
● Split into Mahayana and Hinayana sects weakened the religion.
● Use of Sanskrit language at Fourth Buddhist Council replacing Pali.
● Buddha Image worship started by Mahayana Buddhists, was a violation of Buddhist principles.
● Royal patronage declined after end of the Gupta dynasty around 650 AD.
● Popularity of Orthodox Hinduism: Due to the works of Kumarila Bhatt and Adi Shankara.
● Invasions by the Huns and later by the Islamic armies.
Buddhism received a setback in the land of its birth. Many of the noble ideas of Hinduism were
incorporated in the broad fold of Hinduism including Buddha himself as the reincarnation of Vishnu.
The very fact that Buddhism and Hinduism came nearer to each other led to the disintegration of the
former. Further, the decline of Buddhism in India was hastened by its alliance with forms of magic
and erotic mysticism called Saktism.
Do You Know?
● India's largest reclining statue of Lord Buddha is being built in Bodh Gaya. Built by Buddha
International Welfare Mission, the statue will be 100 feet long and 30 feet high. Lord Buddha
is in the sleeping posture in the statue. The construction of the giant statue started in the year
2019. It is being made with fiber glass and built by sculptors from Kolkata.
UNESCO Heritage Sites related to Buddhism:
● Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar

● Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, MP
● Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya, Bihar
● Ajanta Caves Aurangabad, Maharashtra

16
Some Important Facts

● Buddha’s Horse: Kanthaka & Buddha’s Charioteer: Channa
● 5 wandering ascetics: Assaji, Mahanama, Vappa, Bhaddiya and Kondanna.
● Mara (Lord of illusions): Tried to distract Buddha during enlightenment.
● Niranjan river (Falgu):Buddha attained Nirvana after 49 Days of Meditation on this river bank.
● Buddha’s Disciples: Kaundinya, Upali, Rahula, Punna, Mahakaccana, Subhoti,
Mahamoggallana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda, Sariputta and Anuruddha.
● Royal Patrons of Buddhism: Ajatsatru, Asoka, Milinda, Kaniska, Harsha.
● Buddha visited Sravasti, Varanasi, Rajgir, Vaishali and Kausambi; but never been to Avanti or
Taxila.
● Important contemporary rulers of Buddha were - Bimbisara (Magadha), Prasenajita (Kosala),
Pradyota(Avanti), and Pukkusati (Gandhara).
Jainism
● ‘Jain’ is derived from ‘jina’ or ‘jaina’, means the ‘Conqueror’.
● It is a nontheistic religion i.e does not believe that there is a god or gods.
● Disciplined non-Violent ways of living to attain liberation, spiritual purity and enlightenment.
● It came into prominence in 6th century B.C., when Lord Mahavira (24th Tirthankara) propagated
the religion.
24 TIRTHANKARAS OF JAINISM
● Origin: ‘Tirthankara’ in Sanskrit means "Ford-maker".

● Spiritual Leader: Tirthankaras are the people who had attained all knowledge (Moksha) while
living and preached it to the people.
Name of Tirthankara Symbol
1. Lord Rishabha Ox
2. Ajitanath Elephant
3. Sambhavanatha Horse
4. Abhinandananatha Monkey
5. Sumatinatha Goose
6. Padmaprabha Lotus
7. Suparshvanath Swastika
8. Chandraprabha Moon
9. Suvidhinath Swami or Puspadanta Crocodile(Makara)
10. Sheetalnath Wishing Tree
11. Shreyansanath Rhinoceros
12. Vasupujya Buffalo

17
13. Vimalnatha Boar
14. Anatnatha Bear
15. Dharamanath Spike-headed Club (Vajradanta)
16. Santinath Deer
17. Kunthunath He-Goat
18. Aranath Fish
19. Mallinath Waterpot
20. Munisuvrata Tortoise
21. Naminatha Blue-Lotus
22. Neminatha Conch
23. Parshwanath Serpent
24. Mahavira Lion
Note:
● Yajurveda mentions Rishabha, Ajinatha and Aristanemi.
● Arihant / Jina-Arihant, literally means ‘conqueror’, is the one who conquered inner-passions
such as ego, anger, greed, pride etc
● Kevalins- Kevalins are souls who attained ‘Kevalagnana’/ supreme knowledge/ omniscience.
● Siddhas-Siddhas are liberated souls who have destroyed all karmas and have obtained moksha/
final liberation. Ultimately all Arihants and Tirthankaras become Siddhas.
● Ganadharas-They are primary disciples of Tirthankaras.
● Sallekhana (Santhara)-It is highly respected Jain practice of undertaking voluntary death at the
end of one’s life.
Do You Know?
Bahubali / Gomateswara was the son of Rishaba (1st Tirthankara); he abdicated the throne to his
brother and became a Jain monk. He meditated for a whole year in Kayotsarga posture and
attained Kevala gnana thus became an Arihant. According to Jain texts, he attained moksha at Mt
Kailash and became a Siddha; thus he is a much revered one in Jainism .
Shravanabelagola in Karnataka is home to the 18 m high statue of Lord Gometeshwara;
considered to be one of the world’s tallest free-standing monolithic statues. Constructed in 981
AD by Chamundaraya, a Ganga warrior, it is carved out of a single block of granite and looms on
the top of Vindhyagiri Hill.Mahamastakabhisheka, the head anointing ceremony of Lord
Gomateshwara takes place every 12 years here.
‘Pancha Kalyanakas’ (Five Auspicious Events in the life of a Tirthankara)

Event Description
Garbha Kalyanak Tirthankar's soul departs from its last life and is conceived in the
mother’s womb.

18
Janma Kalyanak Tirthankar's soul is born.
Diksha Kalyanak Tirthankar's soul gives up all his/her worldly possessions and becomes
a monk/nun.
Kevalgyan Kalyanak Tirthankar’s soul attains the Kevaljnana (absolute knowledge).
Nirvana Kalyanak Tirthankar’s soul is liberated from this worldly physical existence
forever and becomes a Siddha.
Vardhamana Mahavira (540-468 BCE)

● Birth: In 540 B.C.in Kundagrama near Vaishali.
● Father: Siddhartha (head of the Jnathrika Kshatriya clan)
● Mother: Trisala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka).
● Wife: Yasoda and had a daughter Priyadarsana.
● Teachers: Alarakama and Udraka Ramputra.
● Kaivalya (highest spiritual knowledge): At age of 42 under Sal tree on the banks of the Rijupalika
river.
● First sermon: At Pava
● Death/ Siddha (fully liberated): At Pava near Rajagriha at the age of 72.
● Symbol: Lion.
● Other Name: Jina Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds).
● Mahavira is a contemporary to Buddha.
Teachings of Jainism
● Belief in God- Jainism does not believe in God as a creator, survivor, and destroyer of the
universe but as a perfect being (lower than Jina).
● Karma Theory-A person is born in higher or lower varna as the consequence of the sins or the
virtues in the previous birth. Thus, Jainism believes in the “transmigration of the soul”.
● Varna System-It did not condemn the varna system but attempted to mitigate the evils of the
varna order and the ritualistic Vedic religion.
TRIRATNA/ THREE JEWELS

● It must be followed to achieve the liberation of the soul. These are:
Triratna Description
Samyag Darshana (Right Means seeing (hearing, feeling, etc.) things properly, avoiding
faith) preconceptions and superstitions that get in the way of seeing
clearly.
Samyag Jnana (Right Having an accurate and sufficient knowledge of the real universe.
knowledge)
Samyag Charitra (Right To avoid harming living beings and freeing oneself from
conduct) attachment and other impure thoughts and attitudes.
FIVE DOCTRINES OF JAINISM

19
To attain Triratna, one has to observe Pancha Mahavrata (five great vows). Five Vows articulat in
the Tattvartha Sutra are:
1. Ahimsa: Non-injury to living being
2. Satya: Do not speak a lie
3. Asteya: Do not steal
4. Aparigraha: Do not acquire property
5. Brahmacharya: Observe continence.
PRINCIPLES OF JAINISM
Anekantavada (Theory of Plurality)
● It refers to the simultaneous acceptance of multiple, diverse, even contradictory viewpoints.
● It states that all entities have three aspects: substance (dravya), quality (guna), and mode
(paryaya).
● Realistic Pluralism: There are innumerable material atoms, and innumerable individual souls,
and each of these possesses an infinite number of characteristics of its own.
● Anekantavada is the doctrine of “non- onesidedness” or “manifoldness”, it is often translated as
“non-absolutism”.
Syadavada (Relativity of Knowledge)

● It means the ‘method of examining different probabilities’.

20
● The infinite aspects of reality are all relative; therefore all judgments are relative, conditional
and limited.
● It is incorrect to say that anything is absolutely true or absolutely untrue.
Nayavada
● Theory of partial standpoints/viewpoints: It signifies the system of describing reality from
different points of view.
● “Naya” can be understood as partially true statements but they cannot lay claim to absolute
validity.
SECTS/ SCHOOLS OF JAINISM

● The first split in the Jaina order was between the Digambaras (sky clad or naked) and
Svetambaras (clad in white) during 3rd BC.
● According to Hemachandra’s “ Parisista Parvan “,a great famine occurred in the Magadhan
region at the beginning of 3rd c BCE. A large group of Jain monks led by Bhadrabahu,
accompanied by the then Emperor Chandragupta Maurya who abdicated the throne in favor of
his son Bindusara, migrated to South India and stayed at Sravanabelagola (Karnataka) .
Digambara Svetambara
About ● Literally means “sky clad”. ● Literally means “white clad”.

● They represent the Jainas who ● They represent the Jainas who stayed
moved to the south under the back in Magadha under the leadership
leadership of Bhadrabahu when of Sthulabhadra when the famine
the great famine took place in struck.
Magadha.
Beliefs ● Emphasize on nudity, as it is the ● Assert that complete nudity is not

absolute prerequisite to attain important for salvation.
salvation. ● An omniscient does require food.
● On attaining enlightenment, an ● Allowed to have fourteen belongings
omniscient does not experience including loin-cloth, shoulder cloth,
hunger, thirst, sleep, disease or etc.
fear. ● Follow only 4 vows (except
● Allowed to have Rajoharana brahmacharya).
(peacock feather broom to brush
away insects) and a Kamandalu (a
wooden water pot for toilet
hygiene).
● Follow all five vows (Satya, Ahimsa,
Asteya, Aparigraha and
Brahmacharya).
On Women Believe women cannot achieve Sabastra Mukti: Anyone can achieve
liberation. salvation, be it a householder, women or a
monk.
Major 1. Mula Sangh, 1. Murtipujaka

Sects 2. Bisapantha, 2. Sthanakvasi
3. Terapantha, 3. Terapanthi
4. Taranpantha or Samaiyapantha.

21
Minor Sub-Sects
1. Gumanapantha
2. Totapantha
Literature Original and genuine texts were lost Believe in the validity and sacredness of
long ago and refused to accept the literature, i.e, the 12 angas and sutras.
achievements of the first council.
Later Developments
● From among the Svetambaras, a reformist sect arose about the 15th century by name
Sthanakvasi Sect: criticizing image-worship, and temple-cult because it was not even mentioned
once in the Scriptures.
● On the contrary Lonka Sa pointed out that the practice was not lawful. So there arose after him
Lonka Sa Sect.
● From the Lonka Jains still another reformer arose, Viraji of Surat. He was critical of the Sadhus
that they were leading less austere life.
● In the 16th century there arose two sects from among the Digambaras too. As against
Vishvapanthis (or Bispanthis) who install images of gods like Bhairava in their temples, cover
idols with saffron clothes, offer flowers, sweets and wave lights etc., the Terapanthis did not
accept any of these.
Councils of Jainism
Council Chairperson Venue Output
First Council (300BC) Sthulbhadra Patliputra Compilation of 12

Angas
Second Council Devardhi Vallabhi Final compilation of 12

(512AD) Kshmasramana Angas and 12 upanga.
Jain Literature
Jain literature is broadly divided into - Canonical (Sacred) and Non-canonical Jain literature.
Canonical Literature of Shvetambaras (Jain Agamas)
These Jain Agamas were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in
Valabhi in Gujarat presided over by the famous monk Devarddhi Ksamasramana. Agamas are
considered as the original texts of Jainism based on Mahavira’s teachings This canonical
literature/Agamas are divided into the following six sections (46 treatises)-
1. Twelve Angas or limbs-Based on Canonical sermons of Mahavira.
2. Twelve Upangas, or secondary limbs -Appended to Angas; provide further explanation of Angas.
3. Ten Painnas, or ‘Scattered pieces’-On miscellaneous subjects.
4. Six Cheya-Suttas -On conduct and behavior of Jain monks.
5. Two Kulika Sutras-Texts further enhancing the meaning of Angas; includes “Nandi-sutra” which
contains the contents of 14 Purvas.
6. Four Mula-Suttas-A basis for the earlier stages of monk-hood.
Canonical Literature of Digambaras (Anuyoga)

● This category of Scriptures was written in Sanskrit largely from 700 to 900 CE.
● They are distinguished into four groups and named them as Four Vedas:

22
○ The first Veda deals with history.

○ The second Veda deals with Cosmography.
○ The third Veda with Philosophy.
○ The Fourth Veda deals with Ethics and rituals .
Non-Canonical Literature
● This consists of commentary and explanation of Agam literature and independent works,
complied by elder monks, nuns, and scholars.
● They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Old Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi,
Kannad, Tamil, German, and English. For example,
“Bharatesvara-bahubali” by Shalibhadra Suri

Gujarati
“Silappadikaram” by Ilango Adigal and “Sivaga Sintamani” by

Tamil Tirutakkatevar
Amoghavarsha’s “Kavirajamarga”
Kannada
Umaswati’s “Tattvartha Sutra”, Somadeva’s “Yasastilaka”

Sanskrit
“Dhavala” by Virasena,
Prakrit
Patrons of Jainism
● North India-Bimbisara; Ajatasatru; Chandragupta Maurya; Bindusara, Harshavardhana,
Kharavela.
● South India-Kadamba dynasty, Ganga dynasty, Amoghavarsha, Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty).
Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism

● Both the religions admitted disciples from all castes and genders.
● Ahimsa is the prominent principle of both the religions
● Both taught in the language of the common people i.e. Prakrit and not in Sanskrit, which was the
language of the clergy and elite classes.
● Both the religions were opposed to animal sacrifices .
● Both the religions stressed on right conduct and right knowledge .
● The source of both the religion is Vedic religion and both indebted to Upanishads.
● Both Gautama Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya families and not to priestly class.
Differences between Buddhism and Jainism

● Most of the Jain texts are in Sanskrit and Prakrit whereas Buddhist texts are in Pali.
● Jain ascetics avoid bathing to avoid killing micro-organisms on the skin, while Buddhist ascetics
can bath.
● Buddhists believe that only intentional actions create Karma, while Jains believe that even
negligence creates Karma.
● Buddhists believe that anyone can reach Nirvana while still living on earth, while Jains believe
that it is only possible to fully attain Nirvana after death.
● Buddhism emphasises the eight noble paths while Jainism emphasisesTri Ratna.
● Though both emphasise Ahimsa, yet Jainism is more strict and adhere to extremities.

23
Decline of Jainism
● Jainism is now survived chiefly in two regions viz., Gujarat and Rajasthan (Svetambara sect) and
Mysore (Digambara sect).
● The main factors that were responsible for the decline of Jainism in India include -
○ Its emphasis on extreme ahimsa.
○ Loss of royal patronage at center after Mauryas..
○ No missionary effort was made to spread Jainism.
Do You Know?
● Manastambha: Found in the front side of temple, with an ornamental pillar structure
carrying the image of Tirthankar on top and on all four cardinal directions.
● Basadis: Jain monastic establishment or temples in Karnataka.
● Gachchas:These are Jain orders of Mahavratas (staunch Jains) who claim descent from
eminent monastic teachers.
Note:
● The Buddhist tradition has been more accretive in its doctrine than the other great missionary
religions.
● It has shown an enduring tendency to adapt to local forms, as a result of which one can speak of
a transformation of Buddhism in various cultures.
● Jainism on the other hand, has been largely confined to India, although the migration of Indians
to other, predominantly English speaking countries has spread its practice in many
Commonwealth nations and to the United States.
● Its continuous existence in India for some 2,500 years gives it a unique status as the only
Sanskritic non-Hindu religious tradition to have survived in India to the present.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Q.) With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts:

1. Nettipakarana
2. Parishishtaparvan
3. Avadanashataka
4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana
Which of the above are Jaina texts?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (B)
Q.) With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
2. The Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of the Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 only

24
Answer: (B)
Q.) Consider the following:

1. Deification of the Buddha
2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
3. Image worship and rituals
Which of the above is/are the features/ features of Mahayana Buddhism?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (D)
Q.) With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:
1. Sautrantika and Sammitiya were the sects of Jainism.
2. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary, but
existed forever in a latent form.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: (B)
Q.) Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of Buddha?
1. Avanti
2. Gandhara
3. Kosala
4. Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code given below
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1,3 and 4
(d) 3 and 4 only
Answer: (D)
Q.) Who among the following was not a contemporary of the other three?
(a) Bimibsara
(b) Gautama Buddha
(c) Milinda
(d) Prasenjit
Answer:( C)
Q.) With reference to Indian history, consider the following pairs:

Historical person – Known as
1. Aryadeva – Jaina scholar

25
2. Dignaga – Buddhist scholar

3. Nathamuni – Vaishnava scholar
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a)None of the pairs
(b) Only one pair
(c)Only two pairs
(d)All three pairs
Answer: (C)

26
Mauryan Empire (321 BC – 184)
Mauryan Empire (321 BC – 184 BC)
Table of Contents
● Introduction
● Sources
● Political History of Mauryan Empire
● Expanse of Maurya Empire
● Edicts of Ashoka
● Ashoka’s Dhamma
○ Steps taken by Ashoka to propagate Dhamma
○ Contents of Dhamma
○ Dhamma Interpretations
● Mauryan Administration
○ Central Administration
■ Important officials in the central administration
■ Saptanga Theory of State
■ Adhyakshas
■ Officers mentioned in Ashokan edicts
○ Provincial Administration
○ Local Administration
○ Municipal Administration
■ Important officials of municipal Administration
○ Military Administration
○ Revenue Administration
○ Judicial Administration
● Trade and Commerce
○ Coins and Currency
● Mauryan Society
● Mauryan Art
● Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire
○ Reasons for the Decline
Introduction
● The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of the Mauryan Empire in 321 BC.
● Mauryan Empire, with its capital Pataliputra, is considered to be the first empire of the Indian
subcontinent.
According to the Brahmanical tradition, Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya dynasty
was born of Mura, a Shudra woman in the court of the last Nanda king. From here, the dynasty
known as Maurya. The name "Maurya" occurs neither in Ashoka's inscriptions, nor in the
contemporary Greek accounts such as Megasthenes Indica. The Junagadh rock inscription of
Rudradaman (150 AD) prefixes "Maurya" to the names Chandragupta and Ashoka.
Sources for the Study of Mauryan Period

1
Literary Sources
Arthashastra ● Book on polity and governance.
● It is written by Kautilya/Chanakya, who was the Prime Minister of
Chandragupta Maurya.
● Arthashastra does not contain any references to the Mauryas, their
empire, Chandragupta, or Pataliputra.
● Kautilya’s work consists of 15 books (Adhikaranas). The first five deal
with internal administration (tantra), the next eight with inter-state
relations (avapa), and the last two with miscellaneous topics.
Indica ● Indica was written by Megasthenes who was the ambassador of

Seleucus Nicator in Chandragupta Maurya’s court.
● It mentioned about the Mauryan administration.
● The 7-caste system was explained and also thrown light that slavery was
absent in India.
Mudrarakshasha ● The book was written by VishakhaDutta during the Gupta period.
● The book gives an account of how Chandragupta Maurya defeated
Nandas with help of Chanakya.
Patanjali’s It mentions the Mauryas and the assembly of Chandragupta.

