Extraction of introduction

Classical tests of multidimensional gravity: negative result

It is well known that classical gravitational tests such as frequency shift, perihelion shift,
deflection of light and time delay of radar echoes (the Shapiro time delay effect) are crucial
tests of any gravitational theory. For example, there is the significant discrepancy for
Mercury between the measurement value of the perihelion shift and its calculated value
using Newton’s formalism. It indicates that non-relativistic Newton’s theory of gravity is not
complete. This problem was resolved with the help of general relativity, which is in good
agreement with observations. A similar situation happened with deflection of light. The
Shapiro time delay effect is used to get an upper limit for the parameterized post-Newtonian
parameter γ. Obviously, multidimensional gravitational theories should also be in
concordance with these experimental data.The well-known multidimensional black hole
solution was investigated and the authors obtained a negative result. However, this result
was clear from the very beginning because the solution does not have any non-relativistic
Newtonian limit in the case of extra dimensions. we consider classical gravitational tests in
Kaluza–Klein models (factorizable geometry) with an arbitrary number of spatial dimensions
D>3. We suppose that in the absence of gravitating masses the metric is a flat one.
Gravitating point-like masses (moving or at rest) perturb this metric, and we consider these
perturbations in a weak-field approximation. In this approximation, we obtain the asymptotic
form of the metric coefficients. Then we admit that, first, the extra dimensions are compact
and have the topology of tori and, second, gravitational potential far away from gravitating
masses tends to the non-relativistic Newtonian limit. In the case of a gravitating mass at rest,
the obtained metric coefficients are used to calculate the frequency shift, perihelion shift,
deflection of light and parameterized post Newtonian (PPN) parameters. We demonstrate
that for the frequency shift type experiment it is hardly possible to observe the difference
between the usual four-dimensional general relativity and multidimensional Kaluza–Klein
models.
The aqueous thermal boundary layer

When one considers that this thin layer moves in the vertical with velocities of centimeters to
meters per second as surface waves pass,it is obvious that special measurement
techniques are required. Sophisticated methods including remote sensing by infrared and
microwave techniques are gradually helping to incorporate the thermal boundary layer into
the better known ocean. The thermal boundary layer has in recent years been given
intensified attention because of interest in the sea surface temperature as a predictor for
large-scale long-range changes in weather patterns. The oceans cover about 70% of the
earth’s surface and have average values of bulk air-sea temperature differences of *l to 2“C.
Deviations of the order of -0.5 “C from bulk temperature differences thus represent a large
fraction, and would influence net heat flux calculations propor-tionately. Neglect of this
surface temperature deviation can even lead to inverting the estimated direction of the flux.
Since heat and vapor fluxes from the oceans largely drive the atmospheric engine, we need
to concern ourselves with variations in these fluxes. That the sea surface temperature
variations are likely to exert a strong influence on atmospheric large-scale patterns through
‘tele-connections’ has had its eloquent champions. An interesting aspect of the conductive
(viscous) sublayer, the microlayer, the cool film, as this layer has been called in various
contexts, is that it is typically cooler than underlying water and therefore gravitationally
unstable. We define at the outset a scaling depth, 6, for the boundary layer across
which the whole temperature difference, AT, between the surface temperature, To,
and the interior temperature, Tb, occurs such that molecular conduction along a linear
gradient through this layer accounts for the net heat flux, QN, at the surface

(1)

where (aT/d~)~ is the slope of the temperature profile at the interface and k is
molecular conductivity for heat. QN is the net sum of all the heat fluxes being
absorbed or lost from the interface excluding solar radiation, viz.:

QN=+QIR+QG+QH+QE (2)

where the separate terms are defined in Figure 1. When shortwave solar radiation is
present, its effect must be considered as a function of depth. Only 15% of the total
solar radiation is absorbed in the thermal boundary layer. The scaling depth, S, in
Equation (l), is itself dependent on heat flux, wind and current stresses and probably
on wave conditions as well. The thermal boundary layer is thus a manifestation of
numerous complex physical processes of exchange between two diverse media. Some of
these processes will be described below. The significance of the aqueous interfacial
boundary layer for chemical and biological processes will only be touched upon.
Thermal Structure of a Coastal–Urban Boundary Layer

The climatology of coastal cities is simultaneously influenced by the additional convection

resulting from anthropogenic activities and sea-breeze incursion, leading to an uncertain
thermal environment because of the high vulnerability to extreme temperatures. The Joint
Urban 2003 field campaign in Oklahoma City and the BUBBLE (Basel Urban Boundary-
Layer Experiment) campaign in Switzerland are examples of large-scale, urban-dispersion
campaigns capturing the urban–rural differences in boundary-layer structure. While very few
experiments have been conducted to investigate coastal–urban interactions, Mestayer have
observed the variation of the boundary-layer height during sea-breeze events in Marseille
during the ESCOMPTE campaign, noting that the sea breeze tends to weaken boundary-
layer development despite the increasing insolation as the day progresses into the
afternoon; a similar behaviour was also found by De Tomasi in Lecce, Italy. Further, most
experiments focus on the urban surface layer, whereas we seek to investigate the structure
of the urban boundary layer here by extending observations to the entrainment zone
(typically 2–3 km above ground level). Here, we investigate the variability of the urban
boundary layer in New York City using vertical profiles from three local airports, and profiles
derived from a microwave radiometer within the urban centre to investigate the seasonal
variabilities in the thermal and moisture boundary-layer structure. Microwave radiometers
have the advantage of being robust instruments with a recent, extensive study judging them
to be very good at estimating temperature profiles, particularly in the lower boundary layer.