PCA R&D Serial No.

2821a

Electrical Methods for Estimating the Chloride

Resistance of Concrete

Michael Thomas, Ted Moffatt & Huang Yi

University of New Brunswick

David E. Smith
Levelton Consultants Ltd.

Electrical Methods for Characterization and Monitoring of

Concrete Materials and Structures
ACI Fall 2013 Convention, October 2013, Phoenix, AZ
Co-Sponsored by ACI 222, 228, ACI-ASCE 444
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
Electrical Methods for Estimating the
Chloride Resistance of Concrete
• Resistivity
• Conductivity
• “Chloride Permeability”
• Migration tests
• Chloride flux
• Breakthrough
zFE
• Rapid migration test J = D fx C ⋅
RT

Stanish, K.D., Hooton, R.D., and

Thomas, M.D.A., 2001, Prediction
of Chloride Penetration in
Concrete, US Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway
RTL xd − α xd Administration, Publication No.
Dnssm = ⋅ FHWA-RD-00-142.
zFU t
 Measuring Electrical Resistivity, ρ
PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

V
R=
I
A
ρ = R⋅
l
ρ = resistivity (Ω∙m)
R = resistance (Ω)
V = potential (Volts)
I = current (Amps)
Electrical Conductivity, σ (S/m)
A = sample area (m2)
l = sample length (m) 1
σ=
ρ
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

D.C. Resistivity

3 to 5 V Cycle voltage between 3 and 5 volts

every 5 seconds for 15 minutes:

ρ=
(V5 − V3 ) ⋅ A
(I 5 − I 3 ) ⋅ L
100 mm
ρ = resistivity (Ω-cm)
I5 = current (Amps) at V5 volts
I5 = current (Amps) at V5 volts
A = cross-sectional area (cm2)
50 mm L = length (cm)
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
ASTM C 1760 Bulk Conductivity of Concrete
V   πd 
2
V
I Electrical Resistivity ρ =   ⋅  
I   4l 
where: ρ = resistivity in Ω-m
V = applied voltage, V

NaOH
NaCl

I = current, A
d = specimen diameter, m
l = specimen length, m

ASTM C 1760
I1 L
• Cylinders 100 x 200 mm Electrical Conductivity σ =K ⋅ 2
V D
• Cores ≥ 100 mm long
• PC cure for 28 days at 23°C
• SCM cure for 56 days at 23°C
or 7d at 23°C & 21d at 38°C

The SI unit for electrical conductivity is siemens/metre

 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
4-Point Probe

V
ρ = 2πa ⋅
I
PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
 1014 Neoprene Rubber PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
ASTM C 1760 (2012)
“Bulk Conductivity”

1,000,000 Concrete (oven-dry)

0.001

Electrical Conductivity, σ (mS/m)

Electrical Resistivity, ρ (Ω∙m)

100,000 0.01

10,000 0.1
Concrete (dry-indoors)
1,000 1
Concrete (dry-outdoors) Range of values for
100 10
saturated concrete
Concrete (saturated)
10 100

If ρ = 182 Ω∙m (σ = 5.5 mS/m) the charge

passed through a standard-size specimen
10-8 Copper (φ3.75-in. x 2-in.) in the “Rapid Chloride
Permeability Test” (ASTM C 1202) would be
Adapted from Whiting & Nagi, 2003 approximately 1000 Coulombs (6h at 60V)
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

Electrical resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
Ω
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

Electrical resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
 Pore structure
• Volume, size & connectivity of
pores
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

Electrical resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
 Pore structure OH-
K+
Na+ OH-
• Volume, size & connectivity of OH-
OH- K+
pores Na+

 Composition of pore solution

• Concentration of ions

More ions in solution – increased

electrical conductivity – i.e. reduced
electrical resistance
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

Electrical resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
 Pore structure OH-
K+
Na+ OH-
• Volume, size & connectivity of OH-
OH- K+
pores Na+

 Composition of pore solution

• Concentration of ions

Chloride resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:

Cl-
Cl-
Cl-

Cl-
Cl-
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

Electrical resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
 Pore structure OH-
K+
Na+ OH-
• Volume, size & connectivity of OH-
OH- K+
pores Na+

 Composition of pore solution

• Concentration of ions

Chloride resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
 Pore structure
Cl-
• Volume, size & connectivity of Cl-
Cl- Cl-
pores Cl- Cl-
Cl-
Cl-
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

Electrical resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
 Pore structure OH-
K+
Na+ OH-
• Volume, size & connectivity of OH-
OH- K+
pores Na+

 Composition of pore solution

• Concentration of ions

Chloride resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
Cl-
 Pore structure
Cl- Cl-
• Volume, size & connectivity of
Cl- Cl- Cl-
pores Cl-
Cl-
 Composition of cement hydrates
• Ability of hydrates to bind
chlorides
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

Electrical resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
 Pore structure OH-
K+
Na+ OH-
• Volume, size & connectivity of OH-
OH- K+
pores Na+

 Composition of pore solution

• Concentration of ions

Chloride resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
Cl-
 Pore structure
Cl- Cl-
• Volume, size & connectivity of
Cl- Cl- Cl-
pores Cl-
Cl-
 Composition of cement hydrates
• Ability of hydrates to bind Bound Cl-
chlorides
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

Electrical resistance of saturated concrete

is primarily dependent on:
 Pore structure OH-
K+
Na+ OH-
• Volume, size & connectivity of OH-
OH- K+
pores Na+

 Composition of pore solution

• Concentration of ions

Hydraulic conductivity is primarily

dependent on:
 Pore structure
• Volume, size & connectivity of
pores
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

ASTM C 1556 Test to Determine the Bulk Diffusion Coefficient of Concrete

Concrete sample is immersed in NaCl solution

for time t (minimum 35 days)
Sample then ground in approx. 1-mm depth
increments
Dust samples analyzed for chlorides →
To produce chloride profile ↓

Cx  x 
= 1 − erf  
 2 Da ⋅ t 
Chloride (%)

C0 Co and Da found by fitting the equation

shown to the measured profile.

Values of Da typically in the range:

1 x 10-13 to 1 x 10-11 m2/s

Depth (mm)
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
RCPT vs. Bulk Diffusion

100000
10-12 to 10-11
RCPT (Coulombs)

10000

1000
1000
Coulombs

100
1.E-13 1.E-12 1.E-11 1.E-10
Diffusion Coefficient (m2/s)
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
RCPT vs. Electrical Resistivity
RCP (Coulombs) 100000

10000

1000

100
1 10 100 1000
Resistivity (kΩ-cm)
PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
Superior performance of concrete with SCM at Treat Island has been confirmed for fly ash,
slag and silica fume (and ternary cement blends with silica fume plus fly ash)

Concrete International, Nov 2011

 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
25-Year-Old
1000
Marine-Exposed
65% Slag
Concrete Blocks

Surface Resistivity, ρ (Ω∙m)

45% Slag
100 25% Slag

0% Slag

10

1
0.1 1 10 100
Diffusion Coefficient, D (x10-12 m2/s)
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
• Degree of saturation Factors Affecting Resistivity
• Self-desiccation
• Drying 1,000
• Leaching
• Chloride ingress

Resistivity, ρ (Ω-m)
• Carbonation
Stored in 1% CO2 (60% RH)
• Rebar Resaturated before test

100
Stored in N2 (60% RH)
Resaturated before test

10
0 1 2
Cycles
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
• Degree of saturation Factors Affecting Resistivity
• Self-desiccation
• Drying 200
Tests conducted on mortar cubes
• Leaching
• Chloride ingress
150

Resistivity, ρ (Ω-m)
Stored in tap water
• Carbonation
• Rebar
100

Stored in “model”
50 pore solution

0
10 100 1000 10000
Age (days)
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
• Degree of saturation Factors Affecting Resistivity
• Self-desiccation
• Drying 200
• Leaching
• Chloride ingress Insitu surface
150

Resistivity, ρ (Ω-m)
measurements
• Carbonation
• Rebar
100 Tests on cores

50

0
10 100 1000 10000
Age (days)
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
• Degree of saturation Factors Affecting Resistivity
• Self-desiccation
• Drying
• Leaching
• Chloride ingress
• Carbonation
• Rebar
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
Effect of Paste Content
300 6.0

Diffusion Coefficient (x 10-12 m2/s)

Resistivity, ρ (Ω-m)

Diffusion
200 4.0
Resistivity

Maxwell’s Eqn:
100 = resistivity of matrix 2.0
= resistivity of composite
= resistivity of aggregate
= volume fraction
of aggregate
0 0.0
50 60 70 80 90
Aggregate Volume, Va (%)
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
Chloride Resistance: Rapid-Set Cements

ASTM C 1202
“Rapid Chloride Permeability”

4000
28-day
Charged Passed (Coulombs)

91-day PC-CAC-C$ is a ternary blend of:

3000 • Portland cement
• Calcium-aluminate cement
• Gypsum
2000
CSA-C2S is a blend of:
• Calcium-alumino-sulfate
(Klein’s compound)
1000 • Belite

0
PC PC-CAC-C$ C$A-C2S
Binder
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a
Chloride Resistance: Rapid-Set Cements

ASTM C 1202 ASTM C 1567

“Rapid Chloride Permeability” “Chloride Diffusion”

4000 1.2
28-day PC
Charged Passed (Coulombs)

1.0 PC-CAC-C$
91-day

Chloride Content (%)

3000
C$A-C2S
0.8

2000 0.6

0.4
1000
0.2

0 0.0
PC PC-CAC-C$ C$A-C2S 0 10 20 30 40
Binder Depth (mm)
 PCA R&D Serial No. 2821a

Smith, D. 2004. “The Development of a Rapid Test for Determining the

Transport Properties of Concrete.” M.Sc.E. Thesis, University of New Brunswick