Mahabhashya
Buddhist Literature ● Buddhist texts such as Jatakas reveal socio-economic conditions of the
Mauryan period.
● Buddhist chronicles, Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa throw light on the role
of Ashoka in spreading Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
● Divyavadam, the Tibetan Buddhist text informed about Ashoka’s efforts
in spreading Buddhism.
Other sources ● Kathasaritsagar by Somadeva

● Brihatkatha Manj ari by Kshemendra
● Kamandaka by Nitisara
● Rajtarangiri by Kalhana
● Kadambari by Sana Bhatta
● Dashakumaracharita by Dandin
● Kalpasutra by Bhadrabahu
Non-Literary Sources
● Inscriptions of Ashoka-The most significant source for the Mauryan period is undoubtedly
inscriptions of Ashoka. Ashoka’s inscriptions mark the beginning of Indian epigraphy. What sets
Ashoka’s edicts apart is that they are issued in first person, thereby revealing the voice and ideas
of the king himself.
○ Note-These will be discussed in detail in the subsequent sections in this chapter.
● The Junagarh/Girnar inscription -of Rudradaman of 150 CE records that the construction of a
water reservoir known as the Sudarshana lake was begun during the time of Chandragupta
Maurya and completed during Ashoka’s reign.
● Archaeological sources-The remains from Bulandibagh and Kumrahar are associated with the
Mauryan capital Pataliputra. Other important sites are Taxila, Mathura, and Bhita.
Thus, a comprehensive and meaningful understanding of the Mauryas rests on a combined analysis
of the various sources.

2
Origin of Mauryas
Details about Mauryan ancestry and caste status differ from text to text.
● In Buddhist texts such as the Digha Nikaya, Mahavamsa, and Divyavadana, the Mauryas are
described as belonging to a Kshatriya clan called the Moriyas, who ruled at Pipphalivana.
● Hemachandra’s Parishishtaparvan describes Chandragupta as the son of the daughter of a chief
of a village of peacock tamers (mayura-poshakas).
● Vishakhadatta ‘s Mudrarakshasa refers to Chandragupta as being of low social origin.
● Dhundiraja, a commentator on the Vishnu Purana, states that Chandragupta was a Nanda scion,
son of the Nanda king Sarvarthasiddhi with Mura, the daughter of a hunter.It is suggested that
as the son of Mura, Chandragupta became known as Maurya, which went on to become the
dynastic epithet.
Political History of Maurya Empire
The foundation of the Mauryan empire was laid by Chandragupta Maurya, who overthrew the
Nanda dynasty in 321/324 BCE with the help Kautilya. According to Puranas, the Mauryan rule lasted
for 137 years, i.e., the Mauryas probably ruled till 187/185 BCE. Even if one takes these dates as
approximate, one can conclude that the Mauryan period lasted from around the late fourth century
BCE to the first quarter of the second century BCE.
Important Rulers of Maurya Empire

Name Major Facts
Chandragupta ● Founder of the Maurya Dynasty.

Maurya (321- ● Kautilya is his prime minister as well as mentor.
298 B.C.) ● Known as Sandrakottos or Androkottos to the Greeks.
● He ended Greek dominance over NW India by defeating Selecus Nikator
around 303 BC. As a result,
○ Selecus’ daughter (Helena) was given in marriage to Chandragupta.
○ Selecus had also sent his ambassador, Megasthenese, to Mauryan
court.
● According to “Parisista Parvan” (a Jain text), under the influence of
Bhadrabahu he had abdicated the throne in favour of his son Bindusara
and performed Sallekhana at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka).
Bindusara (297- ● He had a title Amitraghata (Killer of foes) hence Greek records called him
268 BC) ‘Amitrakhates’.
● He was a follower of Ajivika sect.
● He had diplomatic relations with Syria and Egypt.
○ Greek diplomats Daimachus (from Syria) and Dionysius (from Egypt)
had visited his court.
● It is said that Bindusara had requested the Syrian ruler (Antiochus I) to
send wine, dried figs and a sophist. Since Greek laws forbade exporting
philosophers, only wine and dried figs were sent to him.
● Taxila revolt: Divyavadana, a Tibetan text , informs that the citizens of
Taxila, under the governorship of Susima (elder son) had revolted against
the oppressive Mauryan bureaucracy during his reign. However, the then
Ujjain governor, Ashoka had successfully suppressed it.
● According to Mahavamsa (a Sinhalese Buddhist text), there was a war of
succession after Bindusara and Ashoka came to the throne around 268 BC
by fratricide.

3
Ashoka (268- ● Mother-Ashokavadana states that Ashoka’s mother was a queen named
232 BC) Subhadrangi.
● Wives-The Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa tell the love story of Ashoka and
Devi, daughter of a merchant of Vidisha. Texts refer to other queens such
as Asandhimitta, Tissarakhita, and Padmavati. An inscription on the
Allahabad–Kosam pillar mentions gifts made by queen Karuvaki.
○ Devi went on to become the mother of Ashoka’s celebrated children,
Mahinda and Sanghamitta, both of whom joined the Buddhist
sangha.
● Kalinga war(261 BC)- He fought the Kalinga War at his 8th regnal year at
Dhaulagiri (Odisha). Major Rock Edict XIII had described the death and
destruction in this war; about 1 lakh people were killed and 1.5 lakh were
deported as prisoners of war. By seeing this Asoka had finally declared
war and decided to dedicate his life to promoting Dhamma.
○ Ashoka left the policy of Behrighosha(conquest by force) and
adopted the policy of Dhamma Ghosha(conquest by Dharma).
● Welfare measures-He took up welfare measures like digging wells,
planting trees, providing medical treatment etc.
● Conversion to Buddhism-In his 21st regnal year, under the influence of
Upagupta, Ashoka had embraced Buddhism and openly confessed his
faith in Buddhism by stating Trisaranyas in Bhabru-Bairat inscription.
● Death- Ashoka dies in his 37th year of reign in Pataliputra of illness at the
age of around 72.
Later Mauryans No clear information is available about the successors of Ashoka.

(232 – 184 BC) ● Puranas mention Kunala (on the western part) and Dasarath (on the
eastern part) as successors.
○ Dasaratha built three rock-cut caves in Nagarjuni Hills (Bihar) and
donated them to Ajivikas.
● Divyavadana and Jain texts mention Samprati (S/o Kunala and grandson
of Ashoka) as successor.
● Rajatarangini mentions Jalaluka, who ruled over Kashmir.
● Brihadratha, the last ruler was assassinated by his Brahmin senani,
Pushyamitra Shunga-hence starting the Sunga Dynasty.
Note:
● Vishnugupta/Chanakya/Kautilya played the leading role in rebuilding and reshaping the Indian
polity. He was a teacher at Takshashila (now Taxila in Pakistan).
Expanse of Mauryan Empire

● For the first time in the history of India, a large portion of the subcontinent, extending up to the
far north-west, was under a single paramount power.
○ Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the empire , extended control as far northwest as
Afghanistan and Baluchistan, and his grandson Ashoka conquered Kalinga (present-day
coastal Orissa).
● The Mauryan empire at its peak during the Ashoka’s reign included the present-day states of
Bihar and good portions of Orissa and Bengal but also western and north-western India, and
the Deccan.
● Note-The extreme south and north-east India was not part of the empire.

4
Ashokan Edicts and Inscriptions
● Ashokan Edicts were royal orders to both public and officials .

● About 181 edicts were found at 47 places.
● Most of them were issued in Prakrit language and Brahmi and Kharoshti scripts.
○ However, Gandhara bilingual inscription found at Sharia-i-Kuna was issued in Greek and
Aramaic languages with their own scripts.
● James Princep succeeded in deciphering Brahmi script for the first time in 1837; while Norris
deciphered Kharoshti script in Ashokan edicts.
● Majority of Edicts does not mention Ashoka’s name and instead refer to him with two titles —
Devanampiya (beloved of the gods) and Piyadasi (he who looks on auspiciousness).
○ Minor Rock Edict I ,containing the personal name of the king Ashoka,were found, at Maski,
Udegolam, Nittur , and Gujjara. (Note: Only at these four places Ashoka name is
mentioned.)

5
Language of Ashoka ● Eastern part - Prakrit language in Brahmi script

Edicts ● Western part- Prakrit language in Kharosthi script.
● Inscriptions present in Afghanistan were inscribed in Aramaic and
Greek.
● North-Western it was written in Aramaic language and Kharosthi
Script.
Note:
● Most of the inscriptions are in the Prakrit language and Brahmi script.
● Those at Mansehra and Shahbazgarhi are in the Prakrit language and
Kharosthi script.
● A bilingual Greek–Aramaic inscription was found at Shar-i-Kuna near
Kandahar in south-east Afghanistan.
● Two Aramaic inscriptions were found at Laghman (in east Afghanistan)
and one at Taxila.
● A bilingual Prakrit–Aramaic inscription was found at Lampaka and
another one at Kandahar
Ashokan There are 39 inscriptions discovered and classified into the following:
Inscriptions • Major rock edicts.
• Minor rock edicts.
• Separate rock edicts.
• Major pillar edicts.
• Minor pillar edicts.
Ashoka’s Major ● There are 14 major rock edicts.

Rock Edicts ● Most of them are written in Brahmi script Prakrit language except one
which is carved in Aramaic and Greek (located in Afghanistan).
● Aim- to show Emperor Ashoka’s faithfulness towards peace by following
Buddhism and to make individuals aware of Dhamma.
Minor Rock Edicts ● 15 minor rock edicts were found across the country and in Afghanistan
of Ashoka also.
● These are Sasaram (Bihar), Gavimath, Siddhpur, Jating Rameshwar ,
Brahamgiri, Palkig-undu (Karnataka), Bhabru-Bairat (Rajasthan),
Rupanath (M.P.), Maski (Karnataka)
● Four of them mentions Ashoka’s name –
Brahmagiri(Karnataka),Maski(Karnataka),Nittur(Karnataka),Gujjara(M
.P.)
● The contents are related to Personal life of King
● Bhabru-Bairat Rock Edicts - It tells about Ashoka’s conversion to
Buddhism.
Pillar Edicts of ● There are seven pillar edicts.

Ashoka ● All of them are stone monoliths.
● Two types of stones were used to carve the pillars – white and buff
coloured sandstone and quartzite.
● These pillars were found at
○ Topra (Haryana)
○ Meerut (Uttar Pradesh)
○ Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh)

6
○ Lauriya Araraj (Bihar)

○ Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar)
○ Rampurva (Bihar)
○ Kandahar (Afghanistan)
2 Kalinga Edicts ● These are found at

○ Dhauli or Tosali (Khurda Odisha),
○ Daugava (Ganjam, Odisha).
Other Rock Edicts ● Edict I: Ashoka declared all people are my sons
and inscriptions ● Edict II: proclamation of edicts even to a single person.
● Queen Edict: Mentions about second queen of Ashoka
● Barbara cave Inscription: Discuss giving away the Barbara cave to
Ajivika sect
● Kandhar Bilingual Rock Inscription: Expresses gratification over
Ashoka’s policy.
Other Pillar ● Rummindei Pillar Inscription: Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini (248 BC) &
Inscription exemption of Lumbini from tax.
● Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription: It was originally located at Kapilvastu. It
mentions that Ashoka increased the height of stupa of Buddha
Konakamana to its double size.
Other relevant ● Allahabad – Kosam/Queens Edict/Kausambi or Schism Edict.

inscriptions and ○ Ashoka asks the members of the Sangha to refrain from causing
important edicts division in the ranks.
○ Samudragupta’s inscription is on this edict itself.
○ Jahangir shifted it to the fort at Allahabad.
Kandahar ● It is a famous bilingual edict in Greek and Aramaic.

Inscription ● Mentions ‘All men are my children.’
Girnar Rock ● Mentions the Sudarshan Lake constructed by Pushyagupta, a Rastriya

Inscription of (means provincial governor) of Saurashtra during Chandragupta
Rudradaman Maurya’s reign.
(Kathiawar)
Minor Rock Edict 1 ● Indicates that Ashoka turned towards Buddhism gradually, after 2.5
years in power.
Minor Rock Edict 3 ● Ashoka greets Sangha, professes his deep faith in the Buddha, dhamma,
and Sangha, also recommends six Buddhist texts for monks, nuns and
general laity.
● Inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra.
● Written in Kharosthi script.
Indian copper plate ● Indian copper plate inscriptions are historical legal records engraved on
inscriptions copper plates in India.
The Sohgaura ● It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script.

copper plate ● It was discovered in Sohgaura, a village on the banks of the Rapti River,
inscription near Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India.

7
Tamil copper-plate ● These are engraved copper-plate records of grants of villages, plots of
inscriptions cultivable lands or other privileges to private individuals or public
institutions by the members of the various South Indian royal dynasties.
● Important in reconstructing the history of Tamil Nadu.
Ashoka’s Dhamma
● Dhamma, a Prakrit version of Dharma which means piety or righteousness, is an ethical code
which is secular, non-sectarian and universally applicable in nature and based on principles like
non-violence, tolerance, welfarism etc.
● Through Dhamma Asoka had tried to consolidate his territorial conquests, and to create
communal harmony and mutual trust in highly diversified Mauryan society.
● Ashoka used the medium of his edicts to expound the policy of Dhamma. Ashoka engraved his
views about Dhamma on these edicts which were meant to be read by people of various areas.
● In doing so, Ashoka was trying to establish direct communication with his subjects. These
inscriptions were written in different years of his rule.
○ For example : According to Gandhara bilingual inscription, fishing and hunting communities
of the Gandhara region discarded their professions and took up cultivation by the impact of
Dhamma.
Steps taken by Ashoka to propagate Dhamma

● Edicts-Ashoka had issued edicts and erected them in public places engraving principles of
Dhamma in popular languages on them.
● Dhamma-magamattras- He had appointed the following dhamma-mahamatras in his 12th regnal
year:
○ Majjanthika-for Kashmir & Gandhara region.
○ Majjhima- for other parts of Himalayas.
○ Maharakkita- for Yona region.
○ Yona Dhamma rakkita-for Aparatha region.
○ Maha Dhamma rakkita-for Maharashtra region.
○ Mahadeva- for Mahishamandala (Karnataka).
○ Rakkita-for Vyjayanti / Banavasi.
● Relatives-He also sent his kin and kith to distant places to propagate Dhamma which include-
○ Charumati-for Nepal.
○ Sona and Uttara-Suvarnabhoomi.
○ Mahendra and Sanghamitra-Sri Lanka.
● Dharmayatras-He had taken up dharma yatra; visited 8 important Buddhist pilgrim centres and
gave gifts to Sramanas and Brahmins.
Do You Know?
Asokha’s Dhamma is quite different from Buddhism, though there are some similarities between
them.
● No Buddhist doctrines were found in the principles of his Dhamma.
● Dhamma believed in the concepts of heaven, hell and God whereas those concepts were not
found in Buddhism by 3rd c BC.
● While Buddhism was completely against brahmanical domination, Dhamma propounded
religious tolerance and an equal treatment for Brahmins and Shramanas.
● A new cadre (Dhamma-mahamatras) was created to propagate Dhamma.
Contents of Dhamma
The principles of Dhamma were so formulated as to be acceptable to people belonging to different

8
communities and followers of any religious sect. Dhamma was not given any formal definition or
structure. It emphasised on toleration and general behaviour. Therefore, some of its major principles
or contents are:
● Dhamma stressed on dual toleration, that is, it emphasised on toleration of people themselves
and also toleration of their various beliefs and ideas.
○ For instance - There is a stress on the notion of showing consideration towards slaves and
servants; there is stress also on obedience to elders; generosity towards the needy,
brahmanas and sramanas, etc
● The policy of Dhamma also laid stress on non-violence. Non-violence was to be practised by
giving up war and conquests and also as a restraint on the killing of animals.
● The policy of Dhamma also included certain welfare measures like planting of trees, digging of
wells, etc.
Dhamma-Interpretations
The Ashokan policy of Dhamma has been an issue of intense controversy and debate amongst
scholars. That is:
● Ashoka’s creation of the institution of the Dhamma-mahamattas convincingly proves that
Ashoka’s Dhamma did not favour any particular religious doctrine.
○ Had that been the case, then there would have been no need for such an office, as Ashoka
could have utilised the organisation of Samgha to propagate Dhamma.
● A careful study of the Rock Edicts depicts that Ashoka wanted to promote tolerance and
respect for all religious sects and the duty of the Dhammamahamattas included working for the
brahmanas and the sramanas.
● The policy of Dhamma was not the policy of a heretic, but a system of beliefs created out of
different religious faiths.
● Ashoka’s Dhamma, apart from being a superb document of his essential humaneness, was also
an answer to the socio-political needs of the contemporary situation.
● That it was not anti-Brahmanical is proved by the fact that respect for the brahmanas and
sramanas is an integral part of his Dhamma.
● His emphasis on non-violence did not blind him to the needs of the State.
○ For Instance- In address to the forest tribes he warns them that although he hates to use
coercion he may be required to resort to force if they continue to create trouble.
Note: However, we should remember that he was not establishing a new religion. He was simply
trying to impress upon society the need for ethical and moral principles.
.
Mauryan Administration
Central Administration
● The Mauryan Empire had an efficient and centralised administrative machinery.
● The Emperor or King was the supreme power and source of all authority.
● The King was assisted by Mantri parishad (council of ministers), which was headed by
‘Mantriparishad-Adhyakshya’.
● Mantri parishad members included Mantris, Adhyaksha and below him was as following:
○ Yuvaraja: The crown prince
○ Purohita: The chief priest
○ Senapati: The commander in chief
○ Amatya: Civil servants and few other ministers. They had administrative and judicial roles.
Important officials in central administration

9
Tirthas Tirthas were the Highest category of officials in the administration. They
were 18 in number.
Adhyakshya ● Ranked next only to Tirthas.

● They were 20 in number.
● They had economic and military functions.
● Adhyakshyas were formed into a secretariat, which was divided into
many departments.
● Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyas for commerce,
storehouses, gold, ships, agriculture, cows, horses, city, chariots, mint,
infantry, etc
Mahamattas Higher ranking officials.
Pradeshika District administrator
Yuktas Subordinate officers responsible for the Empire’s revenue.
Rajjukas ● Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary-fixing.

● Head of land revenue
● Superintendent of mint
Samastha Adhyaksha Superintendent of markets
Samaharta He was in charge of collection of revenue from various parts of the

kingdom and looked after the income and expenditure by supervising the
works of the Akshapataladhyaksha (Accountant General).
Sannidhata Chief treasury.
Vyavaharika Chief judge
Gopa Accountant to a unit.
Saptanga Theory of State

● It is the first time in the Arthashastra of Kautilya, we find seven elements of state.
● The state as seven-lined is contemplated by ancient Hindu thinkers.
● The state is defined for the first time in the Arthashastra as consisting of seven elements.
● He enumerated seven prakritis or essential organs of the state which are as follow:
○ Swamin— the King,
○ Amatya—the Minister,
○ Janapada—the Land, and the People,
○ Durga—the Fortress,
○ Kosha—the Treasury,
○ Danda—the Army and
○ Mitra—the Allies.
Adhyakshas
● Kautilya’s Arthasastra gives information about 34 departments under respective Adhyakshas
that include-
○ Akshapatala-Accounts
○ Bandagara-Jails

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○ Dhyuta-Gambling
○ Ganika-Prostitutes
○ Tankasala/Lakshana-Minting
○ Lavana-Salt manufacturing
○ Sita-Agriculture
○ Pattana-Port cities
○ Pautava-Metrology
○ Sulka-Customs
○ Sura-Excise
○ Akara-Mining
Officers mentioned in Ashokan Edicts

● Dhamma-mahamatras: propagating Dhamma.
● Stri-adhyaksha /Ithihajaka mahamattaras: women welfare.
● Antha-mahamattaras:border regions.
● Padesika: law and order
● Rajjukas:revenue, judicial administration
● Vachabhumikas: cattle wealth
● Pulisans, Pativedikas: spies / royal reporters.
Note:
“Indica” mentioned two kinds of officials namely –
● Agronomoi: rural administration officials
● Astinomoi:urban administration (municipal council)
Provincial Administration
● The Mauryan Empire was divided into 4 provinces headed by governors / Kumaras / Aryaputras.
Sl. No Province Capital
1 Uttarapatha Taxila
2 Dakshinapatha Suvarnagiri (A.P.)
3 Avantipatha Ujjain
4 Prachyapada Toshali (Odisha)
Local Administration
● Each province was divided into Aharas headed by Rajjukas and Padesikas.
● Villages were at grass-root level headed by Gramanis appointed by the State.
● Gramanis were assisted by Gramavridha (village-elder) and Gramika (village councillor).
Sangrahana • Sangrahana is a group of 10 villages.

• Head of a Sangrahana: Gopa.
Ahar/Vishaya • Districts/administrative heads were called Ahar/Vishaya.
• Pradeshika was the provincial governors or district magistrates.
Chakra • Province is called Chakra
• Head of a chakra: Rashtrapal or Kumara
Sthanika ● Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas.
Durgapala ● Governors of forts.
Antapala ● Governors of frontiers.
Akshapatala ● Accountant General
Lipikaras ● Scribes (A person whose job was to write copies of documents)

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Municipal Administration
● Megasthenes Indica mentions Astinomoi (a municipal council) consisting of 30 members
divided into 6 sub-committees with 5 members each.
● Each sub-committee looked after different aspects of city administration viz, which five were to
look after Pataliputra’s administration-
○ Board of Taxes.
○ Board of weights and measures.
○ Board of manufactured goods
○ Board of handicrafts and industries
○ Board of foreigners
○ Board of census
Important officials of municipal administration

Nagaraka In charge of city administration
Sita- Adhyaksha Supervisor of agriculture
Samastha- Superintendent of market
Adhyaksha
Navadhyaksha Superintendent of ships
Sulkaadhyaksha Collector of tolls
Lohadhyaksha Superintendent of Iron
Akaradhyaksha Superintendent of mines
Pauthavadhyaksha Superintendent of weight and measures etc.
Military Administration
● The commander-in-chief of the entire military was called Senapati and his position was next to
the emperor. He was appointed by the emperor.
● The army’s salary was paid in cash.
● As per Pliny, Chandragupta maintained 600000-foot soldiers, 30000 cavalry, 9000 elephants.
● Megasthenes 'Indica mentioned a war council consisting of 30 members divided into 6 boards
of 5 members each to control the 6 wings of the army.
● Major wings of army under Senapati included-
S.No. Military wing Head

1. Infantry Pad Adhyaksha
2. Cavalry Asvadhyaksha
3. Elephantry Hast Adhyaksha
4. Chariotry Rajadhyaksha
5. Navy Navadhyaksha
6. Armoury Ayudhagar-adhyaksha
Do You Know?
● Jail was known as Bandhangara and it was different from the lock-up called Charaka.
● Mahamatyapasarpa controlled Gudhapurushas (secret agents).
● Secret agents were of two types:
○ Sansthan – they were stationary.
○ Sanchari - they were wandering.

12
Revenue Administration
● A variety of taxes such as Bali, Bhaga, Shulka, Kara, etc. in the fertile Gangetic region around
Pataliputra.
○ Shulka-Sales tax in cities.
○ Nishkraman-Export duty.
○ Vartani-Road cess.
○ Pindakara-A fixed commuted tax paid by the villages
○ Pranaya-Emergency tax
○ Senabhaktam-Punitive tax imposed by the army on the region through which it passed.
○ Visthi-Tax payable in labour i.e., forced labour
○ Bali-A religious tribute
○ Sita-Income of royal lands.
Do You Know?
● The Rummindei inscription is the only Ashokan inscription which makes a precise reference to
taxation.
○ The inscription says that Ashoka had reduced the amount of Bhaga (produce of the soil) to
one- eighth (atthabhagiya) from one-sixth as a concession to the people of the holy birth-
place of the Buddha.
● Sohgaura inscription: Provides for two grain depots (koshagra) to fight against famine.
● Mahasthan inscription: It mentions paddy to be given to the needy ones during the famines.
● .Tax-Exempted villages include-

○ Pariharaka - Villages that were exempted from taxation.
○ Ayudhiya - Villages that supplied soldiers instead of tax.
○ Kupya - Villages that paid their taxes in the form of grain, cattle, gold or raw material.
● Collection of tolls were through officials like Panyadhyaksa, Mudradhyaksa,
Kosthagaradhyaksa, Pautvadhyaksa and Sulkadhyaksa, all of them working under the
Samaharta.
● The state derived its revenue from seven main heads (Ayasarira) viz.,
○ Durga (fortified towns),
○ Rastra (country side),
○ Khani (mines)
○ Setu (buildings and gardens),
○ Vana (forest),
○ Vraja (herds of cattle),
○ Vanikpatha (roads of traffic).
Judicial administration
● The emperor/King was the highest appellate authority.
● Important judicial officials include-
○ Vyavaharika/ Dharmakarini-Chief justice
○ Nagaravyavaharamattara/Pauravyavaharamattara-City judge
○ Rajjukas-Enjoyed judicial powers at provincial level.
○ Gramani-Enjoyed judicial powers at village level.
● Arthasastra mentioned the following two kinds of courts-
○ Dharmasthiya-Civil courts
○ Kantakasodhana-Criminal courts
● Special Courts trailing the cases related to foreigners were also found.
● Arthasashtra mentioned about the following four sources of law-
○ Dharma (dharma sastras)

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○ Vyavahara (existing laws)

○ Charita (customs and precedents)
○ Rajasasana (royal orders) which prevail over dharma in case of conflict between them.
● Trail by ordeals were conducted to prove one’s guilt or innocence and penal code was very
harsh. For e.g.,
○ Amputation for theft of less than 40 panas.
○ Capital punishment for theft more than 40 panas, damage to irrigation projects, tax
evasion, harming artisans etc
Trade and Commerce

● It was an important source of revenue.The eighteen chief handicrafts of the time were organised
in guilds called srenis. Each sreni was under its president called pramukha and the alderman
called jetthaka. Trade was organised in merchant-guilds (sanghas and srenis).
● Tamluk (Tamralipti) on the east coast and Broach and Soparaon on the west coast, were the
most important sea-ports of India in those times.
● Guilds had to employ hired labour of two categories:
○ karmakaras or bhritakas on a regular wage and
○ dasas who were slaves.
Coins and currency

● The punch-marked silver coins, which carry the symbols of the peacock, and the hill and
crescent, called pana, formed the imperial currency of the Mauryas.
● Copper masika was the token currency and quarter pieces of masika was called kakini.
● Copper punch-marked coins were rare.
● Money was not only used for trade; even the government paid its officers in cash.
● Arthasashtra refers to state officers in charge of coinage, the suvarnadhyaksa, the
laksanadhyaksa and the rupadarsaka.
Mauryan Society
Basis of society-
● The Mauryan society was based on Varna (caste).
● Buddhist literature mentions the four castes as -Brahman ,Kshatriya , Vaishya and Shudras.
● 15 hinajatis outside Varna were mentioned in Arthasastra like Nishadas, Chandalas etc.
Megasthenes division-
● Megasthenes divided Indian Society into seven classes-Philosophers; Cultivators; Herdsman;
Artisans and traders; Soldiers; Overseers; and Councillors.
Position of Women-
● Women occupied relatively a respectable position in Mauryan society. They have the right to
remarry and Niyog. But they were not allowed to go outside without the prior permission of her
husband .
● Kautilya considered divorce as salvation. Both husband and wife had the right to take divorce.
Kautilya considered women to be Anishkasini and Asuryapansaya.
● There were also some other category of women such as:
○ Ganikas or public women -This class included actresses, dancers, musicians and other
artists. They were appointed by the state.
○ Rupajiva- They did independent prostitution. They used to pay tax to the state. They had
their own organisation and its head was known as Bandhikposhaka.
○ Peyshalrupa: The ones who served the wine. Kautilya suggested they live in the southern
part of the empire.

14
○ Samrangniya(bodyguards)- Kautilya and Megasthenese both mentioned about them. They

were the female bodyguards of Chandragupta Maurya.
Slavery-
● Megasthenes had stated that slavery did not exist in India, which is not proved by historical facts
as Dasas existed.
○ Kautilya's Arthashastra dedicates the thirteenth chapter on dasas, in his third book on law
● But according to Kautilya, there were nine types of slaves .
● According to him Aryans cannot be slaves in any condition. Only Malechas and non-aryans could
be made slaves.
Superstitions-
● Most of Book Fourteen of the Arthashastra called Aupanisadika, describes a number of rites and
practices which are supposed to produce occult manifestations or miraculous effects.
.
Mauryan Art
● Pottery-The Northern Black Polished (NBP) Ware was the commonly used pottery type during
the Mauryan empire.
● Statues -Statues like that of a woman at Besnagar, statue at Patna and the elephant statue at
Dhauli reveal a state-of-art sculpture during the Mauryan times.
● Stone Portrait of Ashoka at Kanaganahalli- An inscription in Brahmi letters read ‘Ranyo Ashoka’
(king Ashoka), found here.
● Lion Capital of Sarnath- The National Emblem is adapted from the design of the Lion Capital of
an Ashokan pillar. It was officially adopted on January 26, 1950 along with the motto
“Satyameva Jayate” which has been taken from the Mundaka Upanishad and translates to
“truth always triumphs”.The lions sit atop a cylindrical abacus, which is adorned with
representations of- A horse, A bull, A lion and An elephant, made in high relief.
○ The Wheel with 24 Spokes(Ashok Chakra / Dharma chakra)-The animals are separated by
intervening chakras (having 24 spokes). The Chakra also finds representation on the National
Flag.
Disintegration of the Mauryan Empire
Mauryan rule was the first experiment in imperial government in India. The imperial authority of the
Mauryas began to weaken with the death of Ashoka (232 BCE) and finally collapsed in 180 BCE.
Reasons for the Decline

● Successors of Ashoka -After Ashoka, the empire got fragmented and there was a quick
succession of rulers. The quick succession of kings made this difficult as none of the rulers could
actually settle down and be in the control of things.This weakened the imperial control over
administration.
● The policy of Dhamma came into question-It is not clear whether despite Ashoka’s personal
exhortations his successors attached the same kind of importance to Dhamma, as he himself had
done.
○ Another related feature of the political importance of Dhamma was the existence of a large
body of officials of the State called Dhamma-mahamattas. It has been suggested by some
historians that they had become very powerful and oppressive during the latter half of
Ashoka’s reign.
● Weakening of Bureaucracy-The social basis of the Mauryan bureaucracy was under stress and
strain resulting in an inefficient administration unable to maintain social order in general.

15
● Economic Problems-The decreasing silver content of the punch- marked coins attributed to the
later Mauryan rulers indicate that debasement in Mauryas had actually taken place to meet the
needs of a depleted treasury.
● Growth of the local politics in post Mauryan period- The political decline of the Mauryas
created a situation for many of the local powers to rise.
UPSC Prelims Previous Year Questions
Q.) According to Kautilya's Arthashastra, which of the following are correct?

1. A person could be a slave as a result of a judicial punishment.
2. If a female slave bore her master a son, she was legally free.
3. If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her master, the son was entitled to the legal
status of the master's son.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (D)
Q.) Consider the following pairs:

Site of Location in the
Ashoka's State of major rock
edicts
Dhauli Odisha
Erragudi Andhra Pradesh
Jaugada Madhya Pradesh
Kalsi Karnataka
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) Only one pair
(b) Only two pairs
(c) Only three pairs
(d) All four pairs
Answer: (B)
Q.) Who among the following rulers advised his subjects through this inscription?
“Whosoever praises his religious sect or blames other sects out of excessive devotion to his own
sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect, he rather injures his own sect very severely”
(a) Ashoka
(b) Samudragupta
(c) Harshavardhana
(d) Krishnadevaraya
Answer: (A)
Q.) In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned
along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?
(a) Kanganahalli
(b) Sanchi

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(c) Shahbazgarhi
(d) Sohgaura
Answer: (A)
Q.) With reference to the guilds (Shrine) of ancient India that played a very important role in the
country’s economy, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Every guild was registered with the central authority of the State and the king was the chief
administrative authority on them.
2. The wages, rules of work, standards and prices were fixed by the guild.
3. The guild had judicial powers over its own members.
Choose the correct option:
(a) 1 & 2 Only
(b) 3 Only
(c) 2 & 3 Only
(d) 1,2, & 3
Answer:( D)
Q.) Assertion (A): According to Asoka’s edicts social harmony among the people was more important
than religious devotion.
Reason (R): He spread ideas of equity instead of promotion of religion.
(a) Both A and Rare true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Ans:( A)

17
POST-MAURYAN PERIOD ( 200 BC – 300 AD)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
● Introduction
● Sources
● Foreign Ruling Dynasties
○ Indo-Greeks
○ Sakas
○ Parthian
○ Kushans
● Significance of Contacts between Central Asia and North India
● Indigenous Dynasties
○ Shungas
○ Kanvas
○ Chedis
○ Satavahanas
● Significance of Post-Mauryan Age
INTRODUCTION
The collapse of the Mauryan rule in 187 BC paved the way for the emergence of several powers in
the Indian subcontinent. The period from the decline of the Mauryas to the rise of the Guptas (2nd
century BCE to 3rd century AD ) is known in Indian history as the post- Mauryan period.
● In Deccan , central lndia and eastern India, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of
indigenous rulers such as the Shungas, the Kanvas, Nagas of Ganga Valley, Dynasty of Kalinga-
Chedis and Satavahanas.
● This period also witnessed a number of foreign dynasties from Central Asia like the Indo-Greeks,
the Shakas, the Scytho-Parthians and the Kushans.

1
Region Dynasties
North India Shungas, Kanvas
Deccan Satavahanas
South India Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas
East India (Odisha region) Chedis
N-W India & North India Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians,

Kushans and A number of tribal
republics
SOURCES
LITERARY SOURCES
● The Jatakas contain many stories of ordinary people, traders, and travellers of this period.
● The Pali work Milinda-Panha (The Questions of Milinda) gives information about the Yavana king
Menander and on Buddhism of this period.
● The chronicles of early Han and later Han dynasties of China give ample information on the early
history of Yueh-chis or Kushanas.
● The Puranas and epics are a rich source of information on the emergence of early Hindu cults
and religious practices of this period.
● The later Dharmasutras and Smritis such as the Manava Dharmashastra (generally referred to as
the Manu Smriti) and Yajnavalkya Smriti represent Brahmanical discourses, through which we
can get glimmers of the society of their time.
● Other sources-Mahabhasya of Patanjali, Divyavadana, Puranas, Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa,
Harshacharita of Banabhatta, Gargi Samhita.
● Greeco-Roman texts- They are collectively known as ‘classical accounts and include the works of
Strabo and Pliny.
○ Strabo-His book ‘Geographica’ describes about geography, social, economic and religious
conditions of lndia.
○ Pliny-His book ‘Naturalis Historica’ provides insights into the trade between Italy and India.
NON-LITERARY SOURCES
● Inscriptions: Inscriptions written in Kharosthi script have been found in large numbers in
Gandhara and many Kharosthi documents have been recovered from Central Asia; Also
inscriptions from Ayodhya, Vidisha , Bharhut etc.
● Coins: Coins with names of rulers inscribed on them. For example: The names of many Indo-
Greek rulers are known from their coins.
● Archaeological Sources: The pottery includes wheel-turned red ware of medium fabric,
requently with stamped and incised designs.
FOREIGN RULING DYNASTIES

● Mauryan and Seleucid empires had disintegrated at the same time around 185 BC and hence
their governors declared independence and established independent kingdoms.
● The construction of the Great Wall of China in 220 BC pushed Central Asian tribes like Sakas,
Yuchis towards India.
● Weak successors of Ashoka failed to check foreign invaders.
● These foreign invaders were assimilated into Indian society; they were not only Indianised but
got Hinduised.

2
INDO-GREEKS
● The first to invade India were the Indo-Greeks
● Background-They were Seleucid governors of Bactria ( N.Afghanistan).
● Expansion-Demetrius-I invaded India along with his Senani, Menander. Menander extended his
kingdom from Afghanistan to U.P. and to Gujarat.
● Capital: Sakala ( Sialkot) ; later Taxila.
● Menander / Milinda converted into Buddhism under the influence of Nagasena.
○ ‘Milinda Panho’ is a Pali work about philosophical dialogue between Milinda and
Nagasena.Sakala was described as Bhoothalaswarga in this work.
● Greek ruler, Antialcidas sent a Greek ambassador, Heliodorus to Vidisha.
○ At the end of the second century B.C. Heliodorus, erected a Garuda pillar at Besnagar, near
Vidisha. The inscription on the pillar besides recording that he was a follower of the
Bhagavata religion also mentions the contemporary ruler (Bhagabhadra) who perhaps
belonged to the Sunga dynasty.
● There were ten rulers within a small span of fifteen years which shows that political instability
had become the norm.
● The Indo-Greek rule over Gandhara came to an end due to conflicts with the Parthians and
Sakas.
Contribution of Indo-Greeks
● Indo-Greeks were the first Indian rulers to issue gold coins and the first to introduce double die
struck coins.
● The coins of the Indo-Greeks were the first coins to ascribe to a particular king. We can see
information related to king (title/name/portrait) on the obverse side and religious information
(deities) on the reverse side.
○ For example, Buddhist dharmachakra with 8 spokes was found on the reverse side of
Menander’s coins.
● The coins of the Graeco-Bactrians which circulated to the north of the Hindu Kush were made
of gold, silver, copper, and nickel.
● The Indo-Greek coins, which circulated to the south of the Hindu Kush, were made of silver
and copper, and were often square in shape.
○ They had bilingual inscriptions in Greek and Kharoshthi (more rarely, Brahmi) and followed
an Indian weight standard.
Note: The names of many Indo-Greek rulers are known from their coins.Out of the 42 Graeco-
Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings, as many as 34 are known only through their coins. Some of the
rulers mentioned in the coins include-Demetrius I, Demetrius II, Appollodotus, Pantaleon
Agathocles, Menander etc. The sequence of kings which has been proposed by scholars is based
on the composition of the hoards, overstrikes, monogram patterns, geographical distribution of
coins and stylistic features. The large number of kings within a relatively short period of time
suggests that some of them ruled concurrently.
● Greek influence can be seen in astrology and astronomy.

○ The term Horasastra is of Greek origin.
● Under Greek influence, Gandhara style of art and architecture had been developed and its first
royal patron was Menander.
○ Note: Gandhara art will be discussed in art and culture classes.

3
SHAKAS/SCYTHIANS
● Background: Forced by Central Asian tribe, the Yuehchi to leave their habitat on the Bactrian
border, they moved in North-Western region of India.
● There were 5 branches/ dynasties of Sakas , who ruled from Kapisa (Afghanistan), Taxila,
Mathura, Ujjain and Nasik between 1st C BC and 5th C AD.
Prominent Branches of Sakas

Sakas of upper ● Capital: Minnagara (Mandasore); later Nasik
Deccan ● They were ruled over Gujarat, Malwa, Konkan, Pushkar regions
(Kshaharatas) ● Important ruler was Nahapana; he was referred as Mambcaus
(Greatest king of Deccan) in “Periplus of Erythrian Sea”.
Sakas of western ● Capital: Ujjain.
India (Kardhamaka ● Greatest Saka dynasty ruled in 1st – 4th C AD.
dynasty) ● Important ruler was Rudradaman; he was a great Sanskrit scholar
and he was the first ruler to use Sanskrit for official purposes; first
Sanskrit inscription being Junagarh / Girnar inscription talking
about repairs to Sudarshana Lake.
Contribution
● Sakas were the first rulers to issue silver coins in India. Figures of Lakshmi, Buddha, Siva were
found on their coins.
● Vikrama Era(57 BC) and Saka Era(78 AD) were related to Sakas.
Vikram Era
● In about 57 BC, one of the kings of Ujjain defeated the Shakas.
● He called himself the "Vikramaditya" and started an era called Vikram Samvat, which
celebrated his victory over Shakas in 57 BC.
● After this, the title of Vikramaditya became a coveted title. 14 rulers adopted the title.
● Chandragupta II of Gupta dynasty being the most famous of them.
Saka Samvat
● Starts from 78 AD.
● It marks the rememberance if King Shalivahana's chief military triumphs.
● It was adopted as national calendar in 1957.
PARTHIANS
● Origin: Parthians or Pahalvas (according to Sanskrit Texts) lived in Iran from where they moved
to India.
● In the first century BC, the Parthians dominated the north-western after Sakas, but ruled over
a small area. The Sakas and Parthians rules simultaneously in different pockets of north western
and northern India.
● Gondophernes was the most important ruler.
○ St. Thomas is said to have come to India during his reign. He played important role in the
propagation of Christianity.
○ Marcopolo, a 14th century Venice traveler, found the tomb of St. Thomas at Santhome, near
Chennai.

4
KUSHANS
● Background- They belonged to nomadic Yuchi tribe of Central Asia. Parthian and Saka (of
Mathura) rule was replaced by Kushans.
● They ruled over most parts of North India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Central Asia came under
Kushan rule. (from River Oxus to River Ganges)
● Capitals: Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura.
● Founder – Kujulakadphyses; he had conquered Kabul, Kashmir; issued copper coins modeled
after Roman ‘aurei’ coins to facilitate Roman trade.
● Vimakadphyses was the first ruler to issue gold coins in large number modeling after Roman
‘Dinaria’ coins.
○ He was a follower of Pasupata Saivism. Saivite symbols like trident, bull, Siva and Maheswara
title were found on his coins.
● Greatest ruler was Kanishka- He had conquered Mathura, Pataliputra and entire Ganga-Yamuna
doab. He had conflict with Chinese rulers; was defeated by their military general, Panchao.
○ His titles were ‘Devaputra’ (under Chinese influence) and ‘Kaiser’ (modeling after Roman
Caesar).
○ He patronized Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhist symbols, Hindu and Greek deities are found
on his coins (monolingual).
● Significance:
○ It transformed the Kushana principality in Bactria into a massive empire which included
portions of Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, parts of Chinese Central Asia, north-west borderlands of
the subcontinent, Mathura and at times beyond Mathura through the Ganga plains till
Bhagalpur in Bihar.
○ Because of this, the Kushana Empire is sometimes called the Central Asian Empire.
Scholars associated with Kanishka

Aswagosha:
● He was the Vice-President of 4th Buddhist Council.
● He was the first Sanskrit dramatist and Buddhist scholar to write in Sanskrit.
● His works included - “Buddha Charita” (biography of Buddha), “Sauriputra Prakarana” (pledge
of Sauriputra) and “Saundara Nandana” (conversion of Nanda into Buddhism).
Vasumitra:
● He was the President of 4th Buddhist Council and author of “Mahavibhashasastra” (doctrines
of Sarvasthavadins.
Charaka:
● He wrote “Charaka-samhita” (encyclopedia of Indian Medicine)
Nagarjuna:
● He wrote “Suhrullekha”, “Prajnaparamita” and “Madhyamikavada”.
Note:
● Kushans were great patrons of Gandhara and Mathura styles of art and architecture.
● A Kushan palace and various inscriptions in Khwarizmi language and Aramaic script) were found
at Thoprakakala (Central Asia).
● The Rabatak inscription found in 1993 in Baghlan province, Afghanistan belongs to Kanishka’s
reign.
Do You Know?
The coins of the Shakas, Parthians, and Kshatrapas followed the basic features of IndoGreek

5
coinage, including bilingual and bi-script legends.
Significance of Contacts between Central Asia and North India

● Trade: Trade contacts with Afghanistan were already existing but now Central Asia also opened
up to trade with new routes. One of these routes became famous as the old Silk Route.
○ The Kushanas controlled the silk route which started from China and passed through Central
Asia and Afghanistan and Western Asia. This route was a source of great income to the
Kushanas. They levied tolls from the traders.
● Technology:New elements in cavalry and techniques of war were introduced in India by the
Sakas and the Kushanas.
○ Horse riding gained popularity.
○ They popularized the use of reins and saddles which find appearance in the Buddhist
sculptures of this period.
○ The Central Asians also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by the warriors.
This military technology became popular in North West India
● Construction: Excavations have revealed several layers of structures in Northern India. They
point to the use of burnt bricks for both the floor and the roof. Brick wells may also have been
introduced during this period.
● Pottery: The pottery of this period is red ware, both plain and polished, with sometimes
medium and sometimes fine fabric. The distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels.
● Polity: The Sakas had introduced the satrapa system in the administrative set-up. Under this
system, the entire empire was divided to satraps.under a subordinate ruler .
○ The practice of military governorship was also introduced probably by the Greeks. These
governors were known by the title of Strategos. They were important for two reasons : (a)
for maintaining the power of the rulers over the indigenous people and (b) for blocking
invasions from the north west.
● Religion : In the process of assimilation into Indian cultural patterns, the foreigners adapted to
Indian ideas and forms of worship.
● Art: Indian craftsmen came into contact with Greek and Roman craftmanship. For Example,
Gandhara in which images of the Buddha were sculpted in a style which was typical of the
synthesis of many cultural elements present in the region.
○ The influence of Gandhara art spread to Mathura. Mathura also has given us many beautiful
images of the Buddha and other specimens of art of this period.
○ Details of the art forms will be discussed in Art and Architecture classes.
INDIGENOUS DYNASTIES
SHUNGAS
● Sources of Information: Gargi Samhita, Patanjali’s Mahabhasya, Duvyavadana, kalidasa’s
Malavikagnimitram, and Bana’s Harshacharita. Besnagar Pillar inscription at Vidisha.
○ Besnagar inscription is in Prakrit and is written in the Brahmi script.
● Background -Sunga belonged to the Brahmin family of the Bharadvaja clan. They held the
viceroyship of the Ujjain region during Mauryan rule.
● Extension of Empire: from the river Ganga up to the Narmada Valley, Vidisha, and parts of
Northern India.
● Major cities were Ujjain, Saket, Sanchi, Mathura, and Kapilavastu.
● Initial capital was Pataliputra and later it was changed to Vidisha.
Important Shunga Rulers

Name Major Facts

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Pushyamitra Sunga ● Founder of the Sunga Dynasty.

● A Brahmin and army chief under Brihadratha, the last Mauryan King.
● After defeating Brihadratha, Pushyamitra established Sunga Empire in
185 BC with its capital at Pataliputra.
● He was attacked by Greek kings Menander and Demetrius and
emerged victorious, given in Gargi Samhita and Malavikagnimitram.
● He also defeated Kharavela, Kalinga king in a battle.
● Pushyamitra also conquered the Vidarbha region.
● He was a follower of Buddhism.
● He renovated Buddhist stupas at Sanchi and Barhut and also built a
stone gateway at Sanchi.
● Divyavandana describes Pushyamitra as the destroyer of Buddhist
monasteries.
● He also performed Vedic sacrifices like Vajapeya and Rajasuya.
● As per the Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva, he performed
Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice.
● Patanjali, a Sanskrit grammarian, was patronized by him.
Agnimitra ● He was the son of Pushyamitra Sunga.

● Mentioned in Kalidas’s most acclaimed poem Malavikagnimitram- It
tells the story of love of Agnimitra and Malavika.
● After Agnimitra, his son Sujyeshta and his son Vasumitra succeeded to
the throne.
Bhagabhadra/Bhaga ● Mentioned in Besnagar inscription of Heliodorus.

vata ● Heliodorus was the Greek Ambassador of the Indo-Greek ruler
Amtalakita/Antialkidas of Taxila, who came to Shunga court.
● He describes himself as a Bhagavata and worshipper of Lord Krishna
and Garuda (Vishnu’s Vehicle).
● He also set up Heliodorus pillar in honor of this God.
Decline of Shunga empire

Devabhuti, the last known Shunga King was killed by his minister, Vasudeva Kanva, given in
Banabhatta. After the decline, the Kanva dynasty was established at Magadha that ruled from 73 to
28 BC who ruled for four generations. The fall of Kanvas rule gave rise to independent regions such
as Ayodhya, Mathura, Kausambi, and Ahichhtra.
Contributions of Sunga Dynasty

● Religion and Caster System: Revived Brahmanism and Bhagavatam.
● Language: Sanskrit language gained prominence as it became the language of the court. Most of
the Buddhist works were also composed in Sanskrit.
● Art: There was an increase in the use of human figures and symbols.; They replaced Maurya’s
usage of wood with stone in the railings and gateways of Buddhist stupas.; Bharhut inscription
exhibits the life of Indians and their attitude towards the world.
● Temple Building: Temple building began, one such notable example is the Vishnu temple at
Vidisha. The findings near the Besnagar pillar represent remains of the ancient temple where the
Greek ambassador left an inscribed record of his devotion.
KANVAS
● Rise of Power: They came to power after the decline of the Sunga dynasty.

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● Origin-Kanva dynasty had a Brahmanical origin.

● Founder- Vasudeva Kanva
● Capital -Paraliputra.
● Important Kanva Rulers- Vasudev Kanva(founder) and Susarman(Last Kanva ruler who was
killed by the Satavahana king, Balipuccha.)
CHEDIS (DYNASTY OF KALINGA)

● Chedi/Cheta Dynasty was one of the 16 MahajanaPadas.
● Prominently mentioned in Brahminic, Buddhist and Jaina literature.
● Kalinga became prominent under the kings of Chedi dynasty.
● Founder: Mahameghvarman.
● Capital: Suktimati in Sanskrit and SotthivatiNagar in Pali.
● Greatest ruler: Kharavela of Kalinga who came to power in the 1st century.
○ He was 3rd ruler of Chedi dynasty and was also known as Bhikhu-Raja.
○ He patronized Jainism and provided cave shelters for Jaina monks in Udaigiri Hills(viz.,
Ranigumpha, Hathigumpha and Ganeshagumpha caves ).
○ He constructed a great palace known as the Palace of Victor.
Hathigumpha Inscription.
● It is written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script.
● It is inscribed by Kharavela.
● Kharavela’s achievements are recorded in Hathigumpha Inscription in the Udaigiri hills near
Bhuvneshwar in Orrisa. It states that-
○ Kharavela had got renovated irrigation canals built by Nandas earlier in Kalinga region.
○ He defeated Satakarni-I and also a confederation of 3 Tamil kingdoms.
○ He conquered Magadha twice; in the first invasion, he had brought back Jain idols of
Tirthankaras earlier taken over by Mahapadmananda.
● This inscription proves how Jainism became the state religion within 100 years of death of
Mahavira.
SATAVAHANAS
● Origin-Earlier they were feudatories of Mauryans. They are believed to be Andhras and called as
Andhrabrithyas (slaves of Andhras). But their coins, inscriptions nowhere mentioned them
Andhras.
● Capital: Prathistanapura (modern Paithan); later Dharanikota / Dhanyakataka (A.P.)
● Official language: Prakrit (Maharashtri Prakrit)
● Founder-Simuka
● Empire-Earlier the empire included modern day Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Later on, it
expanded to include Northern Karnataka, Eastern and Southern M.P. and Saurashtra. (Naneghat
inscription by Naaganika, wife of Satkarni I).
○ According to Pliny, the empire was very large with many villages, 30 walled towns and many
states which maintained 1 lakh infantry,2000 cavalary,1000 elephants.
Important Rulers of Satavahanas

Name Major Facts
Simuka ● Founder of the dynasty and his coins were found in Kotilingala
(Telangana).
Satakarni–I ● First independent Satavahana ruler.

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● Naneghat inscription of Naganika (Satakarni’s wife) highlighted his

victories.
● Performed two asvamedhayagas and one rajasuyayaga;
● Got titles like “Dakshinapadapathi”, “Aprathihatachakra”.
● He was defeated by Kharavela.
● Made donations to Sanchi stupa.
● His sculpture along with Simuka, Krishna and Naganika (Statues of 3
princes & 1queen) is found at Naneghat caves .
Kuntala Satakarni ● Patronized scholars like Gunadya who wrote “Brihatkatha” in Paisachi
Prakrit and Sarvavarma, author of “Kathantra Vyakarana” in Sanskrit.
Hala ● A great scholar and he wrote “Gadhasaptasati” (700 erotic poems in

Maharashtri Prakit).
● Leelavathi” was also associated with him.
● He had a title called ‘Kavivatsala’/ ‘Kaviraja’.
Gauthamiputra ● He was the greatest and 21st ruler of the dynasty.

Satakarni ● He was the first Satavahana ruler to take mother’s name as prefix to his
name.
● Nasik inscription of Gauthami Balasri (his mother) highlighted his
achievements.
● He defeated Nahapana and restrucked Sakas’ coins at Jogalthambi.
● His titles: ‘Eka Brahmana’, ‘Dvijakula vardhana’ , ‘Trisamudratoyapitha-
vahana’ and ‘Benakatakaswami’.
Vasistaputra ● He married the daughter of Rudradaman of Sakas;

Satakarni / ● He got enlarged Amaravati stupa .
Pulomavi –II/ ● His title– ‘Navanagaraswami’.
Shivsri Satakarni
Yagnasri Satakarni ● His capital was Dhanyakataka.

● He issued a large number of coins (copper, lead, bronze, potin) including
Ship-symbol coins.
● His title -‘Trisamudradhipathi’.
● Scholars associated with him - Vatsayana who wrote “Kamasutra” in
Sanskrit and Nagarjuna (his ‘Suhrullekha’ addressed to him).
Pulomavi-III ● Last ruler of Satavahana dynasty.
Note:
● Satavahanas followed the model of Mauryan administration; divided their kingdom into five
Aharas kept under Amatyas and Mahamattaras.
● They issued land grants and conferred perpetual rights to Brahmins; thus became the first Indian
rulers to issue land grants.
○ Gautamipurra Satakarni promoted Buddhism by donating lands to Mahasamghikas (Buddhist
monks) at Karle and Nashik.
● Earliest caves of Deccan like Bhaj, Karley, Naneghat, Nasik, Junnar and Ajanta caves (few caves)
belonged to Satavahana period.

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○ Earliest frescos of Cave No 10, 11 of Ajanta caves probably belonged to Satavahanas.

● Satavahanas had patronized Amaravati style of art and architecture.
● Satavahanas were succeeded by 3 new small dynasties viz., Abhiras (Nasik region), Ikshvakus
(Krishna basin), and Early Pallavas (Kanchi region).
○ Ikshvakus were the first Indian rulers to build structural Brahmanical temples using stone and
bricks. They also patronized Amaravati style of art and architecture.
○ Ikshvaku king Veerapurushadatta was an anti-Brahmanical and staunch Buddhist; he is
shown stomping on a Shiva linga and a Naga on a sculpture was found at Nagarjunakonda
(their capital).
● Satavahanas were succeeded by a local power in peninsular India (Northern Maharashtra and
VIdarbha) by the Vakataka.
Amravati School of Art

Its patrons were Satavahanas and lkshvakus. The chief material used in this school of art was white
marble. The kings, princes etc were represented through images in which they were associated
with different activities and shown in a group. The most important achievement of this school of
art was the female figures in various moods and poses. The main centres were Amaravati,
Jaggayyapeta, Ghantasala and Nagarjunakonda.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE POST-MAURYAN AGE

POLITICAL SIGNIFICANCE
● In north India, several invasions from the north-west led to a westward shift in the focus of
political power away from the Magadha region.
● The Deccan and the far south experienced a transition to a state polity and society.
● City life spread to new regions of the subcontinent.
○ This was the 3rd phase of urbanization in Indian history.
○ Major cities during this period included Taxila, Pushkalavati, Purushapura,
Rupar,Hastinapur, Indraprastha, Mathura, Sankisa, Ahichhatra, Saketa, Kausambi etc.
SOCIETAL SIGNIFICANCE
● Evolution of Jatis was the dominant feature of Post-Mauryan society.
○ This period marked a crisis in India’s social history due to the influx of foreigner invaders and
traders with alien social and cultural practices; and Growth in crafts and trade resulted in
attaining changed social status by the Vaishyas, Shudras.
○ To assimilate widely divergent social, economic and cultural groups - concepts of
‘varnasamkara’ (mixed marriages of original Varna couples) and ‘vratya’ (non-performance
of the sacred duty) were invented by 2nd c AD. This contributed to the formation of Jati
system.
● Manusmriti (2nd c BC-2nd c AD) mentions about 60 Jatis.
○ It gave Sakas the degenerated Kshatriya status;
○ Tribals (Karavaras, Pukkusas, and Kaivarthas etc) were given untouchable status; all social,
religious disabilities were imposed on them.
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE
● Craftspersons produced larger quantities and more varied goods than before.
● Money was increasingly used as a medium of exchange.
● Trade within the subcontinent and between its regions and other lands flourished.
Trade routes in the Post-Mauryan Perio

Entire Indian subcontinent was crisscrossed with trade routes (Vanikpathas) developed by the

10
rulers of this period. Distant trade centers and ports were connected by this road network.
● Uttarapatha (Northern Grand Trunk Road): It connected two river basins of Indus and
Ganges. Uttarapatha connected Pushkalavati (Pakistan)– Taxila – Mathura – Kausambi –
Varanasi – Pataliputra – Champa – Tamralipti – Chandraketugarh (WB)
○ It was first mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthasastra. Megasthenese called it as GT road. It was
developed by Mauryans and Kushans.
○ Chandragupta Maurya was responsible to construct this highway connecting Taxila with
Pataliputra.
○ During Kanishka’s reign, it was extended to their capital cities viz., Purushapura – Taxila –
Mathura – Pataliputra.
○ It became an important trade-route due to the increased maritime trade through the
eastern seaports.
● Dakshinapatha: It connected the trade centers in Ganges basin with the towns in Godavari
valley( Mathura (UP) – Ujjain – Barukachcha – Prathisthanapura (MH))
● International trade-routes : These included-
○ Taxila – Kabul – Kandahar – Herut – Susia – Constantinople (Mediterranean region)
○ Taxila – Bactria – Oxus region – Caspian Sea
● Major sea-routes: These included-
○ Red Sea route – used for Roman trade, European trade
○ Gulf Sea route – used for trade with Central Asia.
● Silk route: It ran through China – Tibet – Sikkim – Broach – then sailed to Rome (Europe).
China used to export, mostly, silk and porcelain to Romans via Indian territory through this
route.
● Major Sea Ports:
○ Western Coast- Barukachcha (Baryagaza/Broach); Suppara (Sopara); and Kallina (Kalyani)
(Maharashtra);
○ Malabar Coast (Kerala): Muziris; Tyndis; Nelcinda, and Naura
○ Eastern Coast: Tamralipti (WB); Masolia (Machilipatnam) (AP);Poduke (Arikamedu); and
Comari (Kanyakumari).
Note:
● Pliny gave all the information about Indo-Roman trade. He wrote a letter to Roman emperor
Tiberus recommending ban on Indian trade due to drain of wealth to India (500 m cestors of
Roman gold going to India annually).
● “Periplus of Erythrean Sea” talked about 20 chief ports of India; 120 ships annually moving to
Egypt, and Indian steel and cutlery going to Abyssinia. Strabo also talked about Indo-Egyptian
trade; 100 ships going to Egypt annually.
● Ptolemy gives information about routes connecting China and Palibotra/Pataliputra. Chinese
coins (138 BC) were found in Mysore region.
RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE
● The devotional worship of images in shrines became a cornerstone of religious life, cutting
across cultic and sectarian boundaries.
● The increasing institutionalization of religious activity was reflected in religious texts, permanent
religious structures, and inscriptions.
● Buddhism- This period is associated with the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism.
● Brahmanical Religion-By this time, Trinity worship was got prominence (especially of Vishnu,
Siva).
● Jainism- Idolatry began in Jainism too during this period. Naked sculpture of Jain Thirthankara
was found in Mathura region belonged to Mathura style.

11
● Bhagavatism: There was a rise of a new religious sect named Bhagavatism. It was developed
against priestly class domination and religious discrimination.There was no place for rituals in
Bhagavatism. It believes in salvation through Bhakti.
○ Main characteristic feature of Bhagavatism was Pancharathra cult i.e., worshipping of 5
heroes of Vrishi clan of Yadu tribe of Sauraseni region migrated to Dwaraka. Vasudeva
Krishna being the chief God; other gods were Balarama / Samkarshana, Samba, Pradyumna
and Aniruddha.
○ Morawel inscription (1st c AD) by a Saka queen referred Pancharathra worship and shrines to
them too.
○ Greek ambassador Heliodorus was a great follower of Bhagavatism. In his Besnagar
inscription, he called Krishna as ‘Devadeva’ and himself as ‘Paramabhagavata’.
○ Greek scholars compared Krishna with Hercules (Greek god of war).
CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE
● New cultural winds blew into the subcontinent in the wake of the invasions and expanding
trade, and the north-west in particular became a major cultural crossroads.
● Sophisticated styles of stone sculpture co-existed with vibrant traditions of terracotta art.
● Three different styles of art and architecture during this period namely-
○ Gandhara school patronised by Indo-Greeks and Kushans,
○ Mathura school patronised by Sakas of Mathura and Kushans; and
○ Amaravati school patronised by Satava-hanas an Ikshva-kus
1) With reference to the invaders in ancient India, which one of the following is the correct
chronological order?
(a) Greeks – Sakas – Kushans
(b) Greeks – Kushans – Sakas
(c) Sakas – Greeks – Kushans
(d) Sakas – Kushans – Greeks
Answer:( A)
2) With reference to the Scholars/litterateurs of ancient India, consider the following statements:
1. Panini is associated with Pushyamitra
2. Amarsimha is associated with Harshavardhana
3. Kalidasa is associated with Chandragupta-II
Which of the above-given statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: ©

12
GUPTA PERIOD(275-550 A.D.)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
● Introduction
● Sources
● Important Rulers of Gupta Dynasty
● Administration of Guptas
○ Important Officials in Gupta Era
○ Army
○ Provinces, District and Villages
● Economy During the Gupta Period
○ Taxes
○ Agriculture
■ Types of Lands
■ Land grants and Assignments
○ Mining
○ Trade and Commerce
■ Coins issued during the gupta period
● Society During the Gupta period
● Religion
● Gupta Art and Culture
○ Gupta Art
○ Examples of Gupta Art
○ Developments in Science and Technology
○ Literature
○ Visit of Fa-Hien
○ Inscriptions associated with Gupta Rulers
● Decline of Guptas
● Vakatakas
● Upsc Previous year questions
INTRODUCTION
After the decline of the Kushanas, north India witnessed the rise of the Gupta dynasty. Guptas were
likely to be feudatories of Kushanas and are believed to be Vaishyas in origin. The Gupta period is
considered the Golden Age or Classical Age because of development in the field of Art & Sculpture,
Literature, Science & Technology, Medicine, Political Consolidation, and Economy.
Do You Know?
Guptas were able to establish a vast empire that included almost the entire north India due to
certain material advantages-
● They operated from eastern U.P. and Bihar which were very fertile.
● They could also exploit the iron ores of central India and Bihar to their advantage.
SOURCES
● Literary sources: The Puranas like Vayu, Vishnu, Matsya, Bhagavata, Skanda and Markandeya
throw light on the royal genealogy of Gupta kings.

1
○ The contemporary literary works like Devichandraguptam and Mudrarakshasa written by

Visakhadatta provide information regarding the rise of the Guptas.
○ Kalidasa’s works Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghadootam, Raghuvamsam, Malvikangimitram,
Ritusamhara and Kumarasambhava provide reliable information about the government,
society and religion of the Gupta period.
○ Sudraka’s Mrichchakatika describes the unstable political conditions of the Gupta period.
○ The Chinese Traveler Fahien, who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II has left a
valuable account of the social, economic and religious conditions of the Gupta empire.
○ The accounts of other Chinese Buddhist pilgrims to India like, Hiuen Tsang and I-tsing also
gave us information about the popularity of Buddhism during the Gupta period.
● Inscriptions: Gupta epigraphs may broadly be divided into two groups – Official records and
Private records.
○ The Prasasti of royal grants mention details on royal genealogy and political events. The
epithets and descriptions of kings reflect prevailing hierarchies of power and ideals of
kingship. Allahabad stone pillar inscription of Samudragupta, Mehrauli iron pillar
inscription of Chandragupata II and Junagarh rock inscription of Skandagupta fall under the
category.
● Numismatic evidence: The Gupta kings issued a large number of gold and silver coins. Majority
of the Gupta coins contain legends and symbols. In design, execution and in artistic composition
they closely resemble the Greek and Kushan coins.These coins were of inestimable value for the
reconstruction of the social,economic, political, religious and artistic achievements of the
Guptas.
● Monuments : These are also a source of both artistic and religious history. They illustrate
(different schools of) Art and Architecture of the age.
IMPORTANT RULERS OF GUPTA DYNASTY
Name Duration
Shree Gupta and ● Shrigupta established the Gupta dynasty and his son was
Ghatotkacha (275 to 319 Ghatotkacha.
AD. ● Both took up the title of ‘Maharaja’ indicating they are not
independent rulers, but small kings or feudatories.
Chandragupta(319 to 350 ● Adopted the title of “Maharajadhiraj”-indicating he was the first

AD) independent ruler of the Guptan dynasty.
● The year of his accession 319 A.D. marks the beginning of the
Gupta era.
● Married to Kumaradevi, princess of Lichchhavi clan.
○ Issued coins in the name of the queen known as Kumardevi
coins.
○ Kamudi Mahotsav, Sanskrit play written by Vijakaya based
on the rivalry of a Magadha Prince and Lichcchavis mentions
about Chandragupta I.
● He ruled over Magadha (Bihar) Saket (modern Ayodhya) and
Prayaga (modern Allahabad) with his capital at Pataliputra.
Samudragupta (350 to ● Great conqueror-Called as “Napoleon of India” by V.A. Smith.

375 AD) ● Follower of God Vishnu.
● Known as Lichchhavi-dauhitra (grand son of the Lichchhavis) in

2
the famous Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayag Prashasti) by his

court poet Harisena.
● Buddhist scholars Asanga and Vasubandhu lived in his court.
● Known as kaviraja as he loved music.
● Depicted on his coins playing flute (Veena).
● Performed an ashvamedha yajna to commemorate his
magnificent conquests.
● As per Chinese sources, Samudragupta granted permission to
Meghavarman for building a monastery at Bodhgaya.
Chandragupta II (375- ● He was also known as Vikramaditya and Simhavikrama.

415 AD) ● He issued silver, copper(Chandra) and gold coins (dinara).
● Mehrauli Inscription recorded his achievements
Cultural,art,Sculpture etc.
● Patronised Navratna(Nine Jewels) in his court
Kumaragupta (415-455
AD) ● Adopted the title of Shankar Aditya and Mahendraditya.
● Worshipper of Karttikeyam son of Shiva.
● Founded Nalanda University.
● Performed ashvamedha yajna.
● Inscriptions: Mandassaur, Damodar Copper Plate inscriptions.
Skandagupta (455-467 ● Junagadh Inscription of his reign tells us that his governor
AD) Parnadatta got the Sudarshan lake repaired.
● Defeated Hunas.
● Issued gold coins but poorer quality.
Narasimha Gupta (495- ● A staunch Buddhist.

530 AD) ● As per Hieun Tsang’s records, he defeated Mihirakula; but under
the influence of Buddhism released him from prison.
ADMINISTRATION OF GUPTAS
● King had extensive power and was assisted by the Council of ministers.
● Administratively, the Gupta state was divided into provinces called desa or bhukti, and these in
turn into smaller units, the pradesa or visaya.
○ The provinces were governed by kumar amatyas, high imperial (royal) officers or members
of the royal family.
● The municipal board (adhisthana-adhikarana) consisted of the guild president (nagara sresthin),
the chief merchant (sarthavaha), and representatives of the artisans and of the scribes.
● Samantas were intermediaries who had been given grants of land or to conquered feudatory
rulers.
● City Administration-Pauara was a council responsible for city administration. Paura included
President of city administration, chief representative of the guild of merchants, representative of
the artisans and chief accountant.
● Army-BhataShapati was the commander of cavalry and infantry. Forced labour or Vishti was
practised in the royal army. Senabhakta was a form of tax.

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IMPORTANT OFFICIALS IN GUPTA ERA
Officers Department
Mahabaladhikrita Commander-in-chief
Maha-dand-anayak Chief Justice
Mahapratihar An official to maintain the royal palace
Sandhivigrahak An official for post-war conciliation
Danadapashika Head of the Police department
Bhandagaradhikrela Head of the Royal Treasury
Mahapaksha-PataIik Head of the account department
Vinaysthitisansaathapak Head of the education department
Sarvadhyaksha Inspector for all the central departments
Mahashwapati Controller of cavalry
Mahamaipilupati Controller and executor of elephant force
Vmaypura Official to present different guests at king's

court
Khyadyakpakika Inspector of Royal kitchen
Yuktapurusha Office lo keep war account
Ranabhandagarika Office in charge of Army stores
ARMY
● The Guptas must have had a big army organisation.
● At the time of war the King led his army but ordinarily there was a minister called 'Sandhi-
Vigrahika' (Minister in charge of peace and war) who was helped by a group of high officials.
● The army was paid in cash and its needs were well looked after by an officer-in-charge of stores
called Ranabhandagarika.
● Amongst other duties this officer was to look after the supply of offensive and defensive
weapons such as battle-axes, bows and arrows, spear pikes, swords, lances, javelins, etc.
PROVINCES, DISTRICTS AND VILLAGES

● The whole empire was divided into Desas, or Rashtras, or Bhuktis.
● The inscriptions provide us with the names of certain Bhuktis.
○ In Bengal we hear of Pundravardhana Bhukti which corresponded to north Bengal. Tira-
bhukti corresponded to north Bihar.
○ The Bhuktis were governed by Uparikas directly appointed by the King.

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● The Province or Bhukti was again divided into districts or Vishayas under an official called
Ayuktaka and in other cases a Vistiyapati.His appointment was made by the provincial
governor.
○ Gupta inscriptions from Bengal show that the office (Adhikarana) of the district head
associated with itself representation from major local communities: the Nagara Shreshthi
(head of city merchants),Sarthavaha (Caravan-leader) and Prathama-Kulika (head of the
artisan community and Prathama Kayastha (head of the Kayastha community).
○ Besides them, were the Pustapalas-officials whose work was to manage and keep records.
● The lowest unit of administration was the villa.
● However, the Gupta inscriptions from north Bengal show that there were other units higher than
the village.
○ For example- In some cases we find references to Astakuladhikarana.
○ Different categories of villages mentioned as Gramikas, Kutumbis and Mahattaras sent
representatives to these offices which on various occasions functioned above the level of the
village.
Important officials and Offices Role they played

Desas or Rashtras or Bhuktis They are the provinces of the state
Uparikas Districts were governed by them. And, they were directly
appointed by the king.
Vishayas Districts under the provinces
Ayuktaka Head Official of the districts. Appointed by the provincial
governor
Adikarana Head office of the district
Nagara Shreshthi The Head of city merchants
Sarthavaha Caravan Leader
Prathama Kulika Head of the artisan community
Prathama Kayastha Head of the Kayastha community
Pustapalas Officials whose work was to manage and keep records.
Gramapati or Grmadhayaksha. The village Headmen
Grama-vriddhas The village elders
ECONOMY DURING THE GUPTA ERA

● Kamandaka wrote Nitisara which stresses on the significance of the royal treasury.
● Akshapatahadhikrita was the keeper of royal records.
● Long distance trade of India declined due to growing demand for silk from China.
● Land revenue was the main source of income.
TAXES DURING GUPTA PERIOD
Kalpita/Upkilpta Sales tax or Purchase tax

Halivakara/Halidanda Plough tax
Bali An additional oppressive tax on people
Upaklipta Additional minor tax

Vata-bhuta Cess for the maintenance of rites performed for
the winds and spirits.
Pratyaya Toll tax
Bhog King’s share of produce
Bhag Bhagkar Combination of Bhog and Bhaga

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Bhatta Police tax

Chate Security Tax
Chakrasana Grazing Tax
Hiranya Tax on special produce taken in cash
Udranga Might be water tax
Uparikara Tax collected from tenants.
Taradaya Tax on navigation.
Rajju Tax for measurement of land
Sarvarishtia Forced tax
Bedakbhog Irrigation tax
Uparnik Tax taken from border area
Bhoga General tribute.
AGRICULTURE
● Exclusive owner of the agriculture was State(Paharpur Copper Plate Inscription).
● Crops Cultivated: Wheat, Rice, Barley, Pulses, Sugarcane, Oil Seeds, lentils, peas etc.)
● Varahamihira wrote detailed advice on the planting of fruit trees.
● Virgin land was brought under cultivation.
● Pustapala was an officer in charge of maintaining records of all land transactions.
● Land grants like Agrahara and Devagrahara means transfer of royal rights over salt and mines
too.
Types of land
Kshetra Bhoomi Cultivable land

Khila Wasteland
Vastu Bhoomi Habitable land
Charagah Bhoomi Pasture land
Aprahata Bhoomi Forest land
Land-grants & Land-assignments

● Increasing practice of land-grants and land-assignments had changed the character of Guptan
agrarian economy.
● Land-grants were religious grants of two types. They are -
○ Agraharas (given to Brahmins); and
○ Devagraharas (given to temples and to non-brahmans also).
● Land-assignments were secular grants given to officers in lieu of salaries. First epigraphical
evidence of land-assignments was from Uccalpa inscription.
○ Guptan inscriptions discussed about 4 types of land tenures:
■ Nividharma (in perpetuity)
■ Nividharma Akshayana (perpetual but non-alienable)
■ Aparadha-dharma ( without administrative rights)
■ Bhumi-chidranyayaka (with complete rights, not tax-payable)
MINING
● Rich deposits of iron ore from Bihar and Copper from Rajasthan were used.
● Amarasimha, Varahamihira and Kalidasa mention the existence of mines.
● People used iron, gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, mica, bronze, red chalk and red arsenic.
● Development in metallurgy was remarkable as seen from the Mehrauli Iron Pillar that was
identified with Chandragupta II.

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● Other specialised crafts were coin casting, metal engraving, pottery making, terracotta work and
wood carving.
Trade and Commerce

● Two types of traders: Sresti and Sarthavaha.
○ Sresti was settled at one place and enjoyed position by virtue of wealth.
○ Sarthavaha were caravan traders who carried goods to different places.
● Trade Items: Pepper, sandalwood, elephants, horses, iron, copper, gold etc.
● Many ports facilitated trade: Calliena(kalyan), Chaul Port, Male, Mangalore, Salopatana,
Nalopatana and Pandopatana.
● Fa-hein mentions Tamralipti in Bengal as an important centre of trade in the eastern coast.
● Indian goods that were traded: rare gems, pearls, fine textiles and aromatics. Silk from China.
● Besides agriculturists, there were certain other groups in the villages who followed such
professions as carpentry, spinning and weaving, pot-making, oil extraction, gold smithery, and
husbandry.
● All these groups must have constituted local institutions or bodies which looked after the affairs
of the village.
Guilds
● The guild system was an important part of the life for traders and manufacturers during the
Gupta period.
● Most of the trade was under the monopolistic control of different guilds.
● They had their own rules and regulations; Even they enjoyed political and religious privileges too.
● Guilds became virtual administrators of towns and urban centers.
● They had made huge donations for charity.
○ Mandasore copper pillar inscription talked about a weavers guild repairing the Sun temple
at Mandasore.
○ An ivory guild of Mandasore contributed to the construction of one of the gateways of
Sanchi stupa.
Coins issued by Guptan Rulers

● The Gupta kings issued well-executed die-struck gold coins with metrical legends in Sanskrit.
○ Known as dinaras, these coins have been mostly found in north India.
○ The obverse depicts the reigning king in various poses, usually martial ones, but there are
interesting instances of coins of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I showing them playing the
vina (a stringed instrument).
○ The reverse of the Gupta coins have religious symbols indicating the kings’ religious
affiliations.
King as Horseman (Left: Obverse; Right: Reverse)

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King as Lion Slayer (Left: Obverse; Right: Reverse)
King & Queen Type (Left: Obverse; Right: Reverse)
Fan-Tailed Peacock (Left: Obverse; Right: Reverse)
● The earliest Gupta coins are attributed to Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta and
their coins often commemorate dynastic succession as well as significant socio-political events,
○ like marriage alliances,the horse sacrifice, etc (King and queen type of coin of Chandragupta
1, Asvamedha type, etc.),
○ or for that matter artistic and personal accomplishments of royal members (Lyrist, Archer,
Lion-slayer etc.).
● There was a decline in the metallic purity of gold coins in the later part of Skandagupta’s reign.
● The Guptas also issued silver coins, but their copper coins are rare.
King Type of Coins Issued
Chandragupta I Kumaradevi Type

Note: The Chandragupta-Kumaradevi (king-queen type)
type gold coins of Chandragupta I inform us about the
matrimonial alliance between the Gupta king Chandragupta
I and Lichchhavis princess Kumaradevi. These coins have
Chandragupta and his queen Kumaradevi engraved on the
obverse and a seated goddess on the reverse with the
legend Lichchhavayah (i.e. the Lichchhavis),
Samudragupta Dhanurdhari-Archar, Garud, Veenavadan.
Chandragupta II Ashvarohi, Chhatrhari, Chakra- Vikram type

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Kumaragupta Gajarohi, Kadgadhari, Sinhnihanta, Khang-nihanta,

kartikeya.
Skandagupta Archer, Lion slayer, swordsman, horseman.
SOCIETY DURING THE GUPTA PERIOD

● The Brahmanas came to exert considerable influence on the kings from the Gupta period and
this is quite clear from the way they received land and other privileges from the kings and
others.
○ The kings, officials and others gave land not only to individual brahmins but also sometimes
incited big groups of brahmanas to come and settle in remote areas.
○ Thus, the number of brahmana settlements variously called Brshmadiyas, Agraharas and so
on started increasing and they started spreading, among other things, the idea of a varna-
divided social order.
○ This led to an increase in the number of castes and subcastes.
○ Large scale absorption of tribals and foreigners was seen.
● Status of women: According to katyayana , women could sell and mortgage her immovable
property and shreedhan. Women received shares in landed property but daughters were not
allowed to inherit land..
○ The brahmana texts set down norms which women were expected to follow and women
were expected. For example- In the family, women were expected to function mainly as an
ideal wife and ideal mother.
○ Sati was practiced. According to Eran inscription of Bhanugupta (510 AD ), Sati was
performed by wife of Goparaja (a military general). Kamasutra referred Sati as ‘Anumarana’.
○ Devadasi system was evolved for the first time during this period; we found literary
references of Devadasis in Kalidasa’s works.
○ Child marriages were prevalent. Puranas of this time informed that the ideal age of the bride
shall be one-third of that of the groom.
○ Taboo on widow remarriages was existent. Kamasutra informed that ‘Punarbhu’ (re-married
widows) were never respected.
● Peasants were reduced to the position of serfs.
● Another aspect of social life was that there existed a great difference between the ways of life
of the rich city-dwellers and people living in villages.
○ The ideal city-dweller was the nagaraka, i.e. the urbanite who, because of his affluence,
lived a life of pleasure and refined culture.
RELIGION
● This period witnessed consolidation of Brahmanical ideology and Sanskrit was established as
the language of royal inscriptions-Hinduism acquired its present shape in Gupta age.
● Shakti cult gave rise to consorts to gods and goddesses like Durga, Pnrvati and Lakshmi.
● Tantricism became popular.
● By the 4th century AD, Bhagavad Gita was finally compiled which emphasised on the devotion to
Lord Krishna.
● During this period, people started worshipping composite deities such as Hari-hara who was
partially Shiva and partially Vishnu.
○ Bhagavatism and Buddhism were assimilated into Hinduism through Dasavatara concept.

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○ Dasavataras included-Matsya (fish incarnation); Kurma (turtle incarnation); Varaha (boar

incarnation); Narasimha; Vamana (dwarf incarnation); Parasurama; Rama; Krishna; Buddha /
Balarama; and Kalki (future incarnation)
● Guptas were religiously tolerant towards Buddhism as evident from records of Fa-hsien and
Hsuan Tsang.
● Idol worship became common and Garuda was the emblem of Guptas.
● Shaddarshanas were related to famous philosophers of this period like -
1. Sankhya Eswara Krishna (4th c AD.)

2. Nyaya Bakshiloswami Vatsyayana (4th c AD)
3. Vaisheshika Prasasthapada (6th c AD)
4. Yoga Vyasa (7th c AD.)
5. Purvamimansa Sabariswami, Kumarilabhattu
(7th c AD)
6. Uttaramimansa Gaudapada
(6th c AD.)
ART AND CULTURE OF THE GUPTA PERIOD

Note: This part will be discussed in detail in art and culture classes.
GUPTA ART
The Gupta period (4th - 6 th Century CE) marks the bright period of art in India. Gupta art is marked
by a high aesthetic sense and discipline.
● The main centres of Buddhist art during this period were Mathura, Samath and Nalanda in the
north.
○ Eg., Life sized bronze image of Buddha was found at Sultanganj.
● Development of temple architecture
○ Eg., Nara Narayana temple and Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.
● The sculptures of this period derived its style and trend from Mathura and Gandhara school of
arts.
○ For example- Vishnu sculptures in Udayagiri rock-cut Caves, Dhamek stupa at Samath,
Bhitargaon, Buddhist caves in Ajanta, Ahichchhatra, and Dasavatara Temple in Deogarh.
● Some of the artistic features of the Gupta are-
○ The profusely decorated halo is another special feature of the art of the Gupta figure.
○ The meditation pose marked the Buddha and Bodhisattva figures of the Gupta period most
attractive.
○ The Gupta figures are carved with elaborately carved ornamental details which make the
divine figures very special in appearance.
○ The eyes of Gupta sculptures are beautifully shaped half closed, in yogic posture.
○ The face is generally oval shaped with sharp features.
○ The drapery is light and clings to the body, exposing the softness of the body.
○ For example- The bronze Buddha image from Sultanganj and also one from Dhanesar Khera
together with a number of specimens found in north-western part of India are excellent
examples showing the excellence of Gupta art.
EXAMPLES OF GUPTA ART

● Some of the highly representative and great examples of Gupta art
○ Standing Buddha from Saranath:
■ This is an exclusive figure and a masterpiece of Gupta art. It is in the collection of the
National Museum, Delhi.
■ The large halo gives a great visual impact.

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■ A number of lesser size images of similar features are found in Sarnath and have been
categorised as 'wet Buddhas'.
■ The appearance of these figures are such that they have just come out from water.
■ It is made of brown sandstone from Sikri.
○ Buddha in preaching mode:
■ This seated Buddha made in Chunar sandstone is in the collection of the Samath
museum.
■ Buddha is in a preaching attitude known as Dharmachakra mudra.
■ His clothing is only suggested through hemlines.
■ The halo has a special carving which is repeated on the throne beautifully. Two
Gandharvas in flying mode on the sides of the halo suggest the heavenly status of
Buddha.
○ The river Goddess Ganga:
■ This is an exclusive female figure of Gupta period (Later the images of Ganga and
Yamuna flanking the doorway of the temples become common feature all over India).
■ She stands on the crocodile to show her presence in the water. The figure is more
realistic and stands in tribhanga.
■ The entire panel is a good example of an artistic composition.
○ Vishnu reclining - as anantashayi:
■ Dashavatara Temple Deogarh: Here, Lord Vishnu, one of the Trimurtis is portrayed as
reclining on a giant serpent with several hoods. He is the Preserver of the world order
and plans for its execution. The world around him is in action. Brahma rising from the
umbilical cord of Vishnu is associated with the celestials; Lakshmi seated on the extreme
corner and below a group of celestials are guarding the abode ofVishnu.
■ This is an iconographic presentation of the Vishnu theme. The artist has composed all the
figures in upper, middle and lower registers. It stands as the first and best example for
the Hindu theme in sculpture.
Navratna(Nine Jewels) in the court of Chandragupta-II

1. Kalidasa : wrote Abhijananashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram and Vikramorvasiyam.
2. Amarasimha : Wrote Amarakosha and he was a poet and Sanskrit lexicographer.
3. Varahamihira : wrote Panchasiddhantika {a treatise on mathematical astronomy), Brihat
Samhita (included clouds, astrology, planetary movements etc) and Brihat Jataka (Vedic
astrology).
4. Dhanvantri: was a famous physician .
5. Ghatakarapara : was an expert in sculpture and architecture.
6. Shanku : wrote Shilpashastra based on architecture.
7. Kahapanaka : wrote Jyotishastra based on astrology .
8. Vararuchi : wrote Prakrit Prakasha (grammar of the Prakrit language).
9. Vetala Bhatta : wrote Mantrashastra on music.
DEVELOPMENTS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

● Invention of theory of zero and the evolution of the decimal system
● Aryabhatta wrote Surya Siddhanta and Aryabhattiyam.
○ Aryabhatta discovered that earth rotates around its own axis.
● Brihat Samhita by Varahamihira is an encyclopaedia of Geography, Astronomy and Botany.
● Brahmagupta: all things fall to earth by law of nature.
● Guptas knew the art of atoms and molecules even before the Greeks.
● Metallic preparations for the purpose of medicine and references to use of mercury and iron by
Varahamihira.

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● Navunitakam: recipes, formulation and prescriptions.

● Hastyayurveda (veterinary science) by Palaksapya mentions advances in medical science.
● Jyotisha Vedanga deals with astronomy. It contains rules for estimating position of new and full
moon.
● Sulvasutras: Knowledge of Geometry.
LITERATURE
● Progress of Sanskrit grammar based on Ashtadhyayi by (Panini and Mahabhashya by Palanjali.
● Amarakosa by Amarasimha.
● Chandrogomia composed a book on grammar named Chandra Vyakaranam.
● Arya Deva and Arya Asanga of the Gupta period are the most notable Buddhist writers.
● First Buddhist work on logic was composed by Vasubandhu.
● Vimala composed the jaina version of Ramayana.
● Siddasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas.
● Development of languages like Suraseni, Ardhamagadhi etc
VISIT OF FA-HEIN
● Fa-Hien who came to India in the 5th C AD described conditions in India in the age of Guptas. In
his a viz.’fo-gu-oji’ meaning Record of Buddhist Kingdoms
● He stayed for 9 years in India (6 in Gupta Empire,3 in Patliputra) with an objective to collect
Buddhist manuscripts from India
● He called Gangetic Valley as “Land of Brahmanism”
● Fahien mentioned that the Chandalas lived at the outskirts of the settlements in very miserable
conditions and were segregated from the society.
INSCRIPTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH GUPTAN RULERS
King Inscriptions
Samudra Gupta 1.Prayag Prashasti/Allahabad Pillar inscription

● Authored by Harisena in Sanskrit;
● Written on Asokan Kosam pillar inscription glorifying the
personality and conquests of Samudra Gupta.
● Later shifted to Allahabad by Jahangir.
2.Eran inscription/Prashasti: About military conquests of Samudra
Gupta.
3.Nalanda copper plate inscription: Land charter given to a brahmin
referring ‘agrahara’ for the first time
4.Gaya copper plate inscription: Land grant to Gaya Buddhist
monastery built by Sri Lanka ruler, Meghavarma.
Chandra Gupta-II Mehrauli iron pillar inscription :

● It was probably issued at Mathura and later shifted to Mehrauli
either by Tomaras of Delhi or by Delhi Sultans; now found in the
courtyard of Quwwat-ul-Islam
● It is a Prasasti of Chandra Gupta-II found in Sanskrit about his
military conquests beyond Indus and against Sakas of Ujjain.
Skanda Gupta 1.Junagarh inscription: continuation of Rudradaman’s inscription

2.Bhitari inscription: about enemies of Guptas including Hunas.
3.Indore stone pillar inscription: land charter talking about sub-

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infeudation
Budha Gupta Paharpur inscription: land charter talking about ‘royal ownership of
land’.
Bhanugupta Eran inscription(510 A.D.): a prashasti; first epigraphical evidence of

‘Sati’ is found in this inscription.
DECLINE OF GUPTAS
The following factors contributed towards the disintegration of Gupta Empire:
● Hun invasions -
○ From the time of Kumaragupta-I the north-west borders had been threatened by the Hunas,
a Central Asian tribe.
○ They were successfully moving in different directions and were establishing pockets of rule in
the northwest. northern and western India.
○ They caused financial drain and by 6th C AD, Huns had occupied Gujarat, Punjab, Malwa, and
Gandhara. .
○ Thus, the Huna attacks caused a major blow to the Gupta authority particularly in northern
and western regions of the empire.
● Administrative Decline -
○ The policy adopted by the Guptas in the conquered areas was to restore the authority of
local chiefs or kings once they had accepted Gupta suzerainty.
○ In fact, no efforts were made to impose a strict and effective control over these regions.
○ Hence it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy
within the Gupta empire these local chiefs would reestablish their independent authority.
○ This created a problem for almost every Gupta King who had to reinforce his authority.
○ Towards the end of the fifth century A.D. and beginning of the sixth century A.D. taking
advantage of the weak Gupta emperors, many regional powers reasserted their authority,
and in due course declared their independence.
○ Further, it is believed that the Sarnanta system in which the Samantas or minor rulers, who
ruled as subordinates to the central authority, started to consolidate itself in the Gupta
period. This is also believed to be the reason why Gupta administrative structure became so
loose.
● Economic Decline:
○ It has been argued that the Guptas issued land grants to the Brahmana donees and in this
process surrendered the revenue and administrative rights in favour of the donees.
○ Thus, Disappearance of the Gold coin shows a decline in economic activities.
○ Not enough revenue to maintain large standing army due to practice of giving land
grants,loss of income from trade due to loss of Western region

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About Hunas
● Group of Central Asian tribes.
● Entered India through Khyber Pass of Hindu Kush Mountains in Late 5th-early 6th Century BC
● By 485 AD, they occupied a substantial portion of Central India.
VAKATAKAS
● Vakatakas, a local power in peninsular India (Northern Maharashtra and VIdarbha), succeeded
Satavahanas .
● As per Poona Copper plates of Prabhavati Gupta, Vakatakas are contemporary to Guptas in
Northern India.
● Their kingdom extended from Malwa and Gujarat to Tungabhadra river, from Arabian sea to
Chattisgarh.
● Important Rulers:
○ Vindhyashakti I-Founder of Vakataka dynasty. Ajanta inscription describes him as a dvija and
praises his military achievements.
○ Rudrasena II-He was married to Prabhavatigupta, Chandragupta II’s daughter.
○ Harisena-Rock cut Buddhist Viharas and Chaityas of Ajanta Caves were built under the
patronage of Harisena(Vakataka).
● Ajanta Caves number XVI, XVII and XIX are examples of Vakataka painting titled
Mahabhishkramana.
UPSC PRELIMS PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
Q.) With reference to the history of India, the terms“kulyavapa” and “dronavapa “denote
(a) Measurement of land
(b) Coins of different monetary value
(c) Classification of urban land
(d) Religious rituals
Answer : (A)
Q.) With reference to the Scholars/litterateurs of ancient India, consider the following
statements:
1. Panini is associated with Pushyamitra
2. Amarsimha is associated with Harshavardhana
3. Kalidasa is associated with Chandragupta-II
Which of the above-given statements is/are correct? (2020)
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (C)
Q.) With reference to the period of Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, kadura
and Chaul were well known as (2020)
(a) ports handling foreign trade.
(b) capitals of powerful kingdoms.
(c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture.
(d) important Buddhist pilgrimage centres.

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Answer: (A)
Q.) With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in India during the Gupta period, which one of the
following statements is correct? (2019)
(a) It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people.
(b) It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire.
(c) The forced labourer was entitled to weekly wages.
(d) The eldest son of the labourer was sent as the forced labourer.
Answer: (A)
Q.) There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One
of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?
(2010)
(a) Bagh caves
(b) Ellora caves
(c) Lomas Rishi cave
(d) Nasik caves
Answer:( A)
Q.) Which one of the following ports handled the north Indian trade during the Gupta period?
(a) Tamralipti
(b) Broach
(c) Kalyan
(d) Cambray
Answer: (A)
Mains
1.How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of the Gupta numismatic art is not at all
noticeable in later times?

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POST-GUPTA PERIOD(600-750 AD)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
● Introduction
● Sources
● Ruling Dynasties of North India
○ Maitrakas
○ Maukharis
○ Gaudas
○ Hunas
○ Pushyabhutis/ Vardhanas of Thaneswar
● Ruling Dynasties of the Deccan and South India
○ Vakatakas
○ Chalukyas of Badami
○ Ikshvakus
○ Pallavas of Kanchi
○ Kadambas
○ Western Gangas or Gangas of Mysore
○ Kalabhras
● Temples
● Features of the Post-Gupta Period
● Key features of South India in the period circa A.D. 300 –A.D. 750
● Conclusions
INTRODUCTION
After the decline of the Gupta empire in the mid of the 6 th century AD, ancient India witnessed the
beginning of the regional identities that took deep roots in course of time. With the fall of Guptas
the provinces and feudatory states declared their independence and the whole of northern India
was divided into a number of independent states.
The period from 600-750 AD was dominated by following ruling dynasties in north and south India:
Ruling Dynasties of Post-Gupta Period
North India Deccan and South India
The Maitrakas Vakatakas
The Maukharis Chalukyas of Badami
TheGaudas Ikshvakus
The Hunas Pallavas of Kanchi
Pushyabhutis/ Vardhanas of Thaneswar Kadambas
Western Gangas or Gangas of Mysore
The Kalabhras

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SOURCES
We can trace the evidences of Post- Gupta Period through literature like:
● Indigenous texts:
○ Philosophical commentaries and religious texts, bhanas (monologue plays), stotras (hymn
compositions), story literature, and anthologies of poetry.
○ Historical and epic–Puranic themes were popular in kavya.
○ The technical literature includes works on metre, grammar, and mathematics.
● Foreign texts: Chinese and Arab accounts.
○ For example, accounts of Chinese travellers like Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, etc
Maitrakas
● Maitrakas were an early medieval regional dynasty of Western India from the 5th to the 8th
centuries AD.
● Background-They were the tributary chiefs of the Guptas ruling over Saurashtra (Gujarat).
● Capital-Vallabhi, which was an important centre of learning and acted as a port with flourishing
trade and commerce.
● Dhruvasena II was the famous ruler of this dynasty, who was a contemporary of Harsha and was
married to his daughter.
○ According to Hsuan Tsang, Dhruvasena II attended Harsha's assembly at Prayag.

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● Decline-They ruled till the middle of the 8th century when Arabs attacked (712AD) and
weakened their power in western India.
Maukharis
● Background-Maukharis used the title of Samanta i.e. Subordinate rulers of the Guptas.
○ Maukharis were feudatories of Imperial Guptas.
Two Brnaches of Maukharis

Maukhari Branch of Magadha Maukhari Branch of Kannauj
Mukhar (founder) Harivarman
↓ ↓
Yagyavarman Aditya Varman
↓ ↓
Sardula Varman [adopted the title Samanta Ishwar Varman
Chudamani] ↓
↓ Ishana Varman (550-576 A.D.) [adopted the title
Anantta Varman 'Maharajadhiraj']
↓
Sarva Varman (576-580 A.D.) [Attacked Damodar
Gupta; Kind, Merciful, Truthful; Follower of
Buddhism]
↓
Avanti Varman (580-600 A.D.) [ Patron of
Vishakhadatta]
↓
Graha Varman (600-605 A.D.)
● Maukharis of Kannauj ruled over Kannauj.

○ Their antiquity is further borne out be a clay seal on which the legend Mokhalinam i.e. of the
Mokhalis (Maukharis) is written in Mauryan Brahmi characters.
● According to Asirgarh Copper Plate Inscription in Nimar district (Madhya Pradesh),
Ishanavarman adopted the title of Maharajadhiraja as he offered resistance to the Hunas.
● Rajyashree, the sister of Harshavardhana was married to Graha Varman.
● Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda (Bengal) and Devagupta, the ruler of Malwa killed Grahavarman.
The Later Guptas Post-Gupta Kingdoms in North India
From around the middle of the sixth century A.D. till about 675 A.D. the kings who ruled Magadha
were known as Magadha Guptas or Later Guptas. However, their connection with the Imperial
Guptas of the earlier period is not clear. The Aphsad inscription from Gaya gives the names of 8
Gupta Monarchs:
(1) Krishnagupta
(2) Harshagupta
(3) Jivitagupta
(4) Kumaragupta
(5) Damodaragupta
(6) Mahasenagupta,
(7) Madhavagupta and
(8) Adityasena.

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The Later Guptas entered into matrimonial alliances with other contemporary ruling
families. For example, Harshagupta married his sister to a Maukhari king. Throughout this
period the Later Giiptas remained engaged in battle with one enemy or the other. For
esample, Harshagupta had to fight the Hunas; his son Jivitagupta fought against Lichchhavis
of Nepal and Gaudas of Bengal.
GAUDAS
● Background-The Gupta governors seem to have become independent after about 550 AD and
occupied North Bengal. Local vassal princes called Samanta Maharajas had created their own
administrative apparatus and military organisation. By 600 AD, the area came to be known as
Gauda with its independent state ruled by Shashanka.
● Capital- Karnasubarna (west Bengal).
● Shashanka.was an adversary of Harsha.
○ He invaded Maukharis of Kannauj, killed Graha Varman and imprisoned Rajyashree (sister
of Harshavardhana).
○ He even treacherously murderd Rajyavardhana (elder brother of Harshavardhana), who was
the ruler of Thaneswar.
○ As pointed out by Hiuen Tsang, he was intolerant and oppressive towards Buddhism.
○ He also cut off the Bodhi tree where the Buddha found enlightenment at Bodh Gaya.
HUNAS
● Hunas were a barbarious race, which came to India from central Asia.
● Hunas invaded India for the first time during the reign of Kumaragupta but their further
progress was checked by the Gupta king Skandagupta who inflicted a crushing defeat upon
them in about 460 A.D.
● Later on, Hunas occupied Gandhara in north west, destroyed the Persian empire and by the end
of 5th century, they established a vast empire with capital at Balkh.
● They established their supremacy over Kashmir, Punjab and western India from 500 AD
onwards.
● Toramana was their oldest ruler and Mihirkula being the most uncultured one. He attacked upto
borders of Magadha and was defeated by Yashodharman.
● They were later absorbed into the Indian society forming various sub-castes.
PUSHYABHUTIS/ VARDHANAS OF THANESWAR

● Thaneswar (near Kurukshetra, Haryana) was formed into an independent state by Pushyabhutis.
● This dynasty is also called the Vardhana dynasty and derives its name from its founder
Pushyabhuti, who ruled over Thaneswar.
○ He served as a military general under the Imperial Guptas and rose to power after the
decline of the Guptas.
● Prabhakarvardhana was an important ruler of this dynasty under whose reign the Pushyabhuti
dynasty became powerful and strong.
○ He fought against the Hunas and established his control over Gujarat and Malwa.
○ His daughter Rajyashree married to Grahavarmana (Maukharis) of Kanauj, thus making
Kannauj his ally.
○ His eldest son, Rajyavardhana (605-606 AD) ascended to the throne but was murdered by
Shashanka. This resulted in his younger brother Harsha becoming the king of Thaneswar.
● Harshavardhana had known the weakness of a group of small kingdoms and conquered his
neighbours to integrate them into his empire. The magnates of Kannauj invited Harsha to ascend
the throne on the advice of their minister Poni. He accepted the throne on the advice of
Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva with the title of Rajputra.

4
HARSHAVARDHANA (606 – 647 A.D.)

● Harsha is known as the last great Hindu emperor of lndia and his control was limited to North
lndia (excluding Kashmir).
● Initially his capital was at Thaneswar but later shifted to Kannauj.
● He followed a tolerant religious philosophy, a Shaiva in his early years, he gradually became a
great supporter of Mahayana Buddhism under the influence of Hsuan Tsang.
● His empire was divided into provinces called Bhuktis. Bhuktis were further divided into Visayas
(Districts) and Visayas were further divided into Tehsils/ Pathakas. Tehsils were sub-divided into
grama or village.
● The administration was feudal and decentralised. Evidently, every feudatory contributed his
quota of footmen and horses and thus made the imperial army vast in numbers. The feudal
practice of rewarding and paying officers with grants of land seem to have begun under
Harsha.
● Agriculture, handicraft, trade and commerce declined and there was scarcity of coins too during
this period.
● He organised religious assemblies in the 5th year of his reign at Prayag. He also convened an
assembly at Kannauj to honour Hsuan Tsang.
● He was the first to establish Sino-Indian diplomatic relations.
● Harsha wrote atleast three plays- Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika.
● He made huge contributions to Nalanda University.
● His court was adorned with literary jewels like Banabhatta (author of Kadambari, Parvati
Parinay and Harshacharita; Harshacharita describes the personal life of Harsha and his
achievements), Mayura, Matanga, Divakar and Jayasena.
● Harsha lost to Pulakeshin II on the banks of Narmada River, while attempting to conquer the
Deccan in around 620 CE. In the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, Harsha is described as
Sakalauttarapathanatha (the lord of the north).
● At the height of his power, Emperor Harsha's kingdom covered Punjab, Rajasthan, Bengal,
Gujarat, Odisha and the whole of Indo-Gangetic plain that lay to the north of river Narmada.
● Harsha ruled for about forty-one years till his death in A.D. 647. He does not seem to have left
any heir to the throne of kannauj . After his death, his empire fell into a period of anarchy and
disintegrated.
● Hsuan Tsang: He is known as the prince of pilgrims because he visited significant pilgrims
centres associated with the life of Buddha. He left China in 629 AD and travelled all the way to
India. He studied in Nalanda University and collected Buddhist texts from India. Before
returning back to China in 645 AD, he stayed for 8 years in the court of Harsha. In his book “Si-
yu-ki”, he has given a detailed account of Harshavardhana and has described the political,
social, religious, and economic conditions of India at that time.
Harshavardhana (606 – 647 A.D.)

Military ● Harsha paid great attention to the strength of the army. His army
included elephants, infantry and cavalry.
o Ordinary soldiers were called Bhatas and Chatas.
o Infantry officers were called Baladhikritas and
Mahabaladhikritas.
o Cavalry officers were called Brihadisvaras.
Administration • It appears that the ministerial administration during the reign of
Harsha was as same as that of the Imperial Guptas. The king was
assisted by a council of ministers in his duties.
• Key Officials:
o Baladhikrata (Senapati or commander)

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o Brihadisvara (Head cavalry officer)

o Katuka (Commandant of elephant forces)
o Mahabaladhikrita (officer in supreme command in the area)
o Mahasandhivigrahika (Minister of war and peace)
o Akshpattalika or Dutuka (Keeper of records)
o Mahapratihara (Chief Warden)
o Kumaramatya (Counsellor of the Prince)
o Mimansak (Justice)
o Duta (Ambassdor)
o Bhogapati (One responsible for collection of the state
produce)
o Uparika (Official title of governor of a province)
o Vishyapati (Head of the vishya or modern district)
o Daussadhanika (Suprintendent of villages)
Sources of Income • Bali, Hiranya (tax paid by peasants and merchants in cash) and
(Revenue) Bhaga (land tax paid in kind) were the three main taxes collected
during Harsha’s period.
• As a land revenue, King’s share was 1/6th of the agricultural
produce.
Expenditure • Hsuan Tsang mentioned in his account that the revenues of
Harsha were divided into four parts :
o One part was earmarked for the expenditure of the king
o Second for Scholars
o Third for the endowments of officials and public servants
o Fourth for religious purposes
Law/Punishment • Punishment was in accordance to the crime committed.
• Ordinary offences- Payment of fine
• Breach of social mobility or fiscal duty- Exile or mutilation of
limbs
• Violation of law or for conspiracy against the king- Life
imprisonment or social ostracisation
Hsuan Tsang's Accounts/observations about India during the period 629 AD to 645 AD
• Pataliputra and Vaishali were in a state of decline. Prayag and Kannauj had become
important.
• Patliputra lost its prominence and its place was taken by Kannauj.
• Corporal punishment for major offences was in practice but the death penalty was avoided.
• Most of the towns had outer walls, which were wide and high. The streets were narrow.
Magnificent multi-storeyed structures were built of kiln-fired bricks, red sandstone and
marble.
• Houses had balconies made up of wood and coated with lime mortar. Floors were smeared
with cow-dungs.
• This period witnessed many sub-castes called Varnasamskaras.
• The occupations of the 4 divisions of society continued to be in practice as in the previous
times. Even though the caste system was rigid, there was no social conflict among the various
sections of the society.
• Re-marriage of widows was not permitted and Svayamvara was declined.
• Dowry practice became common, with references to Sati.
• Purdah system was not followed among the higher classes.
• People lived a very simple life. They wore colourful cotton and silk clothes along with gold

6
and silver ornaments.

• The use of onion and garlic in food was not common. They used sugar, milk, ghee, rice. Fish
and mutton was consumed occassionally.
• Position of peasants declined as those of women. Peasants were placed under religious
beneficiaries (Brahmanas).They were overburdened with numerous taxes such as: Udranga
(Frontier tax), Uparikara (Tribute to the divisional officer called uparika).
• Forced labour (vishti) of all varieties was prevalent.
Note: Hsuan Tsang referred to Shudras as agriculturists and also takes notice of untouchables
such as scavengers, executioners etc., who lived outside the village and took garlic and onion
occasionally.
RULING DYNASTIES OF THE DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA

VAKATAKAS
• In the Northern Maharashtra and Vidharbha (Berar) the Satavahans were succeeded by the
Vakatakas, a local power.
• The Vakatakas, who were brahmanas themselves, were great champions of the brahmanical
religion and performed numerous vedic sacrifices.
• Their political history is of more importance to north India than to south India. But culturally the
Vakataka kingdom became a channel for transmitting brahmanical ideas and social institutions
to the south.
• The Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami.
CHALUKYAS OF BADAMI
● The Chalukyas claimed their descent either from Brahman or Manu or Moon.
● They boast that their ancestors ruled at Ayodhya, but all this was done to claim legitimacy and
respectability. Really they seem to have been a local Kanarese people, who were improvised
into the ruling varna under the brahmanical influence.
● The Chalukyas set up their kingdom towards the beginning of the 6th century A.D. in the
western Deccan. They established their capital at Vatapi, modern Badami, in the district of
Bijapur which forms a part of Karnataka.
● Later they branched off into several independent ruling houses but the main branch continued
to rule at Vatapi for two cenutries.
● In this period no other power in the Deccan was so important as the Chalukyas of Badami until
we come to Vijaynagar in late medieval times.
IKSHVAKUS
● On the ruin of the Satavahana power in the eastern part of the peninsula, there arose the
Ikshvakus in the Krishna- Guntur region.
● They seem to have been a local tribe who adopted the exalted name of the Ikshvakus in order to
demonstrate the antiquity of their lineage.
● They have left behind many monuments at Nagarjunakonda and Dharanikota.
● They started the practice of land grants in the Krishna-Guntur region, where several of their
copper plate charters have been discovered.
● The Ikshvakus were supplanted by the Pallavas.
PALLAVAS OF KANCHI
● The term pallava means creeper, and is a Sanskrit version of the Tamil word tondai, which also
carries the same meaning. In Tamil the word pallava is also a synonym of robber.
● The authority of the Pallavas extended over both southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu.

7
● They set up their capital at Kanchi, identical with modern Kanchipuram which became a town
of temples and vedic learning under them.
● The early Pallavas came into conflict with the Kadambas, who had founded their rule in
northern Karnataka in the 4th century A.D.
KADAMBAS
● The Kadamba kingdom was founded by Mayurasarman.
● He defeated the Pallavas possibly with the help of the forest tribes. Eventually the Pallavas
avenged the defeat but recognized the Kadamba authority.
● Mayurasarman is said to have performed eighteen asvamedhas or horse sacrifices and granted
numerous villages to brahmanas.
● The Kadambas established their capital at Varjayanti or Banavasi in North Kanara district in
Karnataka.
WESTERN GANGAS OR GANGAS OF MYSORE

● Another important contemporary of the Pallavas.
● They set up their rule in southern Karnataka around the 4th century.
● Their kingdom lay between that of the Pallavas in the east and of the Kadambas in the west.
● They are called Western Gangas or Gangas of Mysore in order to demarcate them from the
Eastern Gangas who ruled in Kalingas from the 5th century.
● For most of the time the Western Gangas were the feudatories of the Pallavas.
● Their earliest capital is located at Kolar, which may have helped the rise of this dynasty because
of gold mines.
KALABHRAS
● The Kalabhras are called evil rulers who overthrew innumerable kings and established their hold
on the Tamil land.
● They put an end to the brahmadeya rights granted to the brahmanas in numerous villages.
● It seems that the Kalabhras held Buddhist persuasions, for they patronized Buddhist
monasteries.
Conflict between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas

● The long struggle between the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badami for supremacy
from 6th century to the 8th century
● The Pandyas, who were in control of Madurai and Tinnevelly districts of Tamil Nadu, joined this
conflict as a poor third.
● Although both the Pallavas and Chalukyas championed Brahmanism, performed vedic sacrifices
and made grants to the brahmanas, the two querreled with each other for plunder, prestige
and territorial resources.
● Both tried to establish supremacy over the land lying between the Krishna and Tungabhadra.
Time and again the Pallava princes tried to cross the Tungbhadra, which formed the natural
historic boundary between many a kingdoms of the Deccan and the deep south.
(*Krishna- Tungbhadra doab also formed the bone of contention in late medieval times between
the Vijaynagar and the Brahmi Kingdoms).
Reign of Chalukya King Pulakesin II (609 -642 AD)

● The most famous Chalukya King.
● Aihole Inscription: His eulogy written by court poet Ravikirti. This inscription is an example of
poetic excellence reached in Sanskrit.
● He overthrew the Kadamba capital at Banavasi and compelled the Gangas of Mysore to
acknowledge his suzerainty.

8
● He also defeated the Harsha’s army on the Narmada and checked his advance towards deccan.
● In his conflict with the Pallavas, he almost reached the Pallava capital, but the Pallavas
purchased peace by ceding their northern provinces to Pulakesin II.
● About A.D. 610 Pulakesin II wrested from the Pallavas the region between the Krishna and the
Godavari, which came to be known as the province of Vengi. Here was set up a branch of the
main dynasty and it is known as the Eastern Chalukyas of the Vengi.
● However, the Pulakesin’s second invasion of the Pallava territory ended in failure.
Pallava King Narsimhavarman (A.D. 630 – 668)

● He occupied the Chalukya capital in Vatapi in about A.D. 642, when Pulakesin II was probably
killed in fight against the Pallavas.
● Narsimhavarman assumed the title of Vatapikonda or the conqueror of Vatapi.
● He is also said to have defeated the Cholas, the Cheras, the Pandyas and the Kalbhras.
The Chalukya King Vikramaditya II (A.D. 733 -745)

● He is said to have overrun the Kanchi three times.
● In A.D. 740 he completely defeated the Pallavas. His victory ended the Pallava supremacy in
the far south, although the ruling house continued for more than a century afterwards.
● However, the Chalukyas could not enjoy the fruits of their victory over the Pallavas for long for
their own hegemony was brought to an end in A.D. 757 by the Rashtrakutas.
TEMPLES
● From the 7th century, the Alvar saints, who were great devotees of Vishnu, popularized the
worship of Vishnu. The Nayannars rendered a similar service to the cult of Shiva.
Temples
Constructed by Pallava Kings Constructed by Chalukyas
● Seven Ratha Temples: Found at ● Temples at Aihole: The Chalukyas of Badami erected
Mahabalipuram, at a distance numerous temples at Aihole from about A.D. 610.
of 65 km from Madras. These Aihole contains as many as 70 temples.
were built in the 7th century by ● Temples at Pattadakal: Pattadakal has ten temples,
Narsimhavarman, who founded built in the 7th century and 8th century. The most
the port city of Mahabalipuram celebrated of these are-
or Mamallapuram. I. Papanatha Temple (c. 680): Although 30 meters
● Shore temple: Also located in long, has a low and stunted tower in the
Mahabalipuram. It was a northern style.
structural construction. II. Virupaksha Temple (c. 740): Constructed purely
● Kailashnatha Temple: A very in southern style. It is about 40 metres in length
good example of structural and has a very high square and storied tower
temple. Constructed by the (shikhara). The temple walls are adorned with
Pallavas at their capital at beautiful sculptures representing scenes from
Kanchi. the Ramayana.
● Maintenance of temples: After the 8th century land grants to temples became a common
phenomenon in south India and usually they were recorded on the walls of the temples. But
earlier temples seem to have been constructed and maintained out of the taxes collected by the
king from the common people.
FEATURES OF THE POST-GUPTA PERIOD

ECONOMY
Economy in post-Gupta period witnessed changes in its character.

9
Land Grants
● Land-grants grew in number in the Gupta and especially post-Gupta times and became
widespread throughout the country.
● Land grants were made to brahmanas and religious establishments like temples and monasteries
on a large scale by kings, chiefs, members of the royal family and their feudatories.
● From the 5th century onwards not only were the revenues of the donated lands transferred to
the donees but the mines and minerals in the said area were also transferred.
● The donated land, village or villages were exempted from the interference of soldiers and royal
officials.
● Finally, kings and princes made over to the brahmana donees even the right to punish all
offences against family, private property and person, with the privilege to enjoy the fines thus
received.
Decline in Trade
● Commercial decline set in during the Gupta period, and it became more pronounced by the
middle of the 6th century CE.
● The inflow of Roman coins into India stopped after the early centuries of the Common Era.
● Silk and spices were important items in the Indo-Byzantine trade.
● The Byzantium, however, learnt the art of growing silk worms in the middle of the 6th century
CE.
● Consequently, the silk trade was badly affected.
Paucity of Coins
● Decline of commerce is demonstrated by the paucity of coins in the post-Gupta period.
● Gold coins which were so abundant during the periods of the Kushanas and of the Guptas went
out of circulation after the 6th century.
● The absence of silver and copper coins also attracts attention.
● The gold content of the later Gupta coins was only half of that of the Kushana coins.
Decline of Towns
● The pre-Kushana and Kushana towns in northern India and those associated with the
Satavahanas in the Deccan began to decay from the middle of the 3rd or the 4th century.
● The sites such as Sanghol, Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Mathura, Sonkh, Shravasti, Kaushambi,
Khairadih, Chirand, Tamluk etc. in the Upper and Middle Gangetic plains experienced decline.
Growth of Closed Economy

● Early medieval Indian economy experienced the rise and growth of a number of rural
settlements which were not linked to exchange networks and long-distance trade.
● Local needs came to be met locally.
Agriculture
● The patronage extended by kings, princes and chiefs to agriculture, improvement in irrigational
facilities, increasing knowledge of agricultural sciences etc. were some of the causative factors
which strengthened rural economy.
● Decline of towns may have led to the migration of a number of skilled artisans into the
countryside.
● Land-grants in tribal frontiers brought virgin land under cultivation.

10
SOCIETY
Land-grants and the emerging landed intermediaries wielding economic power and political
authority modified the varna-divided society. The earlier distinction between Dvija (twice born) and
Shudra began to be modified in the period.
Lords and peasants

● Terms such as bhogi, bhokta, bhogapati, mahabhogi, brihadbhogi, etc. were used for the landed
beneficiaries.
● The upper crust of landlords included such dignitaries as ranaka, raja, samanta, mahasamanta,
mandalesvara and so on.
● The king similarly, had many high-sounding titles, connoting his lordship and ownership of land.
Proliferation of castes
Earlier cohesive communities broke up into many varnas and jatis
● Brahmanas
○ Brahmanas who “commercialised” their priestly services, those who came in contact with the
aboriginals or those who could not entirely avoid physical labour stood degraded in the eyes
of the srotriyaagrahara-brahmanas “who did not engage in manual labour”
● Kshatriyas
○ Among the kshatriyas, proliferation of caste was caused by the emergence of new ruling
houses from among the local tribes and the incorporation of foreign ethnic groups, wielding
political power, into the mainstream of society.
● Shudras
○ Endogamous groups coming from various communities and regions vastly expanded the base
of the shudra varna.
○ Petty peasant castes, rich peasants, share-croppers and artisanal castes, with unequal access
to economic power were included in the shudra varna in Gupta and post-Gupta times.
Growth of Kayasthas
● The scribe or the kayastha community was a product of the socio-economic forces of the times.
● Land-grants involved the transfer of land revenues and land to brahmanas, religious
establishments and officials.
● This and other complex administrative functions created the need for a body of scribes and
record keepers who were employed to draft assignment of land and keep details of land transfer
including various items of revenue.
The Untouchables
● From around the 3rd century CE onwards the practice of untouchability appears to have
intensified and the number of untouchables registered a rise.
● Katyayana, a Dharmashastra writer of the Gupta period, was the first to use the expression
asprishya in the sense of untouchables.
Crafts and Castes

● During this period several groups of artisans and craftsmen lost their earlier status and many
even came to be regarded as untouchables. To some extent this may have resulted from the
decline of urban centres where craftsmen were in great demand.
Decline in Vaishyas and rise in social status of Shudras

● A sizable section of the shudras were rising in social and economic status after their association
with agriculture, and sections of the vaishyas, particularly those at the lower end, were
descending to the level of the shudras.

11
Position of women
● There was a progressive decline in the position of women.
● The law-books provide for the marriage of women at an early age, pre-puberty marriage being
preferred.
● Formal education was denied to them.
● Women and property came to be bracketed together with adverse consequences for women’s
status.
● They were generally denied property rights
POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION

There were many high officials who were at times called mantrin. The other designations for higher
officials were sandhivigarhika, who was minister for foreign affairs, war and peace; mahabaladhikrita
and mahadandanayaka, both of which denoted superior posts in the army.
The Army
● Both for maintaining internal peace and for defending against external aggression a standing
army became a regular feature during this period.
Administrative Divisions
● The country was organized into many divisions for administrative purposes. The highest unit
among these territorial divisions was called bhukti which was under the charge of a high official
called uparika. Sometimes, princes were also in charge of some bhuktis.Vishaya was the next
administrative division below which was the lowest unit, i.e., the village.
The Samanta
● Semi-independent local chiefs called samanta were an important feature of the polity of this
time.
Taxation
● The government got most of its revenue through taxation. Land taxes called baga, bhoga, etc.
were the main items and the land taxes actually increased through the centuries.
Judicial System
● Judicial system was more developed now compared to earlier times.
● Many law codes and treatises were compiled during this period and the dharmashastras
elaborately dealt with legal matters.
● There were different courts like Karana, Adhikarana, dharmasana, etc. Criminal and civil cases
were clearly differentiated from each other.
● Laws regarding property and inheritance were elaborate.
RELIGION
Emergence of Bhakti
● Brahmanism had to accept the growing importance of new gods like Shiva and Vishnu side by
side with Vedic gods like Indra and Varuna. It also assimilated many other popular deities like
Vasudeva, Skanda and so on. All these led to the growth of the Bhakti cult.
Incorporation of Tribal Rituals

● Later Brahmanism incorporated the tribal rituals keeping the Vedic Yajna rites supreme only in
theory.

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Royal Support to Temples and Theism

● The temple, which housed the deity, became a place of worship and, thus, drew devotees away
from home to an institution which became a public center.
Key features of South India in the period circa A.D. 300 –A.D. 750
Demands on the ● For carrying on wars, for cultivating art and literature, for promoting
Peasantry religion, and for maintaining the administrative staff, enormous
resources were needed. These were apparently provided by the
peasantry.
● In addition to land tax, which was a part of the produce, the king could
demand benevolence in the form of cereals and gold, and could bore
certain trees, such as the Palmyra, for obtaining salt and most
substances such as sugar and liquor, all derived from plants.
● All the deposits and hidden treasures in the villages belonged to him.
● Further, the king demanded flowers and milk, wood and grass and
could compel the villagers to carry loads free of charge.
● The king was also entitled to forced labour or vishti.
● In connection with the visit of the royal officers, who would appear in
the villages either for collecting taxes or punishing the criminals, and
also in course of the march of the army, the rural communities had to
perform a number of obligations. They had to supply bullocks for carts
and provide cots, charcoal, ovens, cooking pots and attendants.
Rural Expansion ● The period circa A.D. 300 –A.D. 750 provides good evidence of rural
expansion, rural organisation and better use of land in south India.
● The large number of grants made to the brahmanas played an
important role in spreading the new methods of cultivation and
increasing the size of the rural communities.
● In this period, three types of villages are come across in south India:
I. Ur: The usual type of village inhabited by peasant castes, who
perhaps held their land in common. It was the responsibility of the
village headman to collect and pay taxes on their behalf. These
villages were mainly found in southern Tamil Nadu.
II. Sabha: This type of village consisted of brahmadeya villages or
those granted to the brahmanas, and of agrahara villages. The
brahmana owners enjoyed individual rights in the land but carried
on their activities collectively.
III. Nagaram: This type of village consisted of the villages settled and
dominated by combinations of traders and merchants. This
happened possibly because trade declined and merchants moved
to villages.
*In the Chalukya areas rural affairs were managed by village elders called
mahajana.
Social structure ● The society was dominated by princes and priests.
● Below the princes and priests came the peasantry, which was divided
into numerous peasant castes. Possibly most of them were called
shudras in the brahmanical system.
● If the peasant and artisan castes failed to produce and render services
and payments, it was looked upon as a departure from the established
dharma or norm. Such a situation was described as the age of Kali. It

13
was the duty of the king to put an end to such a state of affairs and
restore peace and order. The title dharma- maharaja therefore is
adopted by the Vakataka, Pallava, Kadamba and Western Ganga Kings.
*The real founder of the Pallava Power, Simhavarman, is credited with

coming to the rescue of dharma when it was beset with the evil attributes
typical of the Kaliyuga. Apparently it refers to his suppression of the
Kalabhras who upset the existing social order.

PRELIMS
Q.) From the decline of the Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early seventh century,
which of the following kingdoms were holding power in Northern India?
1. The Guptas of Magadha
2. The Paramaras of Malwa
3. The Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
4. The Maukharis of Kanauj
5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
6. The Maitrakas of Valabhi
(a) 1, 2 and 5
(b) 1, 3, 4 and 6
(c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 5 and 6
Answer: (B)
Q ) With reference to the history of ancient India, Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla and Kshemeshvara were
famous
(a) Jain monks
(b) playwrights
(c) temple architects
(d) philosophers
Answer: (B)
Q.) Consider the following events in the history of India:

1. Rise of Pratiharas under king Bhoja.
2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman-I.
3. Establishment of Chola power under Parantaka-I.
4. Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala.
What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
(a) 2-1-4-3
(b) 3-1-4-2
(c) 2-4-1-3
(d) 3-4-1-2
Answer: (C)

14
Q.) The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India recorded the general
conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are
correct?
1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.
2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for
determining the innocence or guilt of a person.
3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer:( B)
Q.) Who among the following laid the foundation of Rashtrakuta Empire? (
(a) Amoghavarsha I
(b) Dantidurga
(c) Dhruva
(d) Krishna I
Answer:( B)
Q.) Emperor Harsha’s southward march was stopped on the Narmada river by:
(a) Pulakesin-I
(b) Pulakesin-II
(c) Vikramaditya-I
(d) Vikramaditya-II
Answer: (B)
MAINS
Q.) Assess the importance of accounts of Chinese and Arab travellers in the reconstruction of the
history of India.

15
SANGAM AGE (300 BC-300 AD)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
● Introduction
● Sources
○ Sangam Literature
○ Foreign Accounts
○ Archeological Materials
○ Inscriptions
○ Coins
● Kingdoms of Sangam Period
● Features of Sangam Period
○ Polity
○ Economy
○ Society
○ Religion
INTRODUCTION
With the Sangam Age, the historical period began in South India. It is dated roughly between 300 -
300 AD. Culturally, this period can be placed in Megalithic cultural phase.
The term ‘Sangam’ refers to an assembly of Tamil scholars held at Madurai under the patronage of
Pandyan rulers, which produced literary works of high quality. The main source of information
about the kingdoms of this age and the life of the people is the Sangam literature. That is why this
period is called the Sangam Age/period.
SOURCES
SANGAM LITERATURE
According to traditional sources, total 3 Sangams were held for 9990 years, attended by 8598
scholars and patronized by 197 Pandyan kings.
S. S. Sangam Venue President

No.
1 Talai Sangam Old Madurai Agasthyar
2 Idai Sangam Kapatapuram 12 disciples of Agasthyar
3 Kadai Sangam Madurai Nakkirar
● The Sangam literature is the oral bardic literature of the ancient Tamils.
● Most of the works were composed by the bards and poets who praised the kings and received
their patronage in return.
● The literature offers vital information for reconstructing the socio, economic and political history
of the Sangam Period.

1
Sangam literature
● Tolkappiyam, authored by Tolkappiyar, is the earliest treatise on Tamil grammar and poetics.
● 18 Major Works / Padinin Melkanakku include 8 Anthologies and 10 Idylls.
○ 8 Anthologies (Ettutogai): a collection of 2282 hymns and poems on love and romance
(Agam ) and on war and polity (Puram )
○ 10 Idylls (Pattupattu): Descriptive poems include –
■ Tirumurugaruppadai (by Nakkirar) – it’s a devotional poem on Lord Murugan.
■ Maduraikanji (by Magudimarudan) gives information about Pandyan king
Nedunjeliyan, and the prosperity and beauty of Madurai.
■ Sirupannarupadai (by Nattanar) talking about the decline of 3 kingdoms by 3rd C AD.
■ Pattinappalai(by Kannan) talking about victories of Karikalachola and the
construction of Puhar/Kaveripattanam.
● 18 Minor Works / Padinin Kilkanakku have great literary significance and are shorter in form.
● “Tirukkural” / ” Kural” (by Tiruvalluvar) is considered as Dravida-veda /5th Veda /Bible of Tamil
land. It deals with morals and ethical values highlighted in the form of maxims and proverbs.
● “Palamoli” talks about moral values through proverbs.
● “Acharakovai” gives information about traditions, customs and norms of South India during
Sangam times.
EPICS
● “Silappadikaram” / Jewel Anklet (by Illango Adigal)-is about the story of Kovalan, Kannagi
and Madhavi (residents of Puhar) and Pandyan king Nedunjeliyan.
● “Manimegalai” (by a Buddhist scholar named Sattalai Sattanar) talks about Manimegalai
(D/o Madhavi and Kovalan) who excelled in fine arts and became a Buddhist nun. It’s a
Buddhist supplementary to Silappadikaram.
● “Sivagasindamani” (by a Jain scholar, Tiruttokadevar) talks about Sivaga / Jeevaka (a great
king of South India) who got women as war trophies and vexed up with worldly pleasures;
becoming a Jain monk.
Note:
● According to a tradition, Perundevanar who translated Mahabharata into Tamil belonged to
Sangam Age.
● Sattalai Sattanar and Illango Adigal were contemporaries to Senguttavan.
FOREIGN ACCOUNTS
● The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, compiled in first century A.D., serves as an important source of
Indo-Roman Trade. The anonymous author of this work was a Greek merchant or sailor from
Egypt.
○ This work mentions about the major ports and towns in India during the Early Historic period
and also the items of Indo-Roman trade.
● Accounts of the Roman Writer, Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) are also useful for investigating the
Indo-Roman trade.
○ Pliny speaks about the draining of wealth of the Roman Empire due to the demand for
spices, especially pepper, in Rome. These accounts are quite useful in knowing about the
Indo-Roman Trade.
● Claudius Ptolemy’s Geographia is another important source for Indo-Roman Trade. He was a
Greek. He lived in Alexandria, the Roman capital of Egypt and was the head of the renowned
library at Alexandria from 127 to 150 A.D.
● Certain important information is also available in the Buddhist chronicles of Sri Lanka, namely,
Mahavamsa and Deepavamsa.

2
ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIALS
● The archaeological evidence includes megalithic burials or monuments, coins and excavated
sites, especially urban centres.
● Megaliths are a class of burial or memorial monuments, erected as a part of ancestral worship.
The term ‘Megalith’ means ‘large stone’. Since the monuments were made of large stones, they
are called megaliths.
○ The dead were buried with grave goods like iron objects, black-and-red ware pottery and
beads and other materials, and monuments were erected.
○ The burial types are: Cairn circle, Urn burials, Dolmens, Topikals and Kodaikkals.
● Dolmen: This is a type of megalith which is made in single chamber tomb, usually consisting of
three or more upright stones supporting a large flat horizontal capstone. Dolmens were
usually covered with earth or smaller stones to form a barrow. But in many cases that covering
has weathered away, leaving only the stone “skeleton” of the burial mound intact.
● Cairn: A Cairn is a human-made pile of stones, often in conical form. They are usually found in
uplands, on moorland, on mountaintops, or near waterways. In modern times Cairns are often
erected as landmarks. In ancient times they were erected as sepulchral monuments or used
for practical and astronomical purposes. These vary from loose, small piles of stones to
elaborate feats of engineering.
● Cist: A cist or kist was used as encasements for dead bodies. It might have associations with
other monuments. It would not be uncommon to find several cists close with each other in the
cairn or barrow. The presence of ornaments within an excavated cist, indicate the wealth or
prominence of the interred individual.
○Some Megalithic sites include- Sanur, Kunnathur, Amirthamangalam, Kodumanal, Porkalam

and Mangadu.
● Excavated habitation sites offer a lot of information about the Early Historic period.
○ Vasavasamudram near the mouth of the Palar, Kanchipuram on the bank of the Palar,
Arikamedu near Pondichery, Kaveripattinam near the mouth of the Kaveri, Uraiyur on the
bank of the Kaveri, Alagankulam near the mouth of the Vaigai and Korkai near the mouth of
the Tambrabarani River are the important excavated sites.
○ They give valuable evidence for the Indo-Roman trade, and towns of the Sangam Age.
○ Brick structures, pottery with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions and imported pottery from Rome
(e.g. Amphora) have been found at these sites. T
○ The excavated sites are also indirectly useful in determining the chronology of the Sangam
literature.
INSCRIPTIONS
● The Tamil Brahmi inscriptions found on the rock shelters carved with stone beds for the
residence of Jain monks and on pottery.
● They serve as corroborative evidence for dating the literature.
● They have been found at several sites near Madurai and Karur.
● The inscriptions at Pugalur near Karur give information about the genealogy of the Chera rulers.
COINS
● Indian and Roman Coins of Early Historic period have been found at many sites in Tamil Nadu.
They include coins of the Sangam Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
● Besides these local coins, gold, silver and copper Roman coins have also been found in large
numbers from several sites. Most of the Roman coin hoards are concentrated in the Coimbatore
region. This is attributed to the important role this region had played in the Indo-Roman trade.

3
KINGDOMS OF SANGAM PERIOD

● Sangam literature refers primarily to Pandyan Kingdom. But it also contains valuable information
about the Chola and Chera kingdoms.
● Pandyas ruled over an area comprising southern Tamil Nadu; Cheras ruled over Kerala ; and
Cholas occupied Northern Tamil Nadu and Southern Andhra Pradesh.
● First reference of these three dynasties is found in “Indica” of Megasthenese.
● All the three kingdoms were ended by 3rd C AD.
Kingdom Major Facts
Pandyas ● Capital: Madurai

● Royal symbol: Carp
● Major port: Korkai which was famous for pearl-fishing; major exported
items being jewellery (precious & semi-precious stones).
● Important ruler:Nedunjeliyan (3rd C AD)-He defeated Cholas and Cheras in
the Battle of Talailanganam and captured entire Chera kingdom. His
achievements were described by Nakkirar and Magudimarudan.
Cheras ● Capital: Vanji / Karur (near Cochin)

● Royal symbol: Bow & Arrow

4
● Major port: Muziris / Korura / Karur; It was an important Indo-Roman trade

centre and exported spices to Europe.
● Important ruler: Senguttavan, he had a title called Red / Good Chera.
○ He started Kannagi / Patini cult.
○ He was a contemporary to Illango Adigal and Sattalai Sattanar.
● Later Chera rulers lost to Cholas and Pandyas in the battles of Venni and
Talailanganam respectively.
Cholas ● Capital: Uraiyur.

○ Later their capital was shifted to Puhar / Kaveripattanam, which was
built by Karikalachola.
● Royal emblem: Tiger
● Major Ports: Poduke / Arikamedu (near Pondicherry) and Puhar.
Important Rulers:
● Elara (2nd c BC) conquered some parts of Sri Lanka, thus became first Indian
ruler to conquer Sri Lanka.
● Karikalachola (around 190 AD ) had conquered Sri Lanka, brought 12000
soldiers as captives and engaged them in public works viz., fortification of
Puhar city and construction of 160-km embankment for Cauvery to provide
irrigation facilities.
○ He defeated Trilochana Pallava of Kanchi, Cheras and 9 contemporary
rulers in various battles and brought entire South India under his
control.
FEATURES OF SANGAM PERIOD
POLITY
● The king assumed high sounding titles such as maharaja, bhattaraka, dharmamaharajadhiraja,
● King performed horse sacrifices (ashvamedha) and other Vedic sacrifices such as vajapeya,
rajasuya, etc.
● This had a special political meaning as they served to underline the independence of a particular
king and justified his right to rule.
● There were a number of officials of various ranks who discharged various administrative duties
in the name of the King.
● An important part of their job was to collect taxes.
● There was a principal tax on land amounting to one-sixth or more of the produce.
Economy
● Agriculture and trade were main sources of economic development.
○ Karikalachola took measures to develop irrigation facilities. Cattle-rearing was given
prominence.
● Barter system was practiced and no coins were found.
● The several terms occurring in the Sangam works referring to different kinds of traders. These
are Vilainar (seller), pakarnar (hawker), Vambalar (way farer or itinerant new comer), vanikar
(regular trader/merchant).
● Maritime trading contacts with Rome, Egypt, China, SE Asia, and Sri Lanka were reported.
○ Silappadikaram gives information about transit trade at Chola ports.
● Pliny gave information about exports from South India viz,
○ Spices especially pepper (yavanapriya) from the Cheras.
○ Textiles (muslin variety of cloth) from Uraiyur, Puhar.

5
○ Precious stones especially pearls from the Pandyan.

● Important ports of Sangam Age are Muziris, Puhar, Korkai, Tondi, Comari (Kanyakumari) and
Poduke (Arikamedu).
Tinai Concept
The ancient Tamils had divided the Tamil country into five distinct ecological zones, with each
zone having its own characteristics. Each zone with its distinct characteristics is called Tinai. The
concept of tinai can be compared to the modern ecosystem approach adopted in the study of
cultures. The five tinai are:
1. Kurinci – mountainous zone;
2. Mullai – pastoral zone;
3. Marutam – riverine zone;
4. Neytal – coastal zone; and
5. Palai- arid zone.
SOCIETY
● Sangam society was tribal in nature, which is evident from totem worship (Kadimaram / titular
tree – symbol of sovereignty).
● Social stratification was present- Vyarintars are high-born and Ilipirappalars are low-born.
● Tolkappiyam mentions professional groups like –
Andanars Priests
Arasars Rulers
Vaisiyars Traders
Vellalas Peasants
● People having different occupations had inhabitated regions based on five-fold division of land
found in Tolkappiyam as –
Kuruwaras Hunters In hilly regions

Marawaras Warriors In barren lands
Kurumbars Shepherds In jungles and pastoral regions
Vellalars Peasants In fertile lands
Parodavars Fishermen In coastal regions
● Society was patriarchal.

● Tippaidal, a kind of Sati was practiced.
RELIGION
● Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism coexisted during this period.
● Devavranda cult i.e., worship of 5 Gods (Murugan, Siva, Mayon/Krishna, Balarama and Indra)
was popularized.
● Kapalika sect of Saivism was mentioned in Manimekalai.
● Viragal worship (Hero-stone worship), Sati stone cult and Animism was also practiced.
● Only literary references but not archaeological evidences are found regarding the worship of
gods and goddesses in temples.

6

Q.) Assertion (A) : The Aham and Puram poems of the PadinenKilukanakku group formed a
continuation of the Sangam composition.
Reason (R) : They were included under the Post-Sangam works as against the Sangam works proper.
(a) Both A and Rare true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
Answer:( A)

7

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PRE- HISTORIC PERIOD

PRE- HISTORIC PERIOD

● Herodotus is called the father of History.

● History has been divided into three periods:

SOURCES FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF HISTORY

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Note: Sources of each period will be dealt in the respective topics.

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SOURCES FOR PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD

● Robert Bruce Foote is the “father of Prehistoric Archaeology” in India.

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Three Phases of Stone Age

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Mesolithic/Middl 10,000- Economy/Subsistence- This is a transitional period between

PALAEOLITHIC /OLD STONE AGE (1.6 MILLION-8,000 BC)

Three phases in the Palaeolithic Age

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MESOLITHIC AGE (10,000 - 4,000 B.C.)

Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 B.C.)

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

▪ Domestication of Animal: Domestication of animals has been

Important Sites ▪ Mirzapur district and Murhana Pahar in Uttar Pradesh

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NEOLITHIC AGE (4,000 - 1,800 B.C.)

Neolithic age (4,000 - 1,800 B.C.)

Burial Practices ● In this period the disposal of dead bodies occurred.

Important Sites ▪ Mehargarh in Baluchistan (Pakistan): Evidence of mud brick houses

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▪ Gulfkral (Srinagar): literally means the cave of the potter. It is 41 km

CHALCOLITHIC/BRONZE AGE (3000 - 500 BC)

Chalcolithic /Bronze Age (3000 - 500 BC)

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CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES AT A GLANCE

Culture Period Ware-features Grown crops Sites

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IRON AGE(1500-500 BC)

SIGNIFICANCE OF PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD

UPSC PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION

( Historical place ) (Well-known for)

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1. Burzahom Rock-cut shrines

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

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Why is it called Harappan Culture?

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TIME PERIOD AND PHASES

Three Phases of Harappan Civilisation

Phase Time Period Description Important Sites

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ORIGIN OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION

EXTENT OF HARAPPAN CIVILISATION

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Boundaries of Harappan civilisation

Region/State Major Archaeological Sites

KEY FEATURES OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

TOWN PLANNING AND STRUCTURES

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Exceptions and Deviations from basic City-Layout

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The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro

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Crafts and Industry

● Textile industries-These were developed at Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Chanhudaro